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ZOOLOGY Principles of Ecology Ecosystem Paper No. : 12 Principles of Ecology Module : 29 Ecosystem: Ecosystem Processes-I (Part-I) Development Team Principal Investigator: Prof. Neeta Sehgal Head, Department of Zoology, University of Delhi Co-Principal Investigator: Prof. D.K. Singh Department of Zoology, University of Delhi Paper Coordinator: Prof. D.K. Singh Department of Zoology, University of Delhi Content Writer: Dr. Kapinder Kirori Mal College, University of Delhi Content Reviewer: Prof. K.S. Rao Department of Botany, University of Delhi 1 Principles of Ecology ZOOLOGY Ecosystem: Ecosystem Processes-I (Part-1) Description of Module Subject Name ZOOLOGY Paper Name Principles of Ecology Module Name/Title Ecosystem Module Id 29: Ecosystem: Ecosystem Processes-I (Part-1) Keywords Ecosystem, natural ecosystem, Artificial ecosystem, Food chain, food web, Ecological pyramids. Contents 1. Learning Outcomes 2. Introduction 3. Types of ecosystem 3.1. Natural ecosystem 3.1.1. Terrestrial ecosystem 3.1.2. Aquatic ecosystem 3.2. Artificial ecosystem 3.3. Microecosystem 4. Food chain 4.1. Types of food chain 4.1.1. Grazing food chain 4.1.2. Detritus food chain 5. Food web 6. Significance of food chain and food web 7. Ecological pyramids 7.1. Pyramids of number 7.2. Pyramids of biomass 7.3. Pyramids of energy 8. Summary 2 Principles of Ecology ZOOLOGY Ecosystem: Ecosystem Processes-I (Part-1) 1. Learning Outcomes After studying this module, you shall be able to Understand the concept of Ecosystem. List the major types of ecosystem, their structure and function. Understand various types of food chains present in nature. Understand structure and function of food web. Describe the ecological pyramids and their types. 2. Introduction An organism in the nature always associated with individuals of its own species and of different species (community) along with their physical and chemical environment (habitat). Thus, there is an uninterrupted interaction among organisms and between organisms along with their habitat resulting into an integrated and functional unit. These organisms interact with the natural environment within 20 km range over earth surface of earth to make an ecosystem. In ecosystem, all biotic and abiotic component of the environment connected through energy flow and nutrient cycle. The term “ecosystem” was coined by Sir Arthur G. Tansley (1935). He defined ecosystem as a system resulting from the integration of all living and non living factors of the environment. It involves energy and cycling of nutrients between biotic and abiotic components. In 1935, E. P. Odum explains the ecosystem as a basic functional unit which consists of living and non living factors integrating each other and is necessary for the development and maintenance of the system. In 1975, he further elaborate the term “ecosystem” as “Any unit which includes all living organisms in the given area interacting with abiotic component to maintain the flow of energy that leads to clearly defined trophic structure, biotic diversity and exchange of materials in living and non living component within the system”. In the simplest term, ecosystem is the assemblages of organisms and their associated environment which collectively functions as a system to exchange material and energy (Reichle, 1975). Some European scientists use the alternative term of ecosystem known as biogeocoenosis. The ecosystem in the ecological hierarchy is the first unit that is complete. It bears all biological and physical components that are essential for the survival. Thus, the Ecosystem is 3 Principles of Ecology ZOOLOGY Ecosystem: Ecosystem Processes-I (Part-1) inimitable to ecology as sustained life on earth is a characteristic of ecosystem not for the individual or population. 3. Types of ecosystem An ecosystem can be natural or artificial, temporary or permanent and large or tiny. Thus, ecosystems can be categorized into following categories: 3.1. Natural ecosystems These ecosystems operate and develop in natural ways with no major interference by humans. They are further classified on the basis of kind of habitats as: 3.1.1. Terrestrial ecosystems It consists of Grassland ecosystem (dominated by grasses and cover about 20% of land surface), Savana Ecosystem (grassland with low frequency of trees), Taiga ecosystem (sub alpine ecosystem with low or medium sub rainfall having acidic soil), Tundra ecosystem (occur in alpine zone between taiga and polar ice zone, dominated by lichens, mosses, herbs, grasses and low shrubs), Desert ecosystem (ecosystem with very low rain fall, in which warm desert occurs in tropical region and cold desert occurs in temperate zone) and forests ecosystem (dominated by trees and found in tropical and temperate zone) (figure 1). Figure.1. Terrestrial forest ecosystem 4 Principles of Ecology ZOOLOGY Ecosystem: Ecosystem Processes-I (Part-1) 3.1.2. Aquatic ecosystems It is further divided into two types: (a) Fresh water ecosystems: This type of ecosystem is further categorized as lotic (ecosystem of running water as stream or river) ecosystem or lentic (ecosystem of still water such as lake or pond) ecosystem (figure 2). Figure.2: Freshwater ecosystem of still water such as lake ecosystem. (b) Marine ecosystems. These ecosystems include shallow water ecosystem (ecosystem along coastal line tidal zone), estuarine ecosystem (ecosystem of river mouth) and deep sea ecosystem (ecosystem beyond coast line) (figure 3). Figure.3: Marine ecosystem 5 Principles of Ecology ZOOLOGY Ecosystem: Ecosystem Processes-I (Part-1) 3.2. Artificial ecosystems These are also known as man-made ecosystems (figure 4). In 1959, Odum classified artificial ecosystem on the basis of photosynthesis respiration ratio (P/R) into three types. a) Stabilized ecosystem: This type of ecosystem is formed when photosynthesis /Respiration ratio is almost one. b) Autotrophic ecosystem: This type of ecosystem is formed when photosynthesis /Respiration ratio is more than one. c) Heterotrophic ecosystem: This type of ecosystem is formed when photosynthesis /Respiration ratio is less than one. Figure.4: Artificial ecosystem (Crop land) These ecosystems are regularly manipulated by humans in which addition of energy and natural balance is disturbed at particular period of time, e.g., croplands such as rice fields, sugarcane, wheat fields, maize, orchards, gardens, cities, villages, aquarium and many more. 3.3. Microecosystems The natural ecosystems are generally larger in size in which large number of factors operates at particular time leading to great complexity. So, it is not very easy to study them with the normal scientific methods. Therefore, ecologists are continuously working on different methods to reduce the number of variables and to work in a system with a discrete boundary. 6 Principles of Ecology ZOOLOGY Ecosystem: Ecosystem Processes-I (Part-1) Ecologists are trying to simulate microecosystems in the laboratory conditions that can be replicated and manipulated when they want. These microecosystems can be build by taking one or few species, at a time, from axenic cultures (An axenic culture is a bacterial culture which consists of single species) and then studying in different desired combinations. Recently, the concept of polyaxenic cultures has been developed. Odum (1971) and others have elucidated the microecosystem concept. The natural ecosystems do not have separate boundaries. An ecosystem progressively combines with the adjacent one through a transitional zone called as ecotone (figure 5). Forest Ecosystem Ecotone Grassland Ecosystem Figure.5A: Example of ecotone where forest ecosystem progressively combines with the adjacent grassland ecosystem. The ecotone consists of species present in two adjacent ecosystems. Generally, the ecotone has other species which is not present in both ecosystems. The ecotone has more population density of certain species as compare to either of the adjoining communities. This phenomenon is known as edge effect (figure 5B). 7 Principles of Ecology ZOOLOGY Ecosystem: Ecosystem Processes-I (Part-1) Figure 5B: Ecotone and Edge effect. Edge effect can observe in the coastal zone where the land and the ocean meet. Due to the flow of tides, the coastal zone does not follow the fixed boundaries on the seaward and landward directions. As a result, it provides the place for those organisms who can survive on land as well as in the water and also increases the biodiversity. It also contains specific plants like mangroves that flourish in salt water. The most common example of ecotone is estuary, where river meets the sea. In estuary, there is a regular mixing of fresh water and sea water which results in higher biodiversity. Estuary present in Chennai, where the river Adyar meets the sea. It accommodates large number of organisms including many species of bird. 4. Food chain In an ecosystem, flow of energy occurs through a series of organisms by eating and being eaten by another organism comprises a food chain. A food chain is called simple when it has only one trophic level besides the decomposers e.g., Eichhornia in Eutrophic pond. A food chain is called complex food chain when it bears both producer and consumer levels. At each level of energy transfer there is loss of 80-90% of the potential energy in the form of heat energy. All living or dead organisms serve as food for the other organisms which results in zero wastage of energy in the ecosystem. The number of trophic levels in the food chain is 8 Principles of Ecology ZOOLOGY Ecosystem: Ecosystem Processes-I (Part-1) always restricted to four or five, as the available energy decreases with each level. Many direct or indirect methods are used to study the relationships of food chain in the nature including gut content analysis, use of radioactive isotopes, precipitin tests etc. 4.1. Types of food chain In nature, basically two types of food chains are recognized: 4.1.1. Grazing food chain It always begins with producers (i.e. green plants) which produces their food by the process of photosynthesis and then moves through herbivores to carnivores. This type of food chain is directly influenced by influx of the radiant energy from sun.
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