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American Foreign Policy and the Making of Yugoslavia, 1910-1920

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American Foreign Policy and the Making of Yugoslavia, 1910-1920 DOKTORI DISSZERTÁCIÓ American Foreign Policy and the Making of Yugoslavia, 1910-1920 Ivo Mihajlović 2013 Eötvös Loránd Tudományegyetem Bölcsészettudományi Kar DOKTORI DISSZERTÁCIÓ Ivo Mihajlović American Foreign Policy and the Making of Yugoslavia, 1910-1920 Doktori Iskola Doktori Iskola vezetője Program Program vezetője A bizottság tagjai és tud. fokozatuk: Témavezető és tud. Fokozata: Budapest: 2013 Contents Introduction ................................................................................................................ i Part I: Why Foreign Policy? ...................................................................................... 1 American Preparations for Peace ......................................................................... 12 Part II: Centralism vs. Federalism ........................................................................... 19 Identity, Nation, Citizenship and State ................................................................ 20 Assimilation or Integration? ................................................................................ 30 Map 1: Catholic Population ............................................................................. 33 Map 2: Orthodox Population ........................................................................... 36 Map 3: Muslim Population .............................................................................. 39 Map 4: Serbian and Croatian Dialects ............................................................. 41 The New State or the Extended State? ................................................................. 43 Map 5: The Balkan Peninsula, 1817-1877. ..................................................... 43 Map 6: The Balkan Peninsula, 1878-1912. ..................................................... 44 Map 7: The Balkan Peninsula, 1912-1913. ..................................................... 46 Map 8: The Austro-Hungarian Empire, 1867-1914. ....................................... 48 Italy and the Adriatic ........................................................................................... 54 Map 9: Lands offered to Serbia under the Pact of London ............................. 56 Map 10: Lands offered to Italy under the Pact of London .............................. 58 From the State of SHS to the Kingdom of SHS ................................................... 60 The Annexation of Montenegro ........................................................................... 63 Part III: Pact vs. Principle ........................................................................................ 75 Procès-verbal, Paris, April and May, 1919 ......................................................... 78 Fissures .............................................................................................................. 105 Part IV: The Fiume Impasse .................................................................................. 117 The Chinks in the Armor and the Italian Return................................................ 129 The Battle of Wish-Lists .................................................................................... 137 The Navy Threat and the Merchant Tonnage .................................................... 142 The Dissenters .................................................................................................... 145 The Departure from the Fourteen Points ........................................................... 156 Map 11: Various proposals regarding Fiume ................................................ 164 The Post-Paris Arrangements ............................................................................ 174 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 189 Appendices ............................................................................................................ 208 Appendix I: President Wilson’s Fourteen Points ............................................... 208 Appendix II: The Statement on the Adriatic Question ...................................... 212 Appendix III: Tardieu’s Proposal ...................................................................... 214 Appendix IV: Chronological Timeline of Key Events ...................................... 215 Appendix V: Map of Central Europe, 1910 ....................................................... 216 Appendix VI: Map of Pact of London and Rapallo Treaty ............................... 217 Appendix VII: Map of Central Europe, 1918-1923 ........................................... 218 Appendix VIII: List of Geographical Names..................................................... 219 Primary Sources ..................................................................................................... 220 Published Sources .................................................................................................. 220 Secondary Literature.............................................................................................. 221 Throughout this dissertation Croatian names of cities and islands are used. The exception is the city of Rijeka, for which the Italian name of Fiume is used, since it had been widely used in the examined and often quoted documentation. American Foreign Policy and the Making of Yugoslavia, 1910-1920 Introduction The title of the present dissertation contains an inaccuracy which is indicative of the difficulties that the subject matter is wrought with: Yugoslavia existed neither in 1910 nor in 1920, and its making went well beyond that period. The shortcut applied in the title and throughout the present text, however, may be explained simply: the term Yugoslavia refers to all the Southern Slav lands which eventually became integral parts of the state which was to be formed in 1920 and modified several times thereafter. The propensity to use a shortcut – or to simplify matters by putting various constituents into a single group without much regard for their individual characteristics – is not a new phenomenon when it comes to the area in question. The Great Powers of World War I tended to treat the complexities of the Balkans in much the same way. The seemingly endless fracturing of the Balkan communities into ever smaller subsections has often had a bewildering effect on the outside observers, who, some decades later, with a dose of derision, christened the fragmentation process as balkanization. While resorting to shortcutting in referencing may be acceptable, it is important to note that the intentional glossing over of the differences between the constituents is less desirable. However, both during World War I and the subsequent Paris Peace Conference this was an unfortunate common practice. There is yet another imprecision in the title of this dissertation: the American foreign policy toward the emerging state of the South Slavs was not clearly defined, and was merely derived from the principles that the United States, led by President Wilson, attempted to apply across the board in the settlement of the European conflict. The i American Foreign Policy and the Making of Yugoslavia, 1910-1920 American foreign policy au general was defined by the speech President Woodrow Wilson delivered to the Joint Houses of Congress on January 8, 1918. The Fourteen Points delivered on that day promulgated the main principles on which the American foreign policy would be based: free trade, open agreements, democracy and self-determination. The terms population, nationality and allegiance, being the basis for the principle of self- determination, appeared numerous times in the text. This principle was first and foremost applied in the establishing of the borders between the warring European powers, as well as in determining of the frontiers of the states which emerged from the ashes of the Ottoman Empire and Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. President Wilson followed his principles to the bitter end, which led to an impasse and falling out with the Italian Allies, tensions with the British and the French, and to political defeat back home, reflected in the catastrophic results of the midterm elections in 1918. In the end, some adjustments and compromises had to be offered in order to break the gridlock and satisfy the claims of the Allies, particularly the Italians. However, the principled stand Wilson took on the Adriatic issue resulted in a generally favorable outcome to the Yugoslavs. In this regard, it may be stated that the American foreign policy towards Yugoslavia was largely a success. The majority population of the Southern Slav peoples seemed to support the idea of unifying into a single Southern Slav state. However, some differences in opinion existed as to how such unity should be achieved. Should it be done as the expansion of the already existing Kingdom of Serbia, or should a brand new entity be formed? Behind such dilemmas lay practical questions of interest and power, but also of differences of state tradition and the methods of governance. In general terms, the expansion of the already existent Kingdom of Serbia would extend the apparatus of the Monarchy to all the acquired lands, regardless of whether their population were Serbs or not. The power structures and political elites of the Kingdom of Serbia clearly favored this outcome. The other constituent peoples – Croats, Slovenes, Montenegrins and even Serbs from the Vojvodina – thought that a federal system would be the preferred solution. The question of the inner
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