Food Research International 44 (2011) 1254–1263

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Food Research International

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Maintaining ( indica L.) fruit quality during the export chain

Dharini Sivakumar a,⁎, Yuming Jiang b, Elhadi M. Yahia c a Department of Crop Sciences, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria (West Campus), Pretoria, South Africa b Agriculture, Food and Photochemistry, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China c Autonomous University of Queretaro, Avenida de las Ciencias S/N, Juriquilla, Queretaro, 76230, Qro., Mexico article info abstract

Article history: Mangoes are tropical/sub tropical fruit with a highly significant economic importance. Preferable quality Received 30 August 2010 attributes include freedom from external damages such as bruises, latex or sap injury and decay, uniform Accepted 11 November 2010 weight, colour, aroma, firmness (with little give away, not soft), shape and size. The fruit is rich in antioxidants and recommended to be included in the daily diet due to its health benefits such as reduced risk of cardiac Keywords: disease, anti cancer, and anti viral activities. Maintenance of mango fruit quality during the supply chain Postharvest management practices depends on many aspects including adequate orchard management practices, harvesting practices, packing Fruit quality Postharvest diseases operation, postharvest treatments, temperature management, transportation and storage conditions, and Invasive pests ripening at destination. Postharvest losses are high during the supply chain due to harvesting fruit at improper Chilling injury maturity, mechanical damage during the whole chain, sap burn, spongy tissue, lenticels discolouration, fruit softening, decay, chilling injury, and disease and pest damage. The aim of postharvest treatments and management practices in the supply chain is to create suitable conditions or environments to extend the storage life and retain the quality attributes, nutritional and functional compositions. This review summarises the available research findings to retain the overall mango fruit quality and to reduce postharvest losses during supply chain by adopting suitable postharvest novel technologies. © 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction colouration, delicious taste, and high nutritional value (Thanaraj, Terry, & Bessant, 2009). ‘’ mango is considered as one of the The mango, Magifera Indica L. is well known for its excellent exotic best rated mango cultivar in the world, and some other cultivars (such flavour and usually referred to as the king of fruit (Fig. 1). It is a as from Mexico) are becoming important in the markets. dicotyledonous plant belonging to the order sapindales in the family According to Lebrun, Plotto, Goodner, Ducamp, and Baldwin (2008), Anacardiaceae. It is a popular and economically important fruit, widely there are 49 species and thousands of mango cultivars. The popularity cultivated in the tropics and subtropics. Mango was originated in the of the fruit in the international market is due to its excellent flavour, Indo-Burmese region (Subramanyam, Krishnamurthy, & Parpia, 1975; attractive fragrance, beautiful colour, taste and nutritional properties Tjiptono, Lam, & Mendoza, 1984). The fruit is eaten fresh and in (Arauz, 2000). In addition, mangoes are good source of ascorbic acid, several other by-products, including juices, nectars, purees (Ploetz, carotenoids and phenolic compounds, and other dietary antioxidants Zentmyer, Nishijima, Rohrbach, & Ohr, 1994). Commercial mango (bioactive compounds) (Talcott, Moore, Lounds-Singleton, & Percival, production is reported in more than 87 countries. The prominent 2005). The cv. No.4 contains total phenols ~3.42 mg mango producing countries are India, China, Thailand, Indonesia, (GAEg-1 DW) and reveals DPPH antioxidant capacity ranging from Philippines, Pakistan and Mexico (Tharanathan, Yashoda, & Prabha, 10.94 to 28.16 μMTE/g (Gorinstein et al., 2010). 2006). Mango production is increasing outside the traditional Consumption of mangoes can provide significant amounts of geographical regions of mango cultivations such as in Central and bioactive compounds with antioxidant activity. South America, Australia, South-east Asia, Hawaii, Egypt, Israel and Unfortunately, the consumers are experiencing inconsistent fruit South Africa, especially for export markets (Tharanathan et al., 2006). maturity and ripening variability, sometimes even in a single The most important exporting countries are Mexico (41% of the world consignment. Mango fruits have a short production season and market) followed by the Philippines (7.6%) and Pakistan (7.8%) storage life, and therefore fruit prices after seasonal peak can be very (Sauco, 2004). Some mango fruit cultivars, such as from the Indian high and therefore may not be affordable by many consumers. The and the Sri Lankan regions, show strong aroma, intense peel storage life of mangoes is limited to 2–3 weeks in air at 10 °C−15 °C (Yahia, 1998a). Variability in mango fruit quality is detected in the supply chain with respect to taste, flavour, colour, aroma, weight, size ⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +27 21 382 5053; fax: + 27 21 382 5869. fl E-mail addresses: [email protected] (D. Sivakumar), and shape, in uenced by the production management practices. [email protected] (Y. Jiang), [email protected], [email protected] (E.M. Yahia). According to Kader (2002), quality performance of mangoes depends

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leathery covering of the seed. The fruit has a single seed in the middle of the fruit, which is large, flat, and ovoid-oblong shaped. The edible portion contains mainly glucose, fructose and sucrose and the total sugar content of mangoes can vary from 11.5 to 25% depending on the type of mango and stage of ripeness. Different organic acids such as oxalic, citric, malic, succinic, pyruvic, adipic, galacturonic, glucuronic and mucic acids were reported to be produced by mango fruit, and citric is the major acid (Jain, Krishnamurthy, & Lal, 1959). Mango fruit contains different classes of phytochemicals such as polyphenols, ascorbic acid and carotenoids, revealing health promoting properties mainly due to their antioxidant properties (Talcottetal., 2005). Polyphenols, gallic acid, gallotannins, mangiferin, quercetin, kaempferol, p-OH-benzioc acid, m-coumaric acid, p-coumaric acid and ferulic acid were reported in mango flesh (Saleh & El-Anasari, 1975; Schieber, Berardini, & Carle, 2003; Schieber, Ullrich, & Carle, 2000). Gallic acid and gallotannins were reported to decline during storage as a result of ripening or in association with loss of astringency which is a descriptive sensory attribute of mango (Lakshminarayanan, Subhadra, & Subramanyam, 1970). and Ataulfo mangoes were reported to contain higher β-carotene content than and (Ornelas-Paz et al., 2007).

3. Causes for quality loss

Mango postharvest losses are still very significant, especially considering that almost all the fruit are produced in developing Fig. 1. Mango fruit. countries. They are primarily due to harvesting fruit at improper maturity, mechanical damage caused during harvesting or improper largely on external and internal quality parameters. Consumer field handling, sap burn, spongy tissue, lenticels discolouration, fruit acceptance is higher for mangoes free from external damages softening, decay, chilling injury, and disease and pest damage, among including bruises, latex or sap injury, decay, uniform weight, colour others (Yahia, 1998a). Quality losses often occur due to tight fruit and shape which are external quality attributes. Internal quality packing, using improper transport and inadequate field handling. attributes include uniform and intense flesh colour, freedom from Fruit losses during export can vary dramatically depending on damage, and adequate acidity (or pH) and SSC (brix°), depending on postharvest handling and export conditions, especially with regard cultivar and type of consumer preferences (consumers in different to rates of decay, pests and physiological breakdown. regions have different preferences). Mango flavour quality depends on the type of cultivar, stage of maturity at harvest; postharvest 4. Maturity and harvesting indices handling methods including the type of treatments, and incidence of mechanical damages or chilling injury, which can also affect fruit Traditionally mango is harvested based on judgements by the flavour (Kader, 2008a, 2008b). growers by observing the appearance of the fruit. The selection of Production and postharvest practices, novel technologies and suitable maturity indices for harvest is very important. The quality packhouse management have a great impact on retaining mango fruit and the postharvest life of mango fruit depend on the maturity stage quality and on the supply chain. Preharvest and postharvest handling at harvest. Therefore, the fruit has to be harvested at the suitable stage practices and treatments play a major role in ensuring that the fruit of maturity in order to develop the optimum sensory quality reach the consumers with the optimum organoleptic, nutritional and attributes and extended postharvest life (Yahia, 1998a). Immature functional quality attributes. Therefore, the objective of this review is fruit are more sensitive to chilling injury during cold storage and may to summarise the available information and research findings to fail to ripen adequately. Fruit harvested at over mature stage is highly retain the overall mango fruit quality and to reduce postharvest losses susceptible to mechanical damage such as bruising, decay and water during the supply chain by adopting suitable postharvest novel loss, resulting in quality deterioration (Yahia, 1998a). Over matured technologies. fruit show defects like jelly seeds or jelly pulp after harvest (Yahia, 1998a). Therefore, suitable maturity indices for harvesting are very 2. Mango fruit composition and quality attributes important in order to minimise the quantitative and qualitative losses. Generally, physical, physiological and chemical parameters are Mango fruit is born in panicle and belongs to the subtype used to define the maturity stage. Physical methods to determine indeliquescent drupe. The fruit is large, fleshy and differs in size, maturity in mango include softness of the cheek, peel colour, shape, colour, fibre content, aroma, flavour and taste depending on development of shoulder, and specific gravity (Kosiyachinda, Lee, & cultivars, and has a characteristic conical projection termed as ‘beak’. Poernomo, 1984). These factors are very useful, but their application The fruit can be differentiated into three parts, i.e. exocarp, the part depends on the type of mango, region of cultivation, and type of that protects the fruit that is initially green and later changes to yellow market and consumers. Age of the fruit is also considered as a simple or reddish or orangish depending on the cultivar and stage of method to confirm maturity, calculated from induction, full bloom ripening, and waxy. With advanced stage of maturity and ripening, and fruit set. Generally, harvest maturity in mango is reached about 12 chlorophyll content declines and carotenoids and/or anthocyanins to 16 weeks after fruit set (Yahia, 1998a). However, days from full tend to increase (Tharanathan et al., 2006). The mesocarp is the fleshy bloom is most recommended, because they can be implemented as a edible portion or the pulp, which is always yellow due to the presence standardized factor (Yahia, 1998a). The age of fruit (days) at a certain of carotenoids (Ornelas-Paz, Yahia, & Gardea, 2008; Ornelas-Paz, harvest maturity based on full bloom or fruit set varies according to Yahia, & Gardea-Bejar, 2007). The endocarp is the thick, tough, and different geographical regions and cultivation conditions. According 1256 D. Sivakumar et al. / Food Research International 44 (2011) 1254–1263 to Kosiyachinda et al. (1984), ‘Carabo’ mangoes can be harvested after growing region and for local or export markets. Maturity indices for 84 days from full bloom. Mangoes for shipping to distant markets or ‘Tommy Atkens’, ‘’, ‘Kent’ and ‘Haden’ are based on the position for long-term storage are harvested at the mature-green stage while and thickness of the shoulders and colour of the flesh closer to the still firm, and the ripening will continue after harvest. Furthermore, skin. The fully mature fruit of the earlier mentioned cultivars will maturity level at harvest is a crucial factor for the development of show a completely formed shoulder with a depression around the acceptable flavour quality during ripening (Kader & Mitcham, 2008). peduncle, firm and green in colour. In addition, mango fruit accumulates dry matter during fruit According to Slaughter (2009), there are a number of promising development and becomes denser as it matures. Therefore, specific technologies for non-destructive assessment of mango maturity. Flesh gravity was considered as a possible maturity index. Specific gravity colour was found to be consistent in ‘Tommy Atkens’, ‘Keitt’, ‘Kent’ generally ranges from 0.97 to 1.04, but sometimes it does not and ‘Haden’ mangoes (Kader, 2008a, 2008b). The development of a contribute to determining fruit maturity (Yahia, 1998a). non-destructive flesh colour sensor for mango would help the During fruit maturation, soluble solids content (SSC) tends to harvesting team to correlate physical indices such as shape and size increase while titratable acidity (TA) decreases. According to with flesh colour in order to determine the appropriate maturity stage Tharanathan et al. (2006) titratable acidity increased from the sixth at harvest (Slaughter, 2009). to the tenth week after fruit set, and then with increase in fruit maturity a decline in titratable acidity was noted. SSC is not generally 5. Harvest used as a commercial maturity index for mangoes, but it complements other indices such as shoulder formation and flesh colour, and for Harvesting fruit before or after the ideal picking date and any most markets mangoes have to be harvested at about 9–10% SSC. harvesting methods that cause mechanical damages such as bruising Some mango cultivars are characterised by a strong taste and the SSC or cuts on the fruit surface will negatively affect fruit quality. The cut and TA or the SSC/TA can contribute to determining the suitable or bruised fruits are easily infected with decay causing fungi such as maturity stage for harvest. Sugars acids, and phenolic compounds are Aspergillus sp and Botryodiplodia, Diplodia natalensis (Yahia, 1998b). the primary taste components in the fruit. SSC/TA ratio commonly Mechanical injury at harvest can cause ‘spongy tissue’, where the indicates ripeness and taste for some markets; the higher the ratio the symptom is expressed as desiccated spongy like tissue in ripe fruit and sweeter the fruit (Mizrach, Flitsanov, Schmilovitch, & Fuchs, 1999). the symptom can be observed only when the fruit is cut open. At this Flavour (taste and aroma) is an important quality trait that specific spongy region, the flesh remains unripe due to biochemical determines to a great extent, the consumer acceptance of the fruit. disturbances and deposition of non hydrolysed starch taking place According to Baldwin (2010) flavour is taste plus odour and is mainly during storage (Amin, 1967). The affected part of the flesh was composed of sweetness, sourness, and aroma that correspond to reported to show low pH, sugar, ascorbic acid content and β-carotene sugars, acids and volatile compounds. Flavour is determined primarily content, and altered amylase and invertase activity (Amin, 1967). by genetic factors and it can be affected due to preharvest conditions, Mango is harvested manually, usually with the help of some postharvest handling, packing operations and storage. Changes in harvesting aids, and multiple harvesting is adopted since all the fruits mango aroma can be attributed to transformational changes in fatty are not matured at the same time. Fruits are harvested from tall trees acid profile (from palmitic to palmitoleic acids) during ripening, and by using poles fitted with bags adapted with a scissors or knife. fruit can reach their best flavour if harvested after the start of ripening. Ladders are used in some regions and hydraulic lifts are not common. Increase of glycosidically-bound aroma compounds (terpenes) was It is recommended to harvest fruit when the temperature is not high, observed in the flesh of mangoes as maturity which will reduce field heat in the fruit and thus would maintain it for progressed (Lalel, Singh, & Tan, 2003b). longer periods by reducing metabolic activity. However, cultivars with Optimum skin colour is an important fruit quality parameter that high sap or latex content should not be harvested very early in the day affects consumer acceptance and preference. The obvious noticeable due to high latex flow early mornings. Fruits are normally picked from change during ripening is skin colour change from dark green to olive the lower side of the tree in order to avoid sap oozing on the fruit green or reddish or orangish yellow or yellow that forms a base below. The stem will snap easily with a slight pull for the mature colour. Some cultivars show reddish bluish skin colour mainly due to green fruit that is ready for picking, although the use of scissors is the presence of anthocyanins (Tharanathan et al., 2006). These skin recommended when possible. Fruits are picked with approximately colour changes are due to the disappearance of chlorophyll and the 5 cm petiole in order to prevent the spurt of resinous sap. Sap injury or appearance of other pigments (carotenoids and/or anthocyanins) as burn of the skin affects fruit quality by affecting the skin colour and mentioned before. Carotenoids are the predominant pigments in promoting decay development, and also affects the skin of the pickers. yellow cultivars. Presence of the anthocyanin phenondin-3-galacytosa Severity of sap injury on the skin was correlated to higher nitrogen has been reported in the skin of some types of cultivars (e.g. Tommy content in the fruit (Yahia, 1998a). Terpinolene (58.9%) and car-3ene Atkins) (Proctor & Creasy, 1969). However, skin colour is not (59.1%) were identified as major volatile component in the sap of considered as an adequate maturity index because it is commonly ‘Kensigton’ and ‘’ mangoes respectively (Robinson, Loveys, & observed after the fruit has started to soften, in addition to that skin Chacko, 1993). Sap injury associated browning in the fruit skin was colour is usually not very uniform in several mango cultivars. Uniform mediated by polyphenol oxidase (PPO) and laccase enzymes in the colour development is observed in yellow cultivars, but some cultivars fruit skin (Robinson et al., 1993). Furthermore, Robinson et al. (1993) do not change the green skin colour much. Skin colour development is reported that the sap from ripe mango fruit showed higher PPO greatly influenced by the fruit position on the tree and fertiliser activity than the unripe fruit, and among the Australian cultivars application practices, among other factors. Flesh colour changes, ‘Kensington’ mangoes had higher PPO activity than ‘Irwin’ mangoes. It however, are uniform when fruit advances in maturity stages, and is recommended to trim the peduncle up to 1 cm and to place the fruit therefore it can serve as adequate maturity index. Although it is a stem-end facing downwards in field creates/racks to stop the flowing destructive index, it is used as a maturity index in several producing sap (de sapping) (Yahia, 1998b). regions, because it is consistent (Kader, 2008a, 2008b). Carotenoids Mango sap and its negative effects can be reduced by adopting are responsible for the attractive flesh colour, and at advanced different methods such as by using detergent dips and sprays prior to maturity the flesh is usually yellow to orange (Medlicott, Bhogol, & de-stemming under water using lime, picking without stems onto a Reynolds, 1986). Although it is difficult to establish standard maturity harvesting aid such as racks and dipping or spraying detergent on the indices for mangoes due to the diversity of cultivars and growing fruit immediately, cleaning latex from fruit skin using 0.5–5% CaCO3 conditions, it is essential to establish them for a particular cultivar, solution, washing the fruit in 1% aluminium potassium sulphate D. Sivakumar et al. / Food Research International 44 (2011) 1254–1263 1257 solution after harvest (Holmes & Ledger, 1992). Of all these isolates from mango was reported by Arauz (2000). Prochloraz is the recommended methods, harvesting rack was recommended as the only fungicide used for postharvest disease control in mangoes. most effective method which reduces sap burn down to about 16% Resistance to prochloraz in Pseudocercosporella herpotrichoides iso- (Holmes & Ledger, 1992). lates has been reported by Cavelier et al. (1994). In South Africa, prochloraz treatment is adopted in packhouses before wax (Citra- 6. Control of postharvest decay shine™) application. For fruit intended for the local market, a 2 min dip in a heated (50 °C) prochloraz emulsion is suggested while export Postharvest diseases reduce fruit quality and result in severe losses. fruits are dipped for 20 s at 25 °C in prochloraz solution and followed Latent infections such as anthracnose (caused by Colletotrichum by a 5 min hot water treatment (HWT) at 50 °C. Furthermore, hot gloeosporioides), Alternaria black spot (Alternaria alternata)andstem- water brushing (15–20 s) followed by fungicide prochloraz (Sportak end rot (caused by Lasiodiplodia theobromae or Dothiorella dominicana 45% a.i) (900 mg mL− 1) and waxing (polyethylene emulsion) was or Botryosphaeria spp.) are the predominant postharvest diseases that commercially successful in Israel in controlling the incidence of cause severe postharvest losses and affect fruit quality during the Alternaria alternata during low temperature storage (3 weeks, 12 °C) supply chain. Anthracnose symptoms are expressed as dark, sunken and ripening (another week at 20 °C) for cvs. Tommy Atkins, Keitt, lesions on ripe fruit with pink, slimy spore masses (Jeffries, Dodd, Jegar, Lilly, Haden (Prusky et al., 1999). & Plumbley, 1990). Stem-end rot develops as a dark rot from the stem- end as the fruit ripens. Incidence of postharvest decay during the 6.2. Hot water treatment (HWT) postharvest management practices occurs as a result of spores (inoculums) coming in contact with the fruit. The spores are dispersed Heat treatments especially HWT are widely used in many in the air or by contact and take place when the conditions are suitable countries for insect and decay control in mango (Aveno & Orden, for germination and growth (Arauz, 2000). Conditions that favour the 2004). Mango exporting countries are in a position to regulate the activity of postharvest pathogens include the presence of high relative treatment due to the specific guidelines enforced by the importing humidity (RH), warm temperature, and nutrients from the fruit surface, countries, such as the specific duration for disinfection of the specific mainly sugars. Fruit becomes susceptible to infection as it softens. pest. HWT as a decay control treatment is applied commercially in few During handing, packing and transportation operations, small openings countries due to its efficacy (Anwar & Malik, 2007; Jacobi, Wong, & in the skin or wounded areas on fruit surface become the ideal sites for Giles, 1995). Bagging of mango fruit before harvest and postharvest these pathogens to gain entry to the fruit tissue. treatment for 10 min HWT (52–55 °C) was reported to reduce the According to Johnson (1994), stem-end rots are reported to cause anthracnose infection by 83% and stem-end rot by 100% (Aveno & significant losses in mango during transit and storage, especially when Orden, 2004). The temperature and the duration of the treatment anthracnose is controlled completely. Anthracnose and stem-end rot depend on the size or weight of the fruit, stage of maturity (Jacobi, pathogens infect during fruit development, harvesting or de latexing or Macare, & Hertherington, 2001), cultivar type and growing conditions de sapping procedures and continue to advance causing significant (Anwar & Malik, 2007) and type of disease. It is recommended to losses in storage (Johnson, 1994). Susceptibility of mango fruit to subject the fruit to HWT within 24 h after harvest (Aveno & Orden, postharvest diseases increases during storage due to a series of 2004). In countries like the Philippines mango flotation in 10% salt physiological changes occurring in the fruit favouring the establishment solution was practiced and if the fruit floats, HWT treatment is and colonisation of the pathogen (Eckert, Ratnayake, Sievert, & Strange, delayed (Aveno & Orden, 2004). 1996), and also to environmental conditions. The quiescent HWT technology was shown to increase profit as a result of lower infections in climacteric fruit are terminated with reduction of damage and higher market value (Aveno & Orden, 2004). On the other antifungal compounds (combination of 5-(12-ciheptadecenyl)) resorcinol hand it can be practiced by small and medium scale mango farmers and 5-pentadecylresorcinol (resorcinols), production of ethylene with compatible practices, easily adopted in the supply chain, (the ripening hormone in plants), and due to the changes in nutritional applicable for health conscious consumers and environmentally and texture changes (Flaishman & Kolattukudy, 1994). Postharvest friendly method (Aveno & Orden, 2004). disease control begins in the field and involves cultural and chemical practices and cultivar selection. Cultivars such as ‘Tommy Atkins’ and 6.3. Biocontrol agents ‘Keitt’ are known to be less susceptible than ‘Irwin’, ‘Kent’,and‘’, and ‘Haden’ is highly susceptible to anthracnose (Arauz, 2000; Cambell, Biological control using microbial antagonist could be used on its 1992). own or in combination with a reduced concentration of synthetic Generally, control of postharvest disease in mango is achieved by fungicides (El Ghaouth et al., 2002). In South Africa biological control adopting proper preharvest and postharvest management practices such research programmes on mango commenced in 1987, with a as strict orchard hygiene management, application of fungicides and biological control agent (B. licheniformis)(Burger & Korsten, 1988). temperature management during storage and shipping. Postharvest The effectiveness of the biocontrol agent at 107 cfu mL− 1 was shown temperature management is important because postharvest diseases are to improve when it was applied with integrated treatment; hot water favoured at temperatures above optimum. dip (5 min at 45 °C) followed by quarter strength of recommended rate of prochloraz treatment for 20 s and waxing with Citrashine™ 6.1. Control of postharvest diseases with fungicides (Citrashine Pvt Ltd., Johannesburgh, South Africa) (Govender, Korsten, & Sivakumar, 2005). Generally, storage temperatures of around 10 °C can delay decay development (Snowdon, 1990). However, a residual protection 6.4. Use of modified or controlled atmospheres (MA/CA) against postharvest diseases is important after removal from the cold storage environment. Control of postharvest decay due to Postharvest disease control via maintaining the host resistance can quiescent infection is achieved commercially in South Africa by be improved by shipping or storing fruit under CA conditions with combination of thermal and fungicide prochloraz treatments. Post- higher CO2 atmospheres. Short storage life of the mango fruit becomes harvest treatment with prochloraz has been used as protectant spray. the major constrain especially when exporting mangoes to distant Resistance to prochloraz in Pseudocercosporella herpotrichoides iso- overseas markets. The application of MA/CA technology allows lates has been reported by Cavelier, Pineau, and Prunier (1994). extending the storage life while retaining the overall quality. MA/CA

Considerable variability in sensitivity among the C. gloeosporioides with higher CO2 and lower O2 (than normal air atmosphere) can delay 1258 D. Sivakumar et al. / Food Research International 44 (2011) 1254–1263 ripening by inhibiting the production of ethylene, delaying the Canada), and sometimes even mango shipped to different regions in biochemical activities associated with ripening such as; slowing the same country, are subjected to quarantine treatments, such as hot down the changes in skin and flesh colour, flavour, aroma and texture water (HWT), hot air, or irradiation treatments. However, HWT is the (fruit softening), and promoting resistance to the attack of posthar- widely adopted commercial treatment in many mango exporting vest pathogens by increasing the concentration of antifungal countries. compounds due to oxidative process (Prusky & Keen, 1993). When harvested fruit in the pack house are exposed to the high

A reduced O2 concentration of around 3–5% and an elevated CO2 temperature of HWT, a stress is induced and the degree of impact concentration of 5–10% are the suggested atmosphere compositions depends on the length and temperature of the treatment. Certain for a successful MA/CA system for mango fruit (Kader, 1994; Yahia, cultivars were reported to develop external and internal heat injuries,

1998b, 2009). However, the CO2 concentration in MA/CA is critical. and HWT was reported to affect ripening by accelerating skin colour Mature green mango fruit (cv. Tommy Atkins and Kent) in modified development. HWT at 55 °C for 5 min (for decay control) caused 80% atmosphere packages (MAP) with CO2 composition of over 10% heat damage in unspecified cultivar (Spalding & Reeder, 1972). results in skin discolouration, uneven ripening and off flavour Therefore, selection of specific HWT regimes is important for different development, most probably due to the formation of acetaldehyde mango cultivars. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) and ethanol (Postharvest Innovation Programme Progress Report, regulations require a HWT dip at 46.1 °C for 65 to 110 min (depending

2009). Although higher concentration of CO2 (above 10%) can prevent on fruit weight) for mango exported to the US for insect control the incidence of postharvest diseases due to its fungistatic or toxic (USDA-APHIS, 2002). HWT can damage the quality of mango fruit activity, CO2 concentration must not result in any quality defects in when treatment is not applied adequately and fruit not cooled terms of off-flavour development, CO2 injury such as skin discoloura- immediately after (Yahia & Campos, 2000). Small fruits are more tion or greyish flesh colour or fruit softening (Lalel, Singh, & Tan, susceptible to heat damage compared to larger fruits.

2003a). CA (3% O2 and 10% CO2) resulted in lower anthracnose In Tommy Atkins mangoes, lenticels became darker when the fruit incidence in ‘Tommy Atkins’, and after removal from cold storage to was dipped in the water at 46 °C for 120 min (Mitcham & Yahia, room temperature conditions, the residual effect of CA was clearly 2009). Hydro cooling (21 °C) is adopted after HWT, either immedi- demonstrated on the control of anthracnose (Kim, Brecht, & Talcott, ately if the HWT is applied for 10 min extra to the time assigned, or 2007). Storage temperature, the environment such as CA/MA, to light fruit can be hydrocooled after a holding time of 30 min at room and oxygen exposure, is one of the key factors influencing stability of temperature when fruit is treated at exactly the time assigned. Hydro phenolic antioxidants in fruits during postharvest storage (Piljac- cooling the fruit after HWT is efficient in reducing pulp temperature

Žegarac & Šamec, 2010). However, the CA storage (21% O2 +97% N2; rapidly (Shellie & Mangan, 2002) and slow down the metabolic 3% O2 +97% N2; and 3% O2 +10% CO2 +87% N2) had minor effect on activity of the fruit (De Leon et al., 1997). Hydro cooling water has to the retention of total soluble phenolics and antioxidant capacity in be sanitized to prevent contamination with foodborne pathogens fully ripe cv. Tommy Atkin mangoes (Kim et al., 2007). such as Salmonella or E. coli species since an outbreak of Salmonella enteric Serotype Newport infection was reported (Sivapalasingam et 6.5. Development of tools for the early detection of decay al., 2003). Long waiting time after receiving the fruit in the pack houses and before the treatment especially if fruits expose to direct There is an urgent need to implement a suitable early detection sun, latex on fruit surface, higher temperatures above the required method for the incidence of postharvest pathogen in the supply chain, set-point for the required HWT in the dipping tanks, improper because the economic costs of postharvest losses are higher than the management of hydrocooling after HWT, delaying the packing losses at the orchards. The total cost of postharvest supply chain will operation, inadequate handling, and improper storage temperatures, include the expense of postharvest practices such as harvesting, can all negatively affect fruit quality and postharvest life. sorting, packing, shipping and storage, in addition to the cost involved Temperature and immersion time play a major role in determining in production management (Jeger & Plumbley, 1988). Therefore, mango fruit quality after treatment and during storage. Improper according to Moalemiyan, Vikram, and Kushalappa (2007) an HWT in terms of unfavourable higher temperature or increasing automated tool based on the detection of specific volatile compounds dipping times can result in skin scalding, lenticels spotting and produced by postharvest pathogens would be beneficial to diagnose retention of unripe starchy areas in mango flesh (stem end cavity) diseases during large scale operations at the pack houses in order to (Paull & Arnstrong, 1994). The degree of damage caused by HWT make appropriate management decision, e.g. how long the fruit can be varies by cultivar. Since mango is rich in nutritional compounds with stored and which lot can be stored longer, quality at harvest or prior health promoting properties, especially for their antioxidant proper- to packing. Moalemiyan et al. (2007) identified a volatile metabolite ties, from consumer's point of view it is essential to know whether (1-pentanol) specific to Lasiodiplodia and unique to Colletotrichum, HWT affects the antioxidant and nutritional property of the fruit after using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry head space analysis. It harvest. According to Kim, Lounds-Singleton, and Talcott (2009), is also shown that the characteristic compounds produced are HWT at 46.1 °C reduced the total soluble phenolics and antioxidant cultivar-dependent. This finding has potential to be implemented capacity 4 days after storage irrespective of the treatment duration. commercially to make smart management decisions such as how long The findings of Kim et al. (2009) enable to conclude that fruit a particular lot of mangoes can be stored or can it be stored longer, and subjected to HWT has the possibility of losing some nutritional will it facilitate the reduction of postharvest losses due to decay by benefits due to heat triggering oxidation processes during prolonged planning the commercial operation (Moalemiyan et al., 2007). storage and transport, especially when arriving by sea shipment. During ripening, starch is converted to sugar due to the hydrolysis of 7. Control of invasive pests starch granules in the chloroplast (Selvaraj, Kumar, & Pal, 1989). Sugar production from starch was reduced by HWT (45 °C for 75 min or 7.1. HWT and fruit quality 48 °C for 60 min). Increase in dipping temperature during HWT directly affected the development of carotenoid content in the flesh. Mediterranean fruit fly(Ceratitis capitata) and Mexican fruit fly On the other hand, HWT at higher temperatures such as 52 °C for (Anastrepha spp.) infest mango in the form of eggs, larva and adults 20 min was observed to enhance skin colour development during (Jacobi et al., 2001). High incidence of these insects in mangoes is a ripening (Jacobi & Wong, 1991). Sensory properties with respect to major problem encountered in many production regions. Generally, texture were affected by HWT temperature and dipping time. Hot mangoes destined for export to several countries (not to Europe and water-treated (45 °C, 75 min; 48 °C, 60 min) and ripened fruit after D. Sivakumar et al. / Food Research International 44 (2011) 1254–1263 1259 storage did not show any negative effects on consumer preference. 20 min (Brodrick, 1979) or 50 °C for 5 min (Mitcham & Yahia, 2009) The negative effects on organolyptic properties of HWT can be was effective in controlling anthracnose. However, using higher pronounced when mature green fruit is subjected to HWT (Anwar & irradiation doses is cost effective to the growers than using lower Malik, 2007). Integrated application of HWT (46.1 °C for 75 min) and doses. If higher irradiation does are adopted, the incidence of

CA (3% O2 and 10% CO2) delayed ripening and inhibited the decline of irradiation stress injury in mango fruit can be higher and can increase total phenolic compounds in the flesh mainly due to the effect of CA postharvest losses. treatment (Kim et al., 2007). In light of these observations, HWT and CA combination may have beneficial effects on the control of invasive 8. Ripening temperature pests and postharvest diseases. Mature-green mangoes are commonly ripened at destination. 7.2. Vapour heat treatments During ripening temperature management is an important factor. Mature-green mangoes ripened at 20–23 °C showed good appearance Alternative treatments to HWT such as vapour heat (VHT) or and eating quality (Paull & Chen, 2004). According to Kader and forced hot air treatments (FHAT) are adopted by some exporting Mitcham (2008), skin colour improved when fruit were held at 15.5 to countries. VHT is adopted for mangoes exported from Australia, 18 °C, but the flavour remained tart. Ripening is affected at Thailand, the Philippines and Taiwan to the Japanese market. FHAT is temperatures over 30 °C, and between 27 and 30 °C the skin of the effective in controlling internal pests (Laidlaw, Armstrong, Chan, & fruit was reported to become mottled with strong flavour. Mango fruit Jang, 1996). According to Shellie and Mangan (2000), skin temper- picked at mature-green stage exposed to 20–100 μLL− 1 ethylene for ature is kept cooler while the flesh bellow the skin reaches the 24 h at 21 °C and 95% RH had uniform and rapid ripening (Barmore, temperature that kills the pests due to the evaporative cooling effect 1974). of FHAT at lower RH. FHAT is a commonly adopted quarantine treatment in the Cook Islands and Fiji. 9. Reducing fruit softening, extending the storage life, retention of antioxidants and fruit aroma 7.3. Irradiation and fruit quality Mangoes are climacteric and ripen rapidly after harvest, and it is Irradiation is recommended as quarantine or phytosanitary highly susceptible to postharvest losses. The plant hormone ethylene treatment. The purpose of irradiation is to kill or to sterilise microbes mediates the ripening of the fruit, increases respiration, fruit or insects by damaging their DNA. According to the Food and Drug softening, colour changes and production of aroma volatiles Administration (FDA, 1986) the approved dosage for irradiation (Wills, McGlasson, , & Joyce, 1998). The application of treatment on fresh produce is 1 kGy (100 krad). However, 1 kGy may 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) inhibits fruit ripening by binding to not be effective to kill insects, and such high doses negatively affect the ethylene binding sites irreversibly. Fruit softening in mangoes the quality of almost all fresh fruits. On the other hand, sterilisation of occurs as a result of degradation of protopectins and increased most insects can be achieved with doses below 0.75 kGy without soluble pectins. Application of 1-MCP was reported to inhibit fruit negatively affecting fruit quality. Consumption of irradiated food softening, delaying the climacteric peak, rate of respiration, weight treated with up to 10 kGy has been reported to be safe by the World loss and increased ascorbic acid content during mango fruit storage Health Organisation, Food & Agriculture Organisation and the Atomic (Alves et al., 2004; Jiang & Joyce, 2000). Biosynthesis of fatty acids Energy Agency. Generally, gamma rays (from Co60) are used for food and aroma volatile compounds responsible for the fruit aroma is irradiation because they can penetrate deeply into the pallet loads of dependent on ethylene biosynthesis. The application of 1-MCP at the fruit. However, implementation and maintenance of food higher concentrations (10 and 25 μLL− 1) was reported to affect the irradiation facilities is costly. India had signed an agreement with production of different classes of volatiles, such as monoterpenes, the USA to export irradiated mangoes (APHIS, 2007), and therefore esters and aldehydes and specific compounds of these groups of mango export increased. Mexico, the largest mango exporter, has a aroma volatile (Lalel, Sing, & Tan, 2003). Lower 1-MCP concentra- commercial gamma irradiation facility and has already exported tion (1 μLL− 1) had less effect on the aroma profiles of ‘Kensington irradiated mango to the USA. The cost of food irradiation depends on Pride’ mangoes (Lalel et al., 2003). According to Miyake and Asada many factors such as dose requirement, commodity tolerance to (1996), the antioxidant system includes catalase (CAT, EC 1.1 1.1.6), irradiation, product handling, construction cost, and the maintenance superoxide dismutase (SOD, EC 1.15.1.1), guaiacol peroxidise (GPX, of the facility. Furthermore, it has to be used routinely for a cost EC 1.11.1.7), ascorbate peroxidise (APX, EC 1.11.1.11) and glutathi- effective operation. Since mango fruit industry is seasonal the facility one reductase (GR, EC 1.6.4.2). Considerable loss of antioxidant has to be shared with other fruit crops according the growing season fraction occurs during ripening and the application of 1-MCP on in order to use the facility optimally. ‘Dashehari’ mango reduced the accumulation of H2O2 and O2 and The effectiveness of irradiation on mango fruit quality depends on resulted in cellular damage by increasing SOD and CAT activities irradiation dose, cultivar, and fruit maturity stage (Mitcham & Yahia, with a marginal APX activity (Singh & Dwivedi, 2008). 2009). Fruit damage or irradiation stress can be expressed as 1-MCP concentrations between 1 and 100 μLL− 1 were reported to softening, uneven ripening or surface damage. Fruits that are partially be effective in extending the storage life of mangoes (Jiang & Joyce, ripe were not affected by irradiation. Haden mangoes subjected to 2000), but may increase the incidence of stem-end rot (Hofman, 250 Gy at 1/4 or 1/2 maturity stage did not show any problem Jobin-Decor, Meiburg, Macnish, & Joyce, 2001). Therefore, retention of (Mitcham & Yahia, 2009). Keitt mangoes, subjected to 600 and 900 Gy good quality fruit with 1-MCP application can be achieved with an showed retention of colour, taste and texture after 9 days in storage efficient postharvest disease control. Postharvest treatments that (Lacroix, Bernard, Joblin, Milot, & Gagnon, 1992). Lower irradiation extend storage life are important in developing countries where cold doses between 100 and 150 Gy affected the flavour, and doses higher chain infrastructure is not well established. In those circumstances, than 750 Gy caused loss of ascorbic acid content in ‘Irwin’ and application of 1-MCP may provide a suitable alternative to extend the ‘’ mangoes (Mitcham & Yahia, 2009). postharvest life of mangoes at ambient temperature (25 °C) for Although incidence of anthracnose during storage was reduced the domestic markets in the developing countries. Commercial use of with increasing irradiation doses up to 600 Gy (Johnson et al., 1990), 1-MCP on mangoes is determined by the cost of 1-MCP treatment 1 kGy failed to provide a complete control of anthracnose in mangoes. relative to its beneficial effects. Factors such as performance of Integrated treatments using a dose of 750 Gy with HWT at 40 °C for different mango cultivars to 1-MCP application in terms of quality 1260 D. Sivakumar et al. / Food Research International 44 (2011) 1254–1263 improvement, how effectively 1-MCP application can be included in factors such as low temperatures during fruit development can cause the packing line operations, the size of the industry whether it is for CI after harvest. export or domestic market, how long the storage life has to be It is evident from the available literature that oxidative stress is an extended, and whether it is registered for commercial application in early response of horticultural produce to CI because it could initiate those specific importing countries, determine the cost/benefit of the membrane degradation resulting in lipid peroxidation (Dat et al., treatment (Watkins & Miller, 2004). Performance of different mango 2000; Shewfelt & del Rosario, 2000). The finding of Wang et al. (2008) cultivars to 1-MCP application needs to be investigated in detail for on the increase of malondialdehyde content in mango fruit stored at commercial application. According to Watkins and Miller (2005), low temperature (4 °C) explains the disruption of lipid peroxidation cultivars that have lower ethylene production rates after harvest and membrane integrity. Enhanced accumulation of active oxygen respond better than the cultivars that produce higher levels of species (AOS) in plant cell is reported to be a direct result of stress- ethylene, and the delays between harvest and 1-MCP application also induced cellular changes resulting in the occurrence of CI. Hydrogen affect the effectiveness of the treatment. Furthermore, application of peroxide (H2O2) was regarded as a stable molecular AOS species and it 1-MCP in combination with CA has to be investigated for potential is considered as a signal molecule associated with the environmental- mango export cultivars, because according to Watkins and Nock related stress response (Foyer, Lopez-Delgado, Dat, & Scott, 1997). (2003) the two technologies are effective when used in combination. Chilling tolerance in horticultural commodities has been attribut-

Waxing was reported to delay ripening and fruit softening in ed to the ability to breakdown of H2O2 and other oxidants by CAT, APX mangoes (Baldwin et al., 1999). Generally, waxes or edible coatings and glutathione reductase (GR). The ideal method of alleviating CI is are used as postharvest applications to reduce gas exchange and to store or to ship every mango cultivar at its ideal temperature, and to weight loss during the supply chain. According to Baldwin et al. avoid exposure at lower (than adequate) temperatures. An alternative (1999), the use of hydroxypropyl methylcellulose on Tommy Atkins method for reducing CI is low temperature conditioning, which mangoes was effective in delaying fruit softening and colour involves storing mango fruit at temperatures just above the specific development during ripening. temperature at which CI occurs, in order to induce tolerance to CI. Cold shock treatment at 0 °C for 4 h and thereafter transfer to 20 °C for 20 h prior to storage at 2 °C, 85–95% RH for 12 days significantly 10. Preventing lenticels discolouration and loss of enhanced CAT and APX activities in mango fruit (Zhao, Jiang, Cao, cosmetic appearance Zhao, & Gu, 2006). CAT is part of the primary defence system against AOS (Wang et al., 2008). APX and GR play an important role in Lenticels discolouration is an important quality concern and a protecting the mango fruit from CI (Zhao et al., 2006). According to principal factor for commercial acceptability (Bally, O'Hare, & Holmes, Zhao et al. (2006), cold shock treatment increased glutathione (GSH) 1996). The observed red colouration (red spots) on the fruit surface is and phenolic contents and non-enzymatic antioxidants in the mango reported to be due to the production of anthocyanins (Kangatharalingam, fruit, and it could be regarded as part of the mechanisms involved in Pierce, Bayles, & Essenberg, 2002) flavonoids (Dixon & Paiva, 1995), and inducing chilling tolerance, which is involved in ascorbate-GSH phenylpropanoid derivatives (Du Plooy, Combrinck, Regnier, & Botha, pathway that mediates decomposing and detoxification of excess H O 2009). Lenticels discolouration is a result of the stress that fruit 2 2 in the cells. However, it is recommended to store mangoes at 8–13 °C underwent before harvest (especially by wind or cold) (Jacobi & Giles, (depending on cultivar and duration of storage or shipment) to prevent 1997; O'Hare, Bally, & Underhill, 1996). After harvest, inadequate CI during the supply chain. It is also recommended to select and breed handling, or postharvest treatments such as vapour heat or hot water mango cultivars that are less susceptible to CI and show improved treatment, could induce lenticels spotting especially when sap or latex is storage life at low temperatures (Phakawatmongkol, Ketsa, & van Doorn, in contact with the skin. Storage temperatures below 10–12 °C were 2004). MAP (~5% CO and ~10% O ) using micro perforated polyethylene shown to accelerate the incidence of red spots which was associated with 2 2 or Xtend® film was effective in reducing CI in Tommy Atkins and Keitt chilling injury (Pesis et al., 2000). mangoes for three weeks at 12 °C and one week at 20 °C (Pesis et al., 2000). 11. Chilling injury (CI) and its alleviation 12. Implementing quality management practices in the mango Cold chain management extends postharvest life and maintains supply chain the overall quality of horticultural produce during the supply chain by reducing the metabolism and thereby reducing senescence and Consumer acceptance is determined by fruit quality in terms of ripening. However, many tropical and several subtropical fruits are taste, overall appearance, colour, size and freshness and safety sensitive to low temperature. CI occurs when the mango fruit is (residue levels and food borne pathogens) of the fruit. Europe and exposed to temperatures lower than 10 °C, and it takes place as a USA are the largest importers of fresh produce and the safety of these result of malfunction or disruption of cellular wall membrane function products are managed by policies and regulations. Generally fresh that affects the transfer or flow of cellular fluids in and out of the cell, produce are recognised as emerging vehicles causing food borne resulting in irregular metabolites (amino acids, sugars and mineral illness (Jacxsens et al., 2010). Inadequate sanitation practiced in the salts) (Wills, Lee, Graham, McGlosson, & Hall, 1981). CI in mangoes packing houses, hygiene deficiencies, improper water quality in the becomes a major constrain during long marine refrigerated shipping. dipping tanks, and animal manure used for fertiliser application were Typical CI symptom manifests as brown or gray scaled like reported to be potential sources of food borne pathogens (Jacxsens et discolouration of the skin, lenticels, pitting (Pesis et al., 2000), uneven al., 2010). The current quality assurance system includes tools and ripening (Lederman, Zauberman, Weksler, Rot, & Fuchs, 1997), methods to control microbiological risks on fresh produce. However, reduction in carotenoids, break down of the flesh (Lizada, 1991), improvement in adopted techniques, implementation of best pro- decrease in development of aroma and flavour during ripening, duction and handling practice will enable to ensure food safety of electrolyte leakage, reduction of SSC, fruit becomes prone to develop fresh produce in the supply chain (Jacxsens et al., 2010). rots, and storage life is reduced. CI generally develops after the fruits In some cases, pesticides have to be used to control diseases while are transferred from the chilling temperature to room temperature the importing countries may request zero residue levels. Numerous (no chilling). The severity of CI depends mainly on the maturity of the factors are involved in maintaining mango fruit quality during the fruit, duration of storage or shipping at chilling temperatures and the supply chain, such as; the application of pesticides, harvesting type of packaging used (Medlicott, Sigrist, & Sy, 1990). Preharvest procedures, the timing of entire operational procedures, packline D. Sivakumar et al. / Food Research International 44 (2011) 1254–1263 1261 operations (sorting, grading, HWT, waxing, and packing), storage, 2009). However, consumer acceptance was affected due to the temperature control, transportation, management organisation and development of off-flavour after 10th day. Peroxyacetic acid (Narciso market delivery conditions. Mango pack houses that export mangoes & Plotto, 2005), or acidified sodium hypochlorite (He, Luo, & Chen, to the international markets may require obtaining a certification for 2008), can be used as potential sanitizing agents on whole or cut international practice and standards such as Hazard Analysis and mangoes in order to prevent the microbial spoilage at the retail shelf. Critical Control Points (HACCP), and EurepGap certifications. HACCP are enforced in order to minimise the occurrence of hazards in the supply chain and to ensure correct product handling. EurepGap is 14. Conclusions mainly focused to maintain consumer's confidence on fruit quality and safety through record keeping and traceability designed for farm Fruit quality plays a major role in determining consumer level certification (EurepGap, 2001). In order to maintain an efficient acceptance of the fruit at the international markets. Therefore, quality management system in a supply chain, efficient and strict mango exporting countries must enforce adequate quality assurance coordination between each player (the grower, harvesting crew, pack systems and postharvest management practices to maintain fruit house management and workers, transporting agents, importing quality during the export chain. Temperature management during agents, storage, retailers, etc.) in the supply chain is important. Mango storage and shipping is a critical factor that affects fruit quality at producers and exporters must have access to new technical and destinations, and mangoes should be stored and shipped at 8–13 °C market information and training on postharvest management (depending on cultivar and duration) and at 85–90% RH. After arrival, practices in order to provide information on maintaining the mango proper temperature management has to be practiced at storage or at fruit quality during the supply chain. Furthermore, according to Kader the retailers' shelf (8–14 °C). Decay and quality deterioration are the (2008a, 2008b), heavy metals and pesticide residues in mangoes must major postharvest problems of mango fruit during the export chain. meet the permitted levels according to the Codex Alimentarius Although fungicides such as prochloraz have been used commercially Commission, and mangoes must be handled according to the to control mango fruit decay, the resistance of the pathogens to these recommendations of International Code of Hygienic Practice for fungicides is increasing. Low temperature and MA/CA can delay fruit Fresh Fruits and Vegetables and other relevant Codex texts (Codes of ripening and softening, but they need expensive equipments. Hygienic Practices and Codes of Practice). Application of 1-MCP has potential for the commercial control of ripening and softening of harvested mango fruits especially in 13. Fresh cut mangoes developing countries for long-distance transport because of its simplicity and low cost. However, the use of appropriate 1-MCP Mango fruit is one of the major tropical fruits that gained concentration still requires to be investigated further. Thus, it is popularity in the market (such as in Europe) as ‘fresh cut or ready necessary to develop integrated post-harvest technologies to better to eat fruit’. Fresh cut processors are facing challenges with the type of maintain overall mango fruit quality during the export chain. mango cultivars, quality at harvest, incorrect ripening stages, and There are barriers to the exportation of mango fruit because of inconsistent supply of fruit, incorrect fruit sizes, treatments, packag- quarantine issues associated with some pests. Heat treatments have ing and marketing. Preharvest factors such as cultural practices, time been used as quarantine systems. The future development of of harvest and maturity at harvest, handling operation, the time integrated post-harvest technology for the export chain of mango between harvest and cutting operation also can affect the quality of fruit is likely to focus on disease and quality control involving in the end fresh cut product (Kader, 2008a, 2008b). Operational factors fungicides dip, heat treatments and temperature management. such as sharpness of the cutting tool, surface area of the cut tissue or cubes, efficiency of removal of excess surface water present from the cut tissues, proper sanitation methods, application of suitable MAP, References and maintenance of cold chain management determine the shelf life and the consumer acceptance of the fresh cut product (Kader, 2008a, Alves, R. E., Filgueiras, H. A. C., Almeida, A. D., Pereira, M. E. C., Cocozza, F. D., & Jorge, J. T. (2004). Postharvest ripening of ‘Tommy Atkins’ mangoes on two maturation stages 2008b). treated with 1-MCP. 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