MAY 2, 2020 Vol LV No 18 ` 110
A SAMEEKSHA TRUST PUBLICATION www.epw.in
EDITORIALS Capitalism and COVID-19 Rescuing Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises Since long-run solutions to COVID-19 can barely emerge Undemocratic Evasion of from outside the interstate systems, there arises a Environmental Responsibility need to reimagine these systems for letting science
FROM THE EDITOR’S DESK and technology flourish without the fetters on their ownership. pages 14, 28 COVID-19 and a Just State? WEEKLY COMMENTARY Analysing Kerala’s Response to Together They Stand the COVID-19 Pandemic By containing the COVID-19 contagion through World Economy and Nation States decentralised, scientific, and humane policies, Kerala post COVID-19 demonstrates the efficacy of participatory governance in COVID-19’s Disruption of India’s Transformed handling calamities. page 10 Food Supply Chains
BOOKPOLITICAL REVIEWS
Food Supply during COVID-19 & The Psychological Impact of the Partition of India Shadows of Doubt: Stereotypes, Crime, and With the PDS supplying barely 5% of India’s food the Pursuit of Justice consumption, policies should work towards making the private food supply chains rebound, instead of replacing PERSPECTIVES these by government food distribution. page 18 Epidemics and Capitalism
SPECIAL ARTICLES Small Business Meets Big Duty Small Businesses, Big Reform: A Survey of the MSMEs Facing GST Debates on the effects of GST on small businesses in ECONOMIC ‘Piloting’ Gender in the Indian Railways: India get a unique evidence base from the primary surveys Women Loco-pilots, Labour and Technology of such enterprises facing this indirect tax reform. page 32 Implementation of Community Forest Ri ghts: Experiences in the Vidarbha Region of Maharashtra An Old Boys’ Club
CURRENT STATISTICS The additional hierarchy of “masculine” standards of performance deters women loco-pilots in Indian POSTSCRIPT Railways from fully engaging in their job. page 40 ECONOMIC & POLITICAL WEEKLY may 2, 2020 | vol LV No 18
Rescuing Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises EDITORIALS 7 Monetary and fi scal measures are needed to help MSMEs withstand the Rescuing Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises .....7 exogenous shock caused by the lockdown. Undemocratic Evasion of Environmental Responsibility ...... 8
Undemocratic Evasion of Environmental Responsibility FROM THE EDITOR’S DESK 8 The draft Environment Impact Assessment Notifi cation is an affront to the COVID-19 and a Just State? ...... 9 environment and to democratic processes. From 50 years ago ...... 9
When People and Governments Come Together COMMENTARY COVID When People and Governments Come Together: 10 Kerala’s success in managing the -19 pandemic, as it continues to draw Analysing Kerala’s Response to the strength from its political culture of participatory governance and emphasis COVID-19 Pandemic on social welfare, is elaborated on. — Aruna Roy, Saba Kohli Davé —Aruna Roy, Saba Kohli Davé...... 10 World Economy and Nation States World Economy and Nation States post COVID-19 post COVID-19 —K N Harilal ...... 14 14 The COVID-19 pandemic has caused major ruptures in the world system, which COVID-19’s Disruption of India’s Transformed has serious implications for global accumulation of capital. — K N Harilal Food Supply Chains —Thomas Reardon, Ashok Mishra, WEEKLY COVID-19’s Disruption of India’s Transformed Food Supply Chains Chandra S R Nuthalapati, Marc F Bellemare, David Zilberman ...... 18 18 The government faces a trilemma of challenges—eliminating the virus, supporting the food supply chain’s small and medium enterprises, and BOOK REVIEWS marshalling resources to face the fi rst two problems fast—in the midst of the The Psychological Impact of the Partition of COVID-19 crisis. — Thomas Reardon, Ashok Mishra, Chandra S R Nuthalapati, India—Continuity of Madness, the Border, and Partition of India Marc F Bellemare & David Zilberman —Srishtee Sethi ...... 23 Shadows of Doubt: Stereotypes, Crime, and the Epidemics and Capitalism Pursuit of Justice—Impacts of Stereotyping 28 In the context of the spread of COVID-19, a number of left and progressive on the Criminal Justice System —Vijay Raghavan ...... 25 thinkers tend to present a one-sided view of this relationship, founded on a
POLITICAL deeper confusion regarding the human–nature relationship under PERSPECTIVES contemporary capitalism. — Sandipan Baksi Epidemics and Capitalism: Accurate Identifi cation of Contradictions & —Sandipan Baksi ...... 28 Small Businesses, Big Reform: A Survey of the MSMEs Facing GST 32 This paper draws evidences from fi eld surveys to bring out the impact of the SPECIAL ARTICLES goods and services tax on the competitiveness and viability of the micro, Small Businesses, Big Reform: small and medium enterprises. — Sangeeta Ghosh A Survey of the MSMEs Facing GST —Sangeeta Ghosh ...... 32 ‘Piloting’ Gender in the Indian Railways: ‘Piloting’ Gender in the Indian Railways Women Loco-pilots, Labour and Technology 40 Women loco-pilots in the Indian Railways, although few in number, face —Arundhathi ...... 40 unique challenges as they negotiate with masculine forms of labour and Implementation of Community Forest Rights: technology in a male-dominated work environment. — Arundhathi Experiences in the Vidarbha Region of Maharashtra —Geetanjoy Sahu ...... 46
ECONOMIC Implementation of Community Forest Rights 46 The study of the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra reveals that there is need to CURRENT STATISTICS...... 53 support the upscaling of community forest rights and analyse the broader POSTSCRIPT implications for forest resource governance at a national scale. The Paan on My Plate: From Bread to Identity — Geetanjoy Sahu —Akshyah Krishnakumar (55), Lending a Voice to Baahubali: Of Animal Rights Postscript and a Champion Goat 55 Akshyah Krishnakumar on the relationship between food and identity for —P P Vijayalakshmi, Rajlakshmi Kanjilal (56), the Indian Tamils from Ceylon; P P Vijayalakshmi and Rajlakshmi Kanjilal The Art of Storytelling and Listening: Rescripting Inner Narrative—Indu Divya (57), on the fi lm Chopsticks and its exploration of animal rights; Indu Divya Last Lines (58) on storytelling and listening to our inner narratives; and Last Lines by Ponnappa. Letters ...... 4 LETTERS Issn 0012-9976
Ever since the fi rst issue in 1966, EPW has been India’s premier journal for E-courts: Need of the Hour Accessibility to justice should not be in- comment on current affairs fringed on, irrespective of the COVID-19 and research in the social sciences. It succeeded Economic Weekly (1949–1965), disaster or any pandemic cannot be pandemic. The option of live streaming is which was launched and shepherded by Sachin Chaudhuri, A stopped, but one can arm them- now easily available to the ordinary citizen who was also the founder-editor of EPW. selves with its knowledge and prepared- as well, so there is no reason as to why As editor for 35 years (1969–2004) Krishna Raj ness. The current pandemic, COVID-19, has the judiciary is not utilising such a crucial gave EPW the reputation it now enjoys. created a global distress in all the spheres measure to provide access to justice, despite Editor of life, and the judicial system is also its efforts to construct e-courts since 2004. GOPAL GURU not an exception to this. The COVID-19 This pandemic could be the best time to Executive Editor lockdown has blockaded the helm of the bring in video conferencing for the access Lina Mathias judicial system. Courts across the nation to justice and speedy disposal of cases. SENIOR Assistant editorS lubna duggal are shut and no hearings are being con- Technically, the courts are shut but INDU K ducted, except for the most pertinent ones. new cases continue to be fi led through an Sunipa Dasgupta This novel coronavirus has severely im- electronic medium during the lockdown, copy editorS jyoti shetty peded the global justice system. Several resulting in a serious backlog of cases. In Tejas Harad nations like Indonesia, Malaysia, the United India, the condition is so miserable that Assistant editors Kingdom, Singapore, and many others none of the subordinate courts are follow- Nachiket kulkarni WEEKLY SHRUTI JAIN have started switching to online hearings ing the electronic mode of court proceed- and trials, and it shall be reasonably ings. The consecutive lockdown has sus- editorIAL Assistant Malvika Sharad expected that India would not be lagging pended the whole work mechanism of COVID CHIEF FINANCE OFFICER behind. The disruption caused by -19 the subordinate judiciary, be it an urgent J DENNIS RAJAKUMAR essentially compels us to migrate from a matter or a trivial one. The best possible production mallet to a click. In India, undeniably, the solution for the judiciary is to migrate to suneethi nair crime rate has dropped and it could be the the electronic mode for the regular func- Circulation KULDEEP NAWATHE best possible time to clear at least a con- tioning of the court. Courts can mandate siderable backlog of cases. The lockdown compulsory electronic fi ling and registering Advertisement Manager Kamal G Fanibanda will only increase the delay in justice of pleas/petitions with brief facts, argu-
General Manager & Publisher deliverance, and one push towards the ments, and the laws they should be based Gauraang Pradhan virtual hearing of cases is going to combat upon. Even trials or hearings can be POLITICAL editorial: [email protected] this delay. conducted through the electronic medium. Circulation: [email protected] On 6 April 2020, the Supreme Court of Even the lower courts that lack an ade- & Advertising: [email protected] India issued guidelines for courts to switch quate electronic infrastructure can deal Economic & Political Weekly to video conferencing during the pandemic with it meticulously by accepting written 320–322, A to Z Industrial Estate Ganpatrao Kadam Marg, Lower Parel for both future and past cases. A three- submissions as the grounds for their argu- Mumbai 400 013 judge bench of Chief Justice S A Bobde, ments through mails, especially in civil Phone: (022) 4063 8282 Justices D Y Chandrachud and L Rao cases, and can move towards oral hearings EPW Research Foundation directed the courts to restrict entry and and trials to reduce the excessive pendency EPW Research Foundation, established in 1993, conducts maintain social distancing, besides other of cases. This shift from the real to the research on fi nancial and macro-economic issues in India. Director measures for combating the spread of virtual courtroom may prove to be the front J DENNIS RAJAKUMAR COVID-19. It also said that the Supreme runner in the expeditious delivery of justice C 212, Akurli Industrial Estate Court and high courts are already con- and clearing the backlog of cases. COVID-19 Kandivali (East), Mumbai 400 101 Phones: (022) 2887 3038/41 ducting proceedings through video con- has taught us to develop a solution-ori- [email protected] ferencing and the other courts should also ented outlook and to live more in less. ECONOMIC Sameeksha TrusT use the same. But these courts are only Aparna Singh (Publishers of Economic & Political Weekly) dealing with important matters through Gandhinagar Board of Trustees Deepak Nayyar, Chairman video conferencing. Even the limitation Shyam Menon, Managing Trustee period has been suspended and general A Teacher’s Take André Béteille, D N Ghosh, Deepak Parekh, Romila Thapar, guidelines have been issued on the use on the Pandemic Rajeev Bhargava, Dipankar Gupta, of video conferencing. Is this not a legal N Jayaram, SUDIPTO MUNDLE conundrum? The second wave of the he novel coronavirus pandemic has Printed and published by Gauraang Pradhan, for and lockdown has brought many hurdles in brought the fast-paced life of the on behalf of Sameeksha Trust and printed at T Modern Arts and Industries, 151, A–Z Industrial Estate, human lives, and if such a vital organ of 21st century to an almost standstill. The Ganpatrao Kadam Marg, Lower Parel, Mumbai–400 013 and published at 320–322, A–Z Industrial Estate, the government will stop functioning or dark cloud of this virus has spread far Ganpatrao Kadam Marg, Lower Parel, Mumbai–400 013 will be reserved only for the urgent mat- and wide, though, like all dark clouds, it Editor: Gopal Guru (Editor responsible for selection of news under the PRB Act) ters, how will there be access to justice? does have a silver lining too. It has given
4 may 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 EPW Economic & Political Weekly LETTERS us time to slow down and observe our child’s capability over a complete year is pedagogy suffi ce in creating individuals lives closely. something that makes examination a who are critical, courageous, and creative While we educators utilise this oppor- dreaded word. A teacher teaching with a so as to face such unprecedented situa- tunity, we may realise that much needs to focus on testing and a child responding tions? If not, then we must urgently look be reworked and relooked into with re- in a similar fashion by always preparing into our policies and curriculum. These gard to our educational policies and for an eventual testing is not the best times, more than ever, call for emphasis practices. These policies have been way to drive classroom transactions. Ex- on pedagogy based on developing critical heaped upon one over the other for the aminations and performing well in thinking, compassion, empathy, fellow- past many years without contemplating them, becoming the sole purpose of the ship and emotional–social intelligence. as to what we would like the foundation classroom transaction kill the essence of Education, when it peddles static of our education to be. education that is supposed to help a knowledge, would not help make sense Let us talk about testing fi rst. March was child blossom, grow, and not restrict of the world around and would make the month when we fi rst felt the need to themselves to fi t into a question booklet. those involved feel alienated. Imparting retreat from social life to isolation. This Boiling all the aspects of schooling such to our children an education that is not was also the month of testing or exami- as teaching, learning, curriculum, and evolving and is full of inert ideas would be nation in our schools. Examination is extra-curricular activities together, and disastrous. Perhaps, the only way forward the threshold every child has to cross to using the sieve of examination to fi lter it is through observing the past. To analyse be considered worthy of the next grade. down based on standardised testing might what was, where it leads us to, and what
WEEKLY It had to be disrupted or completely done not be the brightest idea of schooling, we would want our future to be, admitting away with in some cases as schools were which we want to burden ourselves with mistakes, amending wrongs wherever shut down in the early days of March. All in the 21st century too. Examination and possible, and improving are the only sensi- the students in most states, except for its power as a determinant of the child’s ble ways through which we can approach Classes X and XII, were promoted to the most productive years is more or less abso- an uncertain future with confi dence. next grade. This unique situation presents lute. It is time we question it and fi nd better While the world around us undergoes us with a chance to relook into the value ways to build a healthier environment a drastic shift, we can only imagine what we associate with examination or stand- for children, instead of boxing in and the new normal would be like. It would not ardised testing in our education system. labelling them. only be foolish but also counterproductive Would it really be detrimental to the As the world has moved to digital if we serve the same system to our chil- learning levels of the child if we do not spaces to make up for the loss of physical dren without addressing these concerns convert their learnings, hard work and spaces during this pandemic, it is inter- and reworking on them. The best possi- POLITICAL understandings into a mathematical num- esting to note how the use of technology bility to emerge from this imminent ber at the end of each academic year? Now has enabled us to carry on teaching– threat to mankind could be a clear per- & that most children have started covering learning through online classes, webinars spective of what we want and how to the syllabus online for the next grade and group chats. However, it has also reach it. Maybe then we could truly uti- without sitting for exams, has this hin- deepened the divide and made it worse lise the silver lining presented to us and dered their process of learning? Maybe for those who do not have access to these step into a better, more humane future we can begin by questioning who is ac- mediums. Hence, once we resume our life once we overcome this disease. tually benefi ting from exams, if it does after this pandemic and begin with regular Richa Dang benefi t anyone at all in its present state. schooling, would it not be extremely New Delhi When a child is stamped as outstanding, unfair that we let the children who good, average or needing improvement, is needed help the most fall back and then Corrigendum it really the child who benefi ts from this test them on the same standards? In the article “Excluded in Rehabilitation: Dis- assessment of their efforts and skills into We may also take this chance to re- ability in the Neo-liberal Era” (EPW, 28 March standardised categories/positions, or is evaluate how what we teach and test so 2020), the citations “Mladenov 2015” and ECONOMIC “Mladenov 2015; Owen and Harris 2012” (p 12) it the parents or the teachers? If we fi nd religiously might equip the next generation should have read as “Mladenov 2015: 446” and it diffi cult to fi nd answers to this ques- to face an increasingly unpredictable “Owen and Harris 2012: para 8,” respectively. tion, maybe it is time to relook into the world. Does our present curriculum and The error has been corrected on the EPW website. role and relevance of examinations as they exist in our system. EPW Engage Of course, understanding how much a The following articles have been published in the past week in the EPW Engage section (www.epw.in/engage). child is able to understand and assess (1) COVID-19 and Aadhaar: Why the Union Government’s Relief Package Is an Exclusionary Endeavour their learning levels through testing is a —Reetika Khera and Anmol Somanchi benefi cial activity when used to plan les- (2) Making Rural Healthcare System Responsive to Domestic Violence: Notes from Patan in Gujarat sons and devise ways to create a better —Society for Women’s Action and Training Initiatives (SWATI) (3) Photo Essay: A Study of Contrasts in Bengaluru’s ‘High-tech’ Zone—Pooja Rao and S D Suman environment of understanding in the (4) Financial Inclusion and Digital India: A Critical Assessment—Shailla Draboo class. But using it as an index of the
Economic & Political Weekly EPW may 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 5 LETTERS Subscription Rates (Revised rates effective April, 2019) Print Edition – For India Web Edition/Digital Archives Rates for Six Months (in Rs) The full content of the EPW and the entire archives are also available to those who do not wish Category Print Print + Digital Archives to subscribe to the print edition. Individuals 1,900 2,655 India (in Rs) SAARC (in US $) Rest of the World (in US $) Rates for One Year (in Rs) Category Number of Number of Number of Category Print Print + Digital Archives Concurrent Users Concurrent Users Concurrent Users (According to Number of Concurrent Users) Institutions Up to Five 6,490 Up to Five 300 Up to 5 More than 5 Single User More than 5 14,160 More than 5 250 More than 5 750 Institutions 5,500 11,800 17,700 Individuals 3,300 4,720 Individuals Single User 2,360 Single User 100 Single User 150 Students 1,800 3,068 Rates for Three Years (in Rs) Types of Web Access to the Digital Archives Category Print Print + Digital Archives Individual subscribers can access the site by a username and a password, while Single User institutional subscribers get access by specifying IP ranges. Individuals 9,000 11,800 To know more about online access to the archives and how to access the archives send us an email at [email protected] and we will be pleased to explain the process. Concessional rates are restricted to students in India. To subscribe at concessional rates, How to Subscribe: please submit proof of eligibility from an institution. Payment can be made by either sending a demand draft/cheque in favour of Print Edition: Subscriber receives the print copy by post to the address given. Economic and Political Weekly or by making online payment with a credit card/net Print plus Digital Archives: Subscriber receives the print copy and has access to the entire archives banking on our secure site at www.epw.in. on the EPW web site.
WEEKLY Address for communication: Economic & Political Weekly Print Edition — For SAARC and Rest of the World (Air Mail) 320–322, A to Z Industrial Estate, Ganpatrao Kadam Marg, Airmail Subscription for One Year (in US $) Lower Parel, Mumbai 400 013, India Print Print + Digital Archives Increase in Subscription RatesI (According to Number of Concurrent Users) Institutions Up to 5 More than 5 Single User The EPW is compelled to raise the Digital Subscription Rates on account of Goods SAARC 215 500 and Service Tax (GST) being applicable to Digital Subscriptions. The GST rate for Rest of the World 430 600 1,000 Online Information Data Base Access and Retrieval (OIDAR) is 18%. The category Individuals SAARC 175 200 Print plus Digital will also attract 18% as GST. Rest of the World 250 300 The subscription rates quoted are inclusive of the 18% GST rate.
Notes for Contributors
POLITICAL Submission Guidelines Letters (Word limit: 500–800) Engage EPW welcomes original contributions that have not Readers are encouraged to comment on current affairs Contributions to this section may be in the form of been submitted, published, or accepted for publication and/or respond to published articles in EPW. Letters must articles (2,500–3,000 words), photo essays, podcasts & elsewhere. Contributors must specify the same in the contain the author’s full name and postal address. and videos on topical social, cultural, economic and article submission email. Contributors are urged to Commentary (Word limit: 2,000–3,000) political developments. For more details, visit: https:// follow EPW’s stylesheet (https://www.epw.in/style-sheet. Short, analytical articles on topical and contemporary www.epw.in/notes-contributors-epw-engage. html). All contributions must be accompanied by: social, economic and political developments will be Copyright considered for this section. • An abstract of 150–200 words EPW posts all published articles on its website as well as • Six to eight keywords Book Reviews (Word limit: 1,500–2,000) on select databases. Published articles may be • Author name, email address and contact number for EPW commissions book reviews. However, on occasion, considered for translation into Indian languages under correspondence, one-line author note for each unsolicited reviews may be considered for publication. our ongoing project. author stating current designation and affiliation, Insight (Word limit: 4,000–5,000) The copyright of all articles published in EPW belongs and author photographs (optional). We include the Innovative and focused analyses of social, economic, and to the author or to the organisation where the author provided email address in the author note. political phenomena would be considered for this section. is employed, as determined by the author’s terms of Contributors are cautioned against plagiarism and employment. excessive self-referencing. Figures, graphs and tables Perspectives (Word limit: 4,000–5,000) must be used sparingly to avoid repetition of content. Articles presenting unique viewpoints and standpoints Permission for Reproduction All supplementary files such as figures, tables, maps, on existing scholarship and contemporary phenomena 1. EPW has no objection to authors republishing or are welcome for this section. ECONOMIC etc, must be provided in MS Office (Word/ Excel) or revising their articles for other publications. other editable formats, wherever possible. Special Articles (Word limit: Upto 7,000) However, the republished article must mention The EPW editorial team reserves the right to slot an Original, unpublished research papers in any of the prominently that a version of the article first article in a specific section, as deemed fit. humanities and social sciences are welcome. appeared in Economic & Political Weekly. It must also Receipt of articles is immediately acknowledged by email. If Notes (Word limit: 4,000–5,000) include the publication details along with the URL of the original EPW article. contributors have not received an acknowledgement and Short, original articles covering preliminary research in reference number within a week of submission, they any of the humanities and social sciences would be 2. No published article or part thereof should be are requested to check their spam folders for the mail considered for this section. reproduced in any form without prior permission of and write to us at [email protected]. Discussion (Word limit: 1,500–2,000) the author(s). A soft/hard copy of the author(s)’s Every effort is taken to complete early processing of In order to foster debate and discussion, responses to approval should be sent to EPW. the articles we receive. Given the high volume of articles articles published in EPW are encouraged. Please refer to the detailed Notes for Contributors received daily, it can take up to six months for a final Postscript (Word limit: 800–1,200) (https://www.epw.in/notes-contributors.html) and decision on whether an article is accepted for publication. Short accounts or reflections on different aspects of Frequently Asked Questions (https://www.epw.in/ Articles accepted for publication can take up to 12 culture (travel, literature, dance, music and film) will be frequently-asked-questions) section on the EPW website. months from the date of acceptance to appear in print. considered under this section. Send us your submissions on [email protected].
6 may 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 EPW Economic & Political Weekly may 2, 2020
Rescuing Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises
Monetary and fi scal measures are needed to help MSMEs withstand the exogenous shock due to the lockdown.
conomic activities abruptly came to a standstill with the introduced emergency credit lines by which loans can be availed nationwide lockdown, the fi nal closure of which seems a by MSME borrowers. In end March, the government also decided Efar-off prospect. In the event of its continuation, though in a to bear the 24% contribution to the Employees’ Provident Fund,
WEEKLY diluted form, the lockdown is going to severely affect the micro, of both the employee and the employer combined, for the ensuing small and medium enterprises (MSMEs). In fact, the MSMEs have three months. But, only businesses having up to 100 employees, been one of the worst affected businesses due to the disruption with 90% earning less than `15,000 per month, would be able to caused by the pandemic. It is crucial that these enterprises, avail this benefi t. Despite the announcement of these measures, which are disadvantaged by their size as well as their limited a survey of 5,000 MSMEs by the All India Manufacturers Organi- cash fl ows, survive the onslaught of the imposed disruption. sation (AIMO) revealed that 71% of the enterprises could not pay This is because a closure not only has a cascading impact on the salaries to their workers for March 2020 due to the lockdown. entire supply chain, but it has also adversely affected the liveli- Thus, a substantial relief package is necessary for businesses hoods of those involved in running these enterprises and those who to stay afl oat as cash fl ows have dried up. Even though the are employed in them. The MSMEs, therefore, require immediate government had announced that a stimulus package for the MSME but substantial relief from the government to cushion the exog- sector is in the pipeline, the stakeholders have been perturbed enous shock of the lockdown, at a time when the economy has with the delay in the announcement of this package. POLITICAL already been reeling under a deep economic slowdown. To pull the MSMEs out of the crisis, both monetary as well as fi scal The MSMEs, being an integral part of the product supply chains, measures are required. It has to be noted that if the MSMEs do not & form an important sector of the economy. These enterprises survive, any fi scal stimulus offered in the aftermath of the lock- contribute about 30% of the country’s gross domestic product down may turn out to be ineffective. What is immediately required (GDP), 40%–45% of exports, and employ about 114 million people is an injection of liquidity, which calls for the provision of adequate, who comprise about 30% of the labour force. About 63 million timely, and cheaper credit, a wage protection package, and interest unincorporated MSMEs are engaged in the non-agricultural sector, moratoriums. This would also necessitate an expansion and exten- the majority of which are microenterprises in the informal sector. sion of the RBI’s moratorium on the payment of loans for MSMEs Even before the lockdown, these enterprises were beset with beyond the stipulated period of three months. Apart from these problems of liquidity caused by delays in payment and unsold and tax deferrals, there is also a need for provisioning additional goods as well as insuffi cient credit and loss in business. The access funds targeted towards MSMEs to help them survive. Industry bodies to institutional credit has also been weak due to the fact that an have been demanding a stimulus package worth 4%–5% of the GDP. overwhelming majority comprises single-person proprietorships There is certainly a need to support the MSME sector not only by that are not registered as companies, as per the National Sample providing short-term relief, but also for their growth and revival in ECONOMIC Survey 2017 data on unincorporated non-agricultural enterprises. the medium and long terms. The challenge, however, will be to The MSMEs do not have adequate resources to withstand an identify businesses in dire requirement of funds and those that are exogenous shock, such as a lockdown imposed to contain the affected the most by the current crisis, as the MSMEs are spread spread of the pandemic that has disrupted production and supply. across various industries and states, operating mostly in the informal The government, in end March, allowed the MSMEs to delay goods sector. This is because there is no accurate or reliable information and services tax (GST) returns for the months of February to April on the MSMEs due to the absence of recent census data on the enter- and until June, without drawing interest, late fees, or penalties, prises, for the previous MSME census was conducted way back in and has also accelerated the settlement of income tax refunds. 2006–07. The lack of a verifi ed MSME database could also, therefore, The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) also adopted measures to infuse deter targeted delivery of the much-needed relief package. Even liquidity by easing working capital fi nancing. The Small Industries then, a comprehensive package involving the stakeholders directly Development Bank of India (SIDBI) announced a concessional inter- by addressing the specifi c nature of problems confronting the sector est rate of 5% for MSME loans. Several public sector banks also would ensure better effectiveness of the state’s intervention.
Economic & Political Weekly EPW may 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 7 EDITORIALS Undemocratic Evas ion of Environmental Responsibility
The draft Environment Impact Assessment Notifi cation is an affront to the environment and to democratic processes.
he Government of India has circulated the new draft publicised widely by either the central government or state Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) Notifi cation, 2020. governments. In order to get public inputs, it is essential not to TEIA is an important process for evaluating the likely envi- limit its publication just to a specifi c government website. De- ronmental impact of a proposed project. Impact assessment is, tailed consultations with the public at large need to be enabled basically, a decision-making tool to decide whether the project through different channels of consultation. If nationwide con- should be approved or not. sultation could be held for Bt Brinjal, there is strong reason to Introduced in 1994, the EIA notifi cation was revised in 2006. have similar consultation on an issue related to the EIA process On 23 March 2020, the day before the national lockdown in the itself. To date, the EIA process is the only legal process where wake of the COVID-19 pandemic was announced, the central information is shared and the opinion of the public obtained on government sought public comments on the new draft EIA environmental impact before a decision is taken on a large-scale notifi cation. The public has been given 60 days to send project. The disregard of this process by the draft notifi cation is their comments, overlapping with a time when the nation is simply undemocratic. under a lockdown. Third, this lack of participation is further refl ected in the
WEEKLY Several issues require much deeper scrutiny. First, the new draft draft notifi cation, which confers absolute power to the central EIA notifi cation aims to fundamentally change the manner in government. The central government gets the power to cate- which an EIA is carried out. The new draft allows for post facto gorise projects as “strategic.” Once a project is considered as approval for projects. It has provisions to award clearances for strategic, the draft notifi cation states that “no information projects even if they have started construction or have been related to such projects shall be placed in public domain.” running without securing environmental clearances. Securing Further, experts from outside the government—or larger civil these clearances was mandatory for all projects included under society—are left out of the process for reporting violations. the EIA regime as per the existing EIA notifi cation of 2006. The Violations can only be reported suo motu by the project propo- new draft states, “The cases of violation will be appraised by nent, or by a government authority, appraisal committee, or Appraisal Committee with a view to assess that the project has regulatory authority. been constructed or carried at a site, which under prevailing Finally, the draft EIA notifi cation, in its haste to please industry, laws is permissible or expansion has been done which can be excludes most of the building and construction sector from being POLITICAL run sustainably under compliance of environmental norms scrutinised. The building and construction sector is among the with adequate environmental safeguards; In case, fi nding of largest greenhouse gas emitters. Yet, as per the draft notifi ca- & the Appraisal Committee is negative, closure of the project tion, new construction projects up to 1,50,000 square metres shall be recommended along with other actions under the law (instead of the existing 20,000 square metres) do not need “de- including directions for remediation.” Post facto approval is in tailed scrutiny” by the Expert Committee, nor do they need EIA violation of the “precautionary principle,” which is a principle studies and public consultation. of environmental sustainability. This also means that any envi- The draft notifi cation is issued under the powers vested in ronmental damage caused by the project is likely to be waived the central government under the Environment (Protection) off as the violations get legitimised. Act, 1986 to take all such measures for “protecting and improv- It is to be noted that on 1 April this year the Supreme Court ing the quality of the environment.” Yet, not a single measure ruled that the central government had no power to grant appears to be aimed at improving the quality of the environ- post facto approval, on the grounds that this would be in ment. Unfortunately, even the voice of the people is being cur- “derogation of the fundamental principles of environmental tailed. Projects which require EIAs are large projects with huge jurisprudence.” Writing for the bench, Justice D Y Chandrachud investments, with construction time running into several ECONOMIC held that “environment law cannot countenance the notion years, and even a decade for large dams. While adequate time of an ex post facto clearance. This would be contrary to both is granted to projects for fi nancial approvals, locally affected the precautionary principle as well as the need for sustainable people have only 20 days—further limited by the draft notifi - development.” cation from the narrow 30-day window at present—to respond Second, it is an irony that the EIA process, which itself is to these projects. In sum, it expects farmers, tribals, fi sherfolk, an outcome of the Rio Declaration, is today being fi nalised forest dwellers, and others to leave their livelihood and rush to without detailed public consultation. Specifi cally, the EIA study EIA reports within this short time period. process is an outcome of Principle 10 of the 1992 Rio Declaration, The draft EIA Notifi cation, 2020 must be put on hold. which says that environmental issues are best handled through Not only is this not the time to seek public comments, but it participation of all concerned citizens, and that states must has to be deferred because such a notifi cation has to be provide an opportunity to citizens to participate in decision- widely discussed and can be considered only after due demo- making processes. The draft EIA notifi cation has not been cratic deliberation.
8 may 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 EPW Economic & Political Weekly FROM THE EDITOR’S DESK
COVID-19 and a Just State?
ne of the important consequences of COVID-19 has been empirically being unfair to the state but to themselves. This is that it has led the state to modulate itself into a “just” state. not to suggest that the police are not indulging in excessive OIts justness is sought to be defi ned in terms of its morally action where it is not necessary. The logic of the maximum state commanding position to extend its power of control or regulatory suggests the following: exercising control on one’s freedom, authority to almost all spheres of the country’s public life. Arguably, especially during the lockdown, is also the condition to ensure the Indian state has brought its economy, institutions, cultural life, possible freedom; freedom that will not require its curtailment social and religious life, and transport systems—air and ground— by the state authority, which, right now, in the event of the under strict regulation. The state seems to have acquired, although COVID-19 outbreak has imposed strict restrictions on people. temporarily, the character of a maximum state. However, it is Put differently, if the people demonstrate their ability to restrict more interesting to note that the Indian state, with its extensive their “unnecessary” movement through self-control, there would thrust, seems to have found public support for its decisive presence be no need to put them under surveillance. in these fi elds. The minimal state, in the libertarian thinking, has a Finally, tightening the lockdown, which the state declares as restrictive role in the material life of the people. How does one undesirable but unavoidable, is also the result of the reticence that understand the people’s acquiescence to a maximum state and what is shown by some of the industrialists to take responsibility of
WEEKLY are the conditions that led to the maximisation the of state? handling this crisis. This is not to ignore the fact that some of First, it is needless to mention that it is the enormity of the the leading industrialists and civil society organisations have threat of the novel coronavirus that seems to have made people indeed come forward to extend their tangible support to the “supportive,” if not pliant, towards the state’s “authoritative” government. However, we need to raise a more fundamental or appeal. It is the devastating nature of the threat of the virus that has transcendental question, which is: Will the state maintain its eliminated the grounds of objection to the state’s decision of a maximal character after the disappearance of the crisis? Should complete lockdown. The maximum state, thus, seems to be morally it extend its ideological presence in all spheres of people’s lives? justifi ed as its extension in the basic spheres of life is considered Let us risk putting forward a premise and envision the to be essential for the “protection” of the lives of people. The immediate future, the role of state in the light of such a premise. heart-wrenching narratives of migrant labourers have to wait The state may not have ambitions or will not be allowed to for their recognition before the offi cial narratives of protection. maintain its maximal status as its tentacles will be restricted by Second, in the offi cial version, the state’s extension is sought the very logic of the market. In such structural constraints, it POLITICAL to be justifi ed on the grounds that people themselves have been can, as far as possible, place itself in a moral command to suggest increasingly failing in their responsibility to control the spread of that human beings can be fair to themselves only in the condi- & the virus. In hindsight, it is, therefore, “moral mantras” that are tion where the state is also fair to human beings. being suggested such as “self-protection is the perfect guarantee However, the nature of the state as being just cannot be for the protection of others.” Implicitly, this “mantra” also protects defi ned in terms of the contingent nature of the crisis. The the state’s credibility; the credibility that the state is caring, justness of the state centrally depends on the condition that it competent and confi dent in confronting the crisis. Put differently, remains just and decent at all times and across different it has been suggested that th e state’s success in overcoming the spheres of the public. Ironically, the COVID-19 crisis has pro- crisis depends on people’s “will” for self-protection. It is in this vided the state an opportunity to continuously remain just context, that the states in India would then see the attack on about the concerns of public health, in particular, and social police and government medical professionals as an attack on health of the society, in general. people themselves rather than on the former. Those who do not understand their own responsibility to the self are not only ECONOMIC
From 50 Years Ago precisely from the fact that the sphere is suddenly decided that the promotion of the limited and provides such highly effective Green Revolution requires ‘meaningful’ designa- points of mass contact, as Anna and the tions for new seed strains. This is a little confus- Tamil Language. These advantages have been ing. New seed varieties are the result of continu- Vol V, No 18 may 2, 1970 exploited through various and diverse rituals of ing research at various agricultural research sta- hero worship and sustained work at altering tions. What could be more ‘meaningful’ then than Anna for Lunch names and devising nomenclatures with an a nomenclature indicating both the station and How can a party in power, its leaders preoccu- authentic Tamilian fl avour. Sometimes the two the stage of research — such as the famed ADT 27, pied with administration ita the capital city, operations can be happily combined, as in the which was the twenty-seventh strain developed still retain its “Common Touch’? In its awn proposal to name a new paddy strain after the at the Aduthurai research station? But no, the limited sphere, DMK has shown remarkable late leader, Annadurai. Centre will have no more of this pedantry and the success in this direction. But then it could be The moving spirit behind this particular idea Tamil Nadu Government has gleefully set about quickly pointed out that this success springs is actually the Centre, which seems to have the job of fi nding new and better names.
Economic & Political Weekly EPW may 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 9 COMMENTARY
and 504 of them in hospitals. The health When People and machinery has tested 18,774 samples so far, of which 17,763 samples were negative Governments Come Together (Nidheesh 2020). Despite the Prime Minister’s grand Analysing Kerala’s Response to add resses to the nation, the GoI has failed to address hunger, health and the COVID-19 Pandemic livelihood issues of the poor during the COVID-19 crisis. The central government’s lacklustre implementation of delivery Aruna Roy, Saba Kohli Davé and absence of genuine concern has acutely had an impact on millions of The COVID-19 pandemic has been homas Isaac, Kerala’s Finance stranded people—migrant workers and a test of the Indian state’s capacity Minister, writing in the Indian their families, the daily wage worker, Express comparing Kerala’s record the peasant farmer, lakhs of small entre- to deal with the repercussions of T on COVID-19 with the rest of India, says: preneurs, street vendors, the industrial a public health crisis. Kerala’s WEEKLY The recovery rate in Kerala is nearly 50% while worker, the skilled worker, and even the success, as it continues to draw the all-India average is around 11. While the small manufacturer. Given this dismal strength from its political mortality rate among the infected is 0.5% scenario, COVID-19 and the continuous in Kerala, the all-India average is 3.4%. The lockdown has become one more con- culture of participatory transmission rate of a primary carrier is 2.6 straint, applied without imagination or while in Kerala it is only 0.4. (Isaac 2020) governance and its emphasis on compassion that disproportionately affects social welfare, is elaborated. People often say that Kerala’s social in- the underprivileged. Some of the decentralised, dicators are so advanced that they hardly What made Kerala deal with the com- bear comparison with the rest of India. plexity of the pandemic was the state’s scientifi c, and humane policy However, COVID-19 has provided another uniquely participatory governance, nur- measures taken to contain the opportunity to measure Kerala with the tured through generations of cross-sectoral virus are also elucidated. rest of the country and to assess the rea- dialogues. The individuals and institu- POLITICAL sons for its success. As S M Vijayanand, tions who have fostered this process range Thomas Isaac and others explain, it is the from people and people’s organisations & crafting of participatory governance in like the Kerala Shastra Sahitya Parishad consonance with society, resulting in a (KSSP) to eminent academics, including political culture cutting across party lines economists, sociologists and civil serv- that has enabled the people of Kerala to ants, and many organisations of youth, be a part of their solutions. women, and farmers, and unions and From being the epicentre of the novel cultural organisations. Kerala is unique in coronavirus outbreak to rapidly “fl attening how its governance integrates political ne- the curve,” Kerala has become a model in cessity with socio-economic realities. the management of the COVID-19 pan- For instance, the celebrated “Peoples Plan demic. There is general curiosity amongst Movement” (1996–97) brought together From a conversation with S M Vijayanand, a section of Indians to know more about social and political democratic ideals former chief secretary of Kerala, on 14 April 2020. the much-praised Kerala model. The within the framework of local “self-
ECONOMIC The School for Democracy has been conducting “Charchas,” a platform created for Government of Kerala has, in contrast with governance” (Mohanakumar 2003). No conversations defi ned by the participant’s the Government of India (GoI), handled matter which party was in power, Kerala concerns, for the last eight years. In a recent COVID-19 effi ciently, balancing equally chose to keep the welfare state as the virtual “Charcha,” Vijayanand, was invited to between health security and welfare of framework to guide public policy and share Kerala’s experience in containing COVID-19. The text of his conversation the isolated and the often terrifi ed migra- implementation. This contributed to the serves as the source and inspiration for tory labour. The fi gures indicate that, rapid increase in participatory develop- writing this article. out of a total 399 cases r ecorded as of 18 ment and much better social indicators Aruna Roy ([email protected]) and April 2020, 257 people (64%) have re- for the state. The tradition of partner- Saba Kohli Davé ([email protected]) covered so far, surpassing the number ship between people and the govern- are associated with the Mazdoor Kisan Shakti of active cases. The state has the highest ment helped counter the COVID-19 crisis Sangathan and the School for Democracy, number of recoveries in India. Presently, and signifi cantly shaped the ability to Rajasthan. there are 67,190 people in observation, address insecurity. People’s partnership
10 MAy 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 EPW Economic & Political Weekly COMMENTARY underscored the government’s response COVID-19—the lockdown and quarantine. emergency drew two lakh volunteers. The to the crisis. Its stated concerns implied that this was accredited social health activist (ASHA) The Kerala model of COVID-19 relief is suffi cient and adequate to tackle the and Kudumbashree workers, registered actually built on sound principles of spread of the disease. Other issues were volunteers, and panchayat members en- governance that have had historical discounted. The impact on the lakhs of sured that the benefi ts reached everyone. precedence. Successive governments have workers when the lockdown prompted strengthened welfare, especially public the closure of workplaces all over the COVID-19 Preparedness health and education, decentralising country; the displacement of unorga nised Kerala’s preparedness for the pandemic governance and engaging civil society. workers, who were left without shelter was an offshoot of its historic governance Regime changes every fi ve years did not or food or access to money, took place at tradition of using a combined social and affect social welfare policy, as all govern- an unprecedented scale, and was not political democratic framework, which ments were held accountable by the prioritised in its stated concerns. This included dialogue with its people before decentralised system. As a norm, the nightmare for the workers, visible on tele- putting systems of social welfare in place. panchayats and the network of self-help vision screens, provoked platitudes and a Kerala’s experience in dealing with two groups (SHGs) (Kudumbashree) kept the list of remedies in the now infamous seven disasters in quick succession in 2018— other levels of the government in check bits of advice from the Prime Minister. The the spread of the Nipah virus and the by making sure that the benefi ts of gov- worker can neither follow nor be assured Kerala fl oods—also educated the govern- ernment orders reach everyone. of any benefi t from this seven-point ment and its people. Many of the pro-
WEEKLY What was most useful in the current formula (Dey and Roy 2020). Forcefully cesses and methodologies used currently dealings with the pandemic was the cordoned, and with their basic needs were developed from those experiences. fami liarity across the state, with partici- being ignored, unemployed migrant When battling with a fatal infectious patory management systems. The daily labour began walking home hundreds of disease during Nipah, the state health interface with the administrative system kilometres resolutely, often beaten with department collaborated with experts trained the community, drawing attention batons by law enforcement offi cials or- from the World Health Organi zation to details, enabling it to understand its dering them to discontinue their journeys. (WHO) and the Indian Council of Medical functioning and delivery potential. The Many lost all their meagre savings, when Research (ICMR) and built a scientifi c local governments were further strength- the buses they had hired at exorbitant public health management system. The ened through the devolution of fi nancial rates to go home were stopped, and the shared theoretical understanding of the and administrative power, providing migrants were off-loaded into crow ded disease guaranteed a transformed, aware panchayats with operational control of camps. The general ignorance and indif- community, working with the govern- POLITICAL their areas. Kerala’s powerful gram pan- ference of the establishment, and of the ment at all levels. chayats reach out to a large number of elite in general, was another dark moment The relief response to Kerala fl oods, & people, who are part of the decision- in India’s recent history. which occurred a month and a half after making process. The allocation to local The response in Kerala was diffe rent— Nipah, displayed a combination of collec- government this year in Kerala is `20,000 helplines and community kitchens for all tive action, public duty, and care. Though crore. Of this, `7,000 crore are untied those who needed food were established. fl ood relief is the responsibility of the funds, facilitating the panchayat to make The combination of local government, state’s revenue department, panchayat’s plans based on people’s articulated needs. the network of volunteers, SHG workers and community members were sponta- This coordination and communication and persons in the civil supplies depart- neous in their support for providing between various levels of the Kerala ment prevented a situation of panic, curb- relief and fi rst aid. For example, fi sher- government was integral to the relief ing a situation of hoarding and overpricing men, who do not generally go inland/ architecture for COVID-19. The coordina- in Kerala. When the novel coronavirus midland for fear of damaging their tion across party lines made sure that was fi rst detected, the already empow- boats, voluntarily went to rescue people. this was treated as a humanitarian crisis, ered panchayats were given greater The processes and lessons learnt from ECONOMIC bringing all energies together. The pan- responsibility to deal with this crisis. handling the Nipah virus were used to demic was not caught unprepared like in The decentralised structure of governance build a response to the COVID-19 spread. most of the other state administrations. enabled them to harness the strengths of In 2018, health professionals developed The architecture required to address the the political system and leverage social expertise in virus tracing, testing, and new set of issues needed tweaking and institutions. In particular, the approxi- treatment. From an epidemiological point alteration, and the Kerala government mately 60 lakh SHGs initially created to of view, the public health offi cials focused rose to the challenge. focus on livelihood generation and also on high-risk people and their contacts, Contrary to the design of a welfare look at concerns of women’s empower- putting into place a system in 2018 to state that looks at the condition of the ment and their participation in develop- contain infection early. Additionally, the most underprivileged as central to its ment activities were an important part Institute of Advanced Virology was built concerns, the GOI was preoccupied of crisis management. The state’s call for in Alappuzha, so that testing could occur almost wholly with the containment of public support to address the COVID-19 within the state instead of having to send
Economic & Political Weekly EPW MAy 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 11 COMMENTARY samples to Pune. This made testing for collateral damage that people are suffer- This has now become a part of the COVID-19 quicker and more effi cient. ing, due to the central government’s admini strative DNA. The centre has be- The network of healthcare and the skewed plan for containing the disease. grudgingly acknowledged the poor in infrastructure to deliver relief therefore The GOI organised planes to transport this time of crisis, whereas Kerala has had a tried-and-tested blueprint. By mid- Indians stranded abroad to come home. centred them in their planning, and January, the preparations for the eventu- Migrant and daily wage workers who have carefully factors their concerns in tack- ality of COVID-19 entering Kerala were in been victims of lockdowns and safety ling the public health emergency. place, resulting in a well-oiled tiered precautions have however been denied To begin with, far before the centre system by the end of the month. This the right to even organise their way back announced its plan, on 19 March 2020, consisted of a middle-level bureaucracy home. They have not even demanded Kerala announced its `20,000 crore relief that communicated with both the front- subsidised transport. All they have been package that included free public distribu- line workers and volunteers in the fi eld asking for is the right to travel within the tion system rations, a kit with essentials and the top layer of the government. country, following all pre-conditions and for everyone, 2,300 community kitchens, Rigid government hierarchies, which precautions. “Social distancing,” better regular Anganwadi ration delivery, cash were, in any case, less severe than in other termed “physical distancing,” in crowded transfers, and so on. It was followed by states, were softened in response to the camps is impossible. Added to this is the principled public action by state, district crisis. Community mobilisation matured constant fear that they are going to join and local functionaries. The chief minis- to a larger culture of “care giving” that the ranks of the unemployed and live in ter fi rmly stated in his address that po-
WEEKLY has permeated Kerala’s history of public daily fear of family members contracting lice excesses and illegitimate punitive delivery systems. This proved invaluable the disease or succumbing to starvation. measures would not be tolerated, and no in managing the coronavirus efforts. The constant chant has been “if we have person is to be treated with contempt or The practical implementation and to die, we would rather be home.” It is misbehaviour. He also said that griev- pre-planning of the government was completely reprehensible that some mi- ances must be heard and sorted out with especially visible in its meticulous track- grants confront xenophobia, as media personal attention at the highest level. ing, testing and quarantine strategies. propaganda has gone out of its way to link When there was dissatisfaction and rest- Kerala introduced strict quarantine pro- the spread of COVID-19 with an event of lessness, the superintendent of police and cedures around 10 March 2020, long one religious sect, and by mischievous collector made visits to the agitating or before the rest of India had woken up to implication seeking to stigmatise an en- striking migrant workers to reassure them the impending crisis. Those returning tire religion. The narrative in Kerala has in person and listen to their grievances. from abroad, including students coming brought reassurance that we still have They communicated with a team that im- POLITICAL back from Wuhan, were made to isolate some humanity left. mediately attended to and sorted out themselves at home for 14 to 28 days, The Government of Kerala, with its their distress. & depending on whether they were high or stated and cultivated culture of compas- Kerala’s unique combination of religious low risk. Those in quarantine were made sion and care for migrants, has reassured tolerance and humanity, combined with to register with the DISHA helpline as and taken care of those worst affected rational and scientifi c methods to explain well as with primary health centres in this crisis. Given the history of migra- public action, was used once again to (PHCs), and were regularly checked on tion of its people looking for work, contest the communalisation of the virus by the authorities. This process was particularly in Gulf countries, the state after the highly politicised Tablighi followed strictly with no exceptions. has evolved an understanding of the Markaz incident (Bisht and Naqvi 2020). For the country as a whole, but espe- privations of migratory workers. A study Governments have enormous powers to cially for the states, there are lessons to in 2018 showed that there were around shape public opinion. While, in Gujarat, be learnt from Kerala’s investment in an 21 lakh emigrants from Kerala working there were reports of a hospital allegedly effi cient public health system. Its success outside India (Rajan and Zachariah 2019). separating Muslim and Hindu patients in public health management is more The migrants in the Gulf, though better post the Markaz, the Kerala government ECONOMIC than evident in the fact that more people paid in relative terms, recall appalling swiftly and publicly stemmed bigotry are able to access quality medical care work and living conditions. Therefore, from spreading (Hindu 2020). The chief and treatment from PHCs and govern- instead of demonising inter state migrants, minister made a strong announcement ment hospitals. The healthcare given at local Keralites understand and empa- on a television broadcast and reassured public hospitals is generally acknowl- thise with their suffering and under- the minorities that the political system edged to be superior to that in private stand the value of their contribution. They would not tolerate those who aimed to hospitals. also understand its economics; the exo- communalise the incident. He also pub- dus is balanced by the infl ux of labour licly detailed the procedures followed Culture of Care and Tolerance to fi ll the vacuum. for those who had gone to the Markaz. The strategies of containment of the The state has stated and developed a One of the most incredible feats of the COVID-19 pandemic in India will leave framework of care and compassion, Kerala administration was its ability to a residue of appalling stories of the both in its policy and implementation. destigmatise the virus in an international
12 MAy 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 EPW Economic & Political Weekly COMMENTARY atmosphere of near hysteria. The Kerala continuing and disruptive effect on the What does opaqueness of a centralised government showed social and political country and its people. fund portend for India’s constitutional solidarity during this crisis, when they republic, a union of states? Can any publicly proclaimed that any patient from Moving Forward central government in a democracy abro- neighbouring states could come to Kerala One critical fallout of COVID-19 is that gate such unilateral powers? If transpar- for health reasons with adequate proof governments have depended on techno- ency is rejected by the highest elected of their condition, sending a message logical databases for the distribution of offi ce in the country, what message does it that, in the time of an emergency, unity basic necessities to vulnerable groups. push down the line? As power and money in fi ghting the infection must transcend But the pervasive use of technology for get rapidly centralised, the federal struc- territorial boundaries, socio- economic governance is a double-edged sword, ture is severely threatened. Dependence class, religion and other stratifi cations. and is risky if it is not bolstered by infor- on technology often strengthens central These humane, people-centric methods mation sharing and creating accounta- controls. The Government in Kerala has of maintaining law and order, and bility systems. As technology monopolises placed welfare, which demands participa- implementing benefi ts delivery with and centrally controls data and informa- tion and transparency, at the centre of constant reassurance served to reduce tion, with impunity from scrutiny, it can its administrative structure. Its resist- anxiety and discrimination during this be used to manipulate and discriminate. ance to this rapid potential centralisation time of crisis. This communication is no substitute for in governance will be a test case for The strong social welfare infrastruc- face-to-face political and community in- India to watch and learn.
WEEKLY ture and pro-poor focus has shown great teraction. The government may use this results during this crisis. India should for further centralisation and controls References learn from Kerala that crises can be impacting basic democratic and consti- Bisht, A and S Naqvi (2020): “How Tablighi Jamaat Event became India’s Worst Coronavirus dealt with, only if governance is sound, tutional rights. Vector,” 7 April, viewed on 19 April 2020, participatory, and strengthens its local That it is no chimera is underlined by https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/04/ tablighi-jamaat-event-india-worst-coronavi- bodies. The argument for sustaining the news reports that allege that the Aarogya rus-vector-200407052957511.html. welfare state in India as the basic struc- Setu app will be installed in all smart Dey, N and A Roy (2020): “Statesmanship Requires phones by default. The app allows the Taking People Along; When Basic Security ture in an economically and socially Is Denied, Hope Dies,” 18 April, viewed on skewed community and polity is amply collection of personal information of 20 April 2020, https://indianexpress.com/arti- demonstrated by the investment in its users and the disclosure of this data cle/opinion/columns/india-coronavirus-lock- down-migrants-modi-6367359/. primary public healthcare and education to the government for the purposes of Hindu (2020): “Coronavirus: COVID-19 Patients to deal with epidemics and pandemics. “medical and administrative interven- Segregated on Basis of Religion at Ahmedabad POLITICAL Civil Hospital, According to Reports,” 15 April, There are many lessons to be learnt, but tions.” The institutionalisation of mass viewed on 19 April 2020, https://www.thehindu. they cannot be absorbed without a surveillance in the absence of adequate com/news/national/other-states/covid-19-pa- & tients-segregated-on-basis-of-religion-at- strong political will to place people at data protection laws is a matter of grave ahmedabad-civil-hospital-according-to-re- the centre of the discourse. The lock- concern in the post-COVID era. The ques- ports/article31344862.ece. Isaac, T M Thomas (2020): “What Nation Can Learn down has given space to many authori- tion is whether participatory systems, like from Kerala: Lockdown Is Not Enough: Prepar- tarian tendencies. Decisions emanating the one in Kerala, will be able to resist edness, Decentralisation, Are Key,” 17 April, viewed on 21 April 2020, https://indianex- in New Delhi, have been taken suddenly, this invasion of the political space by press.com/article/opinion/columns/coronavi- and even arbitrarily, and passed down to centrally manipulated technology. Per- rus-covid-19-kerala-curve-6365935/. the people to follow. There has been lit- haps, a new imagining of global function- Mohanakumar, S (2003): “Decentralisation in Kerala: People’s Plan,” Economic & Political Weekly, tle attempt to make people true partners ing through automated single controls Vol 38, No 30, pp 3214–16. in the effort. Kerala, on the other hand will affect the multiple areas that decen- Nidheesh, M K (2020): “COVID-19: Kerala Confi rms Four New Cases, 64% Recover,” 26 April, has tried to face the challenge by trying tralised democracy has opened up for viewed on 20 April 2020, https://www.livemint. to facilitate and launch another peoples political participation. com/news/india/covid-19-kerala-confi rms-four- new-cases-64-recover-11587219889074.html. movement against the virus. It remains This apprehension is further strength-
ECONOMIC Rajan, S Irudaya and K C Zachariah (2019): “Emi- to be seen if the government of India ened by an announcement from the GoI gration and Remittances: New Evidences from PM CARES the Kerala Migration Survey 2018,” Working will go back to policy based on welfare, that the fund is outside the Papers id: 12989, eSocialSciences. and develop a clear, transparent, and aegis of mandatory auditing by the more participatory post-lockdown con- Comptroller and Auditor General, leaving tingency plan. In times of crisis we need the public and state governments in the a welfare state more than ever. The dark about where the money is being welfare state infuses confi dence that the spent. Similar to other state governments, available at government will support its people at the Kerala government is facing a fi nan- People’s Book House times of greatest need. It is in this that cial crunch after its distress-alleviation Mehar House, 15 Cawasji Patel Road helps them gain some measure of self- COVID measures during the -19 lock- Fort, Mumbai 400 001 confi dence, as they try to fathom the down. It has repeatedly requested the Ph: 022-22873768 uncertain future of COVID-19, and its centre to disburse funds to the states.
Economic & Political Weekly EPW MAy 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 13 COMMENTARY characterise the present global division of World Economy and labour and the underlying phenomenon of global accumulation of capital. Globalisa- Nation States post COVID-19 tion has shortened distances. It has scaled down all forms of policy barriers to intra-national and international movement K N Harilal of goods, services, capital, labour, knowl- edge, technology, data, and so on. As a With the outbreak of the novel t is already a cliché to say that 2020 result, the global division of labour has coronavirus, the world economy would be the beginning of a new era, become extremely intense and the world which divides history into pre- and highly interdependent. Inter national speci- has come to a grinding halt. The I post-COVID-19 pandemic periods. The di- alisation and trade are not anymore economic fallout would be vide may not be as sharp as we see now restricted to fi nal goods. Instead, the pro- enormous in terms of loss in from the midst of the tragedy. But, if the duction process itself is internationalised production, income, and pandemic persists for about a year or so, and globalised. A fi nal product is produced it would have already caused enough with the involvement of a large number employment. The COVID-19 ruptures to demand major readjustments of locales distributed across several pandemic has caused major in the way we look at the world, do things countries. The global value chains now
WEEKLY ruptures in the world system, for the present, and imagine the future. travel across countries and continents. which has serious implications for The cumulative loss over 2020 and 2021 The village unlike the city, for many of from the pandemic, according to the Inter- us, is a place of all imagined virtues. The global accumulation of capital. It, national Monetary Fund (IMF) projections metaphor of the village, however, should therefore, presents an opportunity (Gopinath 2020), would be around $9 not mislead us as to the unequal and un- to reimagine the global division of trillion. According to the same set of esti- democratic ways in which the global vil- labour and the international mates, global economic growth in 2020 is lage is governed. The global village is built likely to fall to -3%. It is a downgrade of to further the cause of accumulation on economic architecture. 6.3 percentage points from the projections a world scale. Even in a historical feudal made just three months ago in January village, surplus is produced and appro- 2020. The World Trade Organization priated. In the global village, the mode of (WTO 2020) projects a decline of 13% to extraction as well as appropriation of sur- POLITICAL 32% in world trade in goods in 2020. plus are modern and executed on a global Obviously, the crisis has unsettled the scale. We shall return to this point later. & existing modes of exploitation and global It is of immense signifi cance at this accumulation. It, therefore, presents an point of time that the COVID-19 pandemic opportunity to reimagine the global has caused major ruptures in the world divi sion of labour and the international system. COVID-19 is forcing nations to live economic architecture. Obviously, there in autarky, an unimaginable laboratory will be a stubborn resistance to change setting to reimagine international and in order to protect the status quo. But, the interregional division of labour in the persistence of the pandemic would make post-pandemic world. The crisis, therefore, rearrangements inevitable. The article is presents an opportunity to delink and an attempt to map some important possi- relink with the world system after rede- ble directions of imminent change. fi ning the roles and terms of integration. The point of departure set here and in Metropolitan capital would like to ECONOMIC the title of the paper, admittedly, is a bit rebuild the world in a more unequal too ambitious. The purpose is to ensure manner, compensating even for the loss that the big picture is not lost sight of. they suffered during the pandemic. For The issues related to the state and the developing nations, it is an opportunity to economy will be examined mainly from restructure the global architecture as well the vantage point of global accumulation as redefi ne their roles in it. But, how the of capital. The framework of global accu- system would be rebuilt and who would mulation of capital is preferred because of gain or lose will depend on the outcome of K N Harilal ([email protected]) is with the overwhelming infl uence it would have the competitive struggle among different the Centre for Development Studies, on the shape of things post pandemic. players. The intellectual community in Thiruvananthapuram. He is currently Member, The idea of the global village, if the developing nations has an important Kerala State Planning Board. interpreted carefully, would help us responsibility in ensu ring equitable
14 MAy 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 EPW Economic & Political Weekly COMMENTARY outcomes in the ensuing wrangle over well known that public debt had played a and human dignity. The ritual of voting rearranging the world order. very important role in economic develop- and election of governments is fast los- ment, and of course, development of capi- ing much of its meaning. The sovereign Global Accumulation talism, in the present-day developed coun- responsibility of governments is being Under the hegemony of fi nance capital, tries. The governments are not allowed reduced to that of ensuring the best all other interests in the society are sub- to borrow for the fear of infl ation and bargain for the big investors. People of jugated to the interest of the capital in devaluation of the host country currency. the city/country are free to raise issues general, and international fi nance capital It is as if the countries and the citizenry they consider important such as plight of to be specifi c. The interests of the fi nance existed primarily for serving the interests workers, peasants and small producers, capital are supreme and everything else of fi nance capital. Nothing is accor ded poverty, environmental degradation, etc. follows in a descending order, that is, more importance than the so-called But, the governments they elect are not global monopolies, regional monopolies, investor’s confi dence. The austerity mea- free to address such questions lest it will and capital in general, loc ated every- sures, which assumed severe notoriety, ruffl e the feathers of capital, which will where. The hierarchy of privileges ar- prevented countercyclical interventions. fl y away at the slightest of provocations. ranged spatially from concrete locales to The fi scal conservatism that it entailed has The forces of globalisation have dra ined the abstract global had an important severely constrained the ability to make the policy space left to the nation states role in making the structure of accumu- public investment in physical infrastruc- even in the case of internal/ domestic lation enduring. It was good enough to ture, education, research and develop- policies. Nation states have much less
WEEKLY unite the capitalist class everywhere. ment, national innovation systems, public space now in using border measures to The interstate system, through a variety distribution, public health, and so on. Inci- restrain monopoly power of transnational of means, ensured that the nation states dentally, the COVID-19 pandemic has ex- fi rms. They can gain access in most did not deviate from the dictates of inter- posed the vulnerability of the strategy of markets without having to answer ques- national fi nance capital. In fact, the nation liberalisation and privatisation of public tions on their market power. Further, they states, especially those belonging to the services, especially public health and can enter national markets in the form of developing world, hardly have any public distribution. foreign direct investment (FDI). Even in freedom to frame their macroeconomic Global economic governance until the case of FDI, the policy space available policies. The macroeconomic policy guide- recently was concerned primarily about to the nation states is limited because of lines given by the world system governors border measures (such as tariffs, quotas, heightened competition among them to virtually constituted the givens of the and visa restrictions) that affected inter- attract inve stment. In the context of such system within which they had to run the national movement of goods, services, competition, interests of the monopoly POLITICAL show. The nation states are required to capital and labour. The process of globa- capital are gaining precedence over all perpetually follow a regime that nipped all lisation, especially during the past few other interests such as that of livelihood & possible development momentums in the decades, has scaled down the border of petty producers, labour, environment, bud so that the risk of infl ation is mini- measures signifi cantly. The focus of global local culture, and so on. The nation state mised. Institutional investors, a euphe- economic governance, therefore, has and regional governments fi nd it diffi cult mism for international fi nance capital, shifted towards internal/domestic policies to impose environment and labour stand- dreaded infl ation more than anything else. of nation states and subnational govern- ards because it will provoke capital and Infl ation and the likelihood of devaluation ments. The demand for coordination of could drive them away. The helplessness of the host country currency are inimical to domestic policies implies extension of of nation states reaches its zenith when the interests of fi nance capital, especially the system of global governance into dealing with the most volatile segment when it is parked in assets denominated new areas. Intellectual property rights, of capital such as foreign institutional in host country currency. So much so that competition policy, sanitary and phyto- investors (FIIs). National policies that the single most important policy priority sanitary measures, labour standards, disturb the “feel good factor” of the FIIs of the nation states has become infl ation environmental standards, government can land the country in a fi nancial mess ECONOMIC targeting. The practice of monetising the procurement, and so on, are some such and possibly, also in an economic crisis. budget defi cit, widely used in the past areas to which the global governance by the present-day developed countries, system is extending its arms. In many of Economic Crisis is erased not only from policy manuals these new areas, the nation states are The economic crisis of 2020 notably is of but even from economics textbooks. forfeiting important elements of their a different genre. It is signifi cantly dif- Leave alone monetising defi cits, the sovereign power to the global govern- ferent from normal crises arising out of freedom to borrow is also severely con- ance structures/supranational agencies. the laws of motion of the economy. Evi- strained. The borrowing limits of govern- dently, the present crisis is the handi- ments are set by legislation (Fiscal Respon- Democracy in Peril work of novel coronavirus. It came pri- sibility and Budget Management Act, 2003 What is at stake is not just the sovereignty marily due to the fear for life, a fear that in India), disregarding the stage of devel- of nation states. It raises more fundamen- affected every human being, the most opment and the state of the economy. It is tal questions such as that of demo cracy privileged as well as the most deprived.
Economic & Political Weekly EPW MAy 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 15 COMMENTARY The world over, governments have decided the inventory build-up of the past. Once in nature as well as culture, and diminu- to stop production of what should be re- inventories disappear, most regions and tion of democracy. ferred to as the material conditions for countries of the world are likely to expe- Autarky is a heroic assumption used in human existence. Profi t-driven atomistic rience shortages and hence, infl ationary economic theory, which is far removed from agents of the market would not have pressure. Currency notes and other fi nan- reality. But we are currently living through been able to stop all engines of the world cial assets are at best claims on commodi- an interregnum of deglobalisation. It offers economy at once. The economic reality, ties embodying use value. Money will be a great occasion to learn the art of living however, has a role to play. First, the worthless if it cannot command commodi- in relative isolation, as also to restructure lightening spread of the disease across ties that satisfy human wants. It is obvious the inter national division of labour. the world would not have happened in that we cannot keep all the engines of First of all, it is a big opportunity to the absence of the very high degree of the economy shut for too long. We should save the nation states from the clutches global economic integration and the be able to start switching on the machines of international fi nance capital. Accor- consequent boom in the international one by one without provoking the un- ding to the IMF, the emerging economies movement of people. The threat of such controlled spread of the dreaded disease. experienced the sharpest portfolio fl ow pandemics breaking out in the future The fi rst priority should be given to the reversal to the tune of about $100 billion would encourage the community of sectors producing essentials and neces- in the immediate aftermath of the virus nations to reorder the international divi- sities. The economy managers should have outbreak (Adrian and Natalucci 2020). sion of labour so that such threats are a relook at the basic conditions of human There is nothing surprising about such
WEEKLY contained and overcome with minimum existence and try to make all-out efforts, herd behaviour of portfolio fl ows. They damages. Second, as we see subsequently, fi rst to produce the identifi ed goods and would leave the host countries not only political economy will have a bearing on services and then to ensure a fair distri- at the time of real crises, but also on false the possible paths of economic recovery. bution of the output. The need to have alarms. The portfolio fl ows themselves The heterodox economists were pre- social control on both production and are a major source of economic and social dicting the setting-in of an economic re- distribution must be emphasised here instability in developing nations. cession throughout 2019, much ahead of because these emergency tasks cannot The power of fi nance capital is at its the onslaught of the COVID-19 pandemic. be left entirely to the market forces. lowest ebb now. Obviously, capital will lose And for most of them, demand defi ciency By the time the lockdown is relaxed for value when kept out of circulation. This is was the main villain. They have also been non-essential commodities, the permis- the right time to challenge its hegemony. providing a fairly neat hypotheses on the sion to produce and supply alone will not The FIIs move out of the emer ging markets lines of causation linking unprecedented do. Both the supply and demand side to escape from a capital market crash and POLITICAL growth in inequality of income as well as might require government intervention to depreciation of host country currencies. wealth since the neo-liberal turn, lower get going. It will be so even in the case of But, once fair weather is back and as the & marginal propensity of the rich to con- value chains not dependent on external economies limp back to normalcy, they sume, over-accumulation, deprivation of nodes. Governments at all levels will have would be back to buy stocks cheap, to the poor—the majority of whom tend to to be liberal in extending fi nancial and pump in liquidity, to reap gains of revival, spend and consume more from every unit other forms of support to revive economic and also to gain superprofi ts by engineer- of income, demand defi ciency, stockpiling, activity. The moot question is whether ing asset price bubbles if possible; only to and recession. But hardly anybody who the nation states would be bold enough leave at the most opportune moment, that mattered, listened. The policy orthodoxy to break the shackles of fi scal conserva- is, immediately prior to another imminent in poor as well as rich countries as usual tism imposed by the global order. The crash. Incidentally, their fund managers was worried more about possible infl a- fact that the world order is in deep trou- would be incessantly warning the host tionary consequences of the measures to ble and that the developed countries are country against government borrowings boost demand, their dampening impact setting such examples should encourage and other expansionary policies. But, on investor’s confi dence and foremost, poorer nations to emulate the leaders. develo ping nations cannot afford to go ECONOMIC the threat of capital fl ight. But these are back to the pre-pandemic regime of fi scal all stories of the past. At present nations Delinking and Relinking conservatism. Rebuilding the pandemic- are competing among themselves to an- The present stalemate appears to be a affected economy would be practically nounce the largest possible bounty to nature-imposed shock on the mindless impossible under such a neo-liberal regime. boost demand and revive the economy. process of global economic integration, The nation states should now be open to But, the real causes of the present crisis which catered primarily to the greed of the possibility of monetisation of defi cit are not located on the demand side. The capital at the expense of many virtues and government borrowings to fi nance economy is shut down. All supply taps humanity has nurtured through history. recovery. The presence of unutilised capa- are closed by the decree of the ruling re- Globalisation has led to the worsening city in the economy would ensure supply gimes. The situation is already akin to of inequality in the distribution of and check infl ationary tendencies. “too much money chasing too few goods.” wealth as well as income, environmen- One is not arguing for a complete ban on The transfer payments would help clear tal degradation, destruction of diversity foreign institutional investment. On the
16 MAy 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 EPW Economic & Political Weekly COMMENTARY contrary, the argument is against free and over time under unfettered globalisation. are in the business of breaking open unregulated speculative movement of For instance, the model of large-scale, such habitats by using their command capital, which exposes the economies to heavily subsidised, highly mechanised, and over global governance arrangements. unhealthy fl uctuations, besides imposing chemical-intensive models of farming The attempts to resist such homo- limits on economic freedom and demo- involving long-distance trade and trans- genisation moves cannot be more inter- cracy. Unregulated portfolio fl ows bring portation of food cannot be sustained for ventionist than the former. in more damage than gains to the host environmental and equity reasons. At economy. Incidentally, in spite of opening least in the case of agriculture and allied Conserving Diversity up, China has been quite stubborn with areas, there is a case for rearranging If nature’s dynamism, which is also its respect to regulation of speculative move- the system so that the distance between liveliness, is to be sustained, what is ment of capital. It was one of the main centres of production and consumption needed is the preservation of diversity. reasons why China could run a huge public is minimised. The role of trade should be This is true of the world of economic life investment programme that played a limited to bridging surpluses and defi cits, also. It is high time that we realise the major role in their miraculous develop- if any. This will facilitate supply of fresh fact that even competition cannot survive ment. The new global fi nancial architec- and safe food from the farm, protection of without diversity. Further, diversity of ture should ensure orderly supply of in- livelihood of small farmers, and minimis- economic life cannot be sustained without ternational credit without jeopardising ing of greenhouse gas emission caused protecting diverse habitats, which nation development aspirations and institutions by long-distance transportation. states and other locales used to sustain.
WEEKLY of democracy in the participating nations. The threat of pandemics breaking out in Homogenisation in the world economy Like fi nance, the real side of the inter- the future would encourage the commu- does not portend well for its health. national economy also requires rearrange- nity of nations to regulate international Border measures such as tariffs, inter- ment. This is obvious in the case of pro- economic integration and movement of nal measures such as subsidies, and sup- duction of basic necessities in the short people. Preserving economic diversity port of local governments had an impor- run. The decision to seal borders has dis- might help check unrestrained movement of tant role in shaping national/local eco- rupted supply chains. It will take time to people, which results in the spread of nomic habitats. Multilateral trade nego- re-establish the trade links and get the communicable diseases. In fact, speciali- tiations and regional trading arrange- goods moving. But, the current disrup- sation and division of labour and scale ments have considerably weakened such tion of the global division of labour is an economies play a very important role in protective arrangements. Apart from opportunity to delink and establish rela- the vertical pattern of economic devel- state policy, there are many other factors, tively independent ways of producing the opment. Globalisation privileges verti- such as geography, history, culture, tastes, POLITICAL necessities. India being an economy of cal over all forms of horizontal commu- preferences, and so on, that go into the continental size with highly diversifi ed nication. The vertical pattern pro motes making of economic habitats that sup- & production structures is better placed long-distance trade and movement of port diversity. A policy favouring national/ than many others in managing the pres- people at the expense of the local and local economic habitats need not neces- ent period of relative isolation. It is highly the neighbourhood. In order to regulate sarily be against external competition or advisable that India launches a massive this tendency, there should be efforts to technological change. In fact, economic national participatory campaign to pro- check homogenisation on the one hand diversity that we see in most countries duce the basic necessities. The national and protect diversity on the other. One today is the result of a long history of drive to produce basic necessities, includ- widely deplored attribute of globalisa- competition and evolution.1 Nonetheless, ing food, medicines, and healthcare acces- tion has been its hostility to diversity. It it is important to be vigilant against a sories, can be implemented without com- kills differences and diversities that regime that is particularly hostile to the promising the norms of keeping safe dis- need to be preserved by all means for national/local economic habitats and the tance. Public health experts can help for- the common good. diversity it supports.2 Economic policy mulate detailed safety protocols for various There is a widely-held wrong notion should not discriminate in favour of trans- ECONOMIC activities related to production, aggrega- that the Schumpeterian creative dest ruc- national capital denying equal treat- tion and distribution of commodities. tion is a “natural” process and any attempt ment to local producers and citizens. Whether the short-run arrangements to resist it was interventionist. Here, it is The decision to lock down did not for producing necessities under isolation important to see how nature conserves come from the market. Markets cannot should be sustained is an important diversities. It, for instance, sustains be so wise. Similarly long-run solutions question that would come up. Obviously, umpteen varied habitats for conserving for the vulnerability to pandemics can- the advantages of division of labour, spe- its rich biodiversity. A species which is not come from atomistic agents driven cialisation, scale economies and com- dominant in one system might not sur- by the profi t motive. The nation states petition cannot be ruled out. Isolation, vive for a minute in another. Nation and the interstate system should neces- certainly, is not a panacea. What is being states, and regions within them, were in sarily take the lead and act. But, it will highlighted is the need to have a relook fact acting as habitats for preserving not happen unless pressure is built from at the pattern of specialisation evolved economic diversity. Global mono polies below by way of collective action in the
Economic & Political Weekly EPW MAy 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 17 COMMENTARY
neighbourhoods that is scaled up to indigenous traditions seen all over the world References that survived the test of time, technology and the global level. Such global collective Gopinath, Gita (2020): “The Great Lockdown: Worst competition. Economic Downturn since the Great Depression,” action will be an important feature of 2 For instance, public works programmes funded 14 April, http://blogs.imf.org/2020/04/14. the post- COVID-19 world. by international agencies invariably insist on Tobias, Adrian and Fabio Natalucci (2020): “COVID-19 international tendering in big lots so that the Crisis Poses Threat to Financial Stability,” Notes work involved is large enough to facilitate for- 14 April, http://blogs.imf.org/2020/04/14. eign entry. The large size-lot of work tendered, WTO (2020): “Trade Set to Plunge as COVID-19 Pan- 1 Ayurveda, the thriving indigenous system of and the experience required, pre-empt local demic Upends Global Economy,” Trade Fore- medicine in India, for instance, has a long companies from bidding. A similar experience cast 2020, 855 Press Release, Message from DG history of resistance against discriminatory of discrimination against local players is re- Roberto Azevedo, 8 April, http://wto.org/eng- colonial policy. Same is the case of many ported from other sectors as well. lish/news_e/press20_e/press_e/pr855_e.htm.
their context, and conclude with strate- COVID-19’s Disruption of India’s gies and policy recommendations for Transformed Food Supply Chains mitigating the potential disruptions. Key Facts of the New Indian FSC Thomas Reardon, Ashok Mishra, Chandra S R Nuthalapati, Marc F Bellemare, India is very heterogeneous in terms of David Zilberman development across states and zones
WEEKLY within the states, with some parts of COVID-19 has created high OVID-19 is spreading through the India being similar to South East Asia in transaction costs and uncertainty Cdeveloping world and has not development levels, and other parts spared India. In response, the similar to that of Africa (Pingali et al in India’s transformed food Indian government has imposed rigorous 2019). The characteristics we note here are supply chains, putting food lockdown regulations, which have an averages, and there is a variation around security at risk as 92% of impact on all aspects of the economy. these averages. food consumption in India is How will the COVID-19 affect food supply chains (FSCs) in India? Dominance of purchased food: Of all the purchased, predominantly from To understand the impacts of COVID-19 food consumed, 92% is purchased. This the private sector. Government on the Indian FSCs, it is crucial to start mirrors the great importance of FSCs for faces the challenge of marshalling by considering some surprising realities India’s food security. We obtained this POLITICAL resources between mitigating of the new Indian FSCs. There has been a 92% as follows: deep and rapid transformation that has (i) Of all the food consumed in India, & the impending food crisis and shifted the FSCs from being “traditional” 60% is consumed by urban consumers. containing the contagion as the to largely “transitional” in just two This is calculated from the National risk of sociopolitical tensions decades, making India one of the fastest Sample Survey Offi ce’s (NSSO) 2011–12 looms large. It is recommended changing agrifood economies in the data on food consumption per capita in world. The Indian food economy now is urban and rural areas, in value terms. that the government concentrate mainly urban, fed by long rural–urban Essentially, all the food consumed in on sustaining the food supply supply chains. It is now 80% composed of urban areas is purchased, since almost all chains towards eventual rebound, non-foodgrains and thus fed by perisha- urban households are net buyers of food. recognising that government food ble FSCs, 60% post-farmgate, and 85% Note that this exceeds the urban popu- dependent on small and medium sized lation share because the level of food distribution cannot replace even a enterprises (SMEs) that are dynamic and expenditure per capita is higher in the tenth of the market. clustered near and in towns. It is 96% urban than in the rural areas. There are ECONOMIC dependent on the private sector (with various estimates of the urban popula- government managing only 4% of India’s tion share in India. The offi cial one is food). It is characterised by highly inte- 31% based on the 2011 Census. Onda Thomas Reardon ([email protected]) is with grated rural hinterlands, peri- urban and et al (2019) estimate the share at 43% Michigan State University. Ashok Mishra urban areas, having tight and fl uid using a community-detection clustering ([email protected]) is with Arizona connections in both directions. algorithm to construct urban agglomer- State University. Chandra S R Nuthalapati These facts about the new Indian FSC ations for all of India. Whatever the ([email protected]) is at the Institute of Economic Growth, New Delhi. Marc F Bellemare are a “reality check” relevant for the estimate be, it is below the urban share ([email protected]) is with the University debate on the pandemic’s implications in the overall food economy (purchases of Minnesota. David Zilberman (zilber11@ for India’s FSC. Thus, we begin with plus own production). berkeley.edu) is with the University of an account of these key facts, then (ii) Of the 40% of India’s food that is California at Berkeley. hypothesise the impacts of COVID-19 in consumed in rural areas, 80% (in value
18 MAy 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 EPW Economic & Political Weekly COMMENTARY terms) is purchased (while the rest is the data on the share of farm production food economy, constituting 10%−20% of home-produced on own farms). This 80% in the fi nal retail prices, obtained from the volume of FSCs in India. While a fi gure is a conservative estimate, which existing empirical studies of rural to urban given large fi rm employs many salaried in turn is a simple average1 of two esti- FSCs and weighted the product-specifi c employees and day labourers, these mates: the fi rst is 84% in rural areas, fi ndings by the shares of grains versus fi rms tend to have lower labour/capital based on NSSO 2011–12 (GOI 2013); and non-grains in total consumption. For and labour/output ratios than the SMEs. the second is 75% from the survey example, Reardon et al (2012a) show that Thus, the employment effects of the var- villages of the International Crops Rese- the share of post-farmgate segment in total iation in their operations per tonne of arch Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics consumer price of rice for supply chains food are less than those of the SMEs, and (ICRISAT), which tend to be in the to Delhi is 35%, while for potatoes, it is far less in the aggregate. “poo rer than average” semi-arid zones 70%. A consumption-weighted average (Kumar et al 2019). The high share of gives 60% as the post-farmgate share. High share of perishables in FSCs: Ac- purchases in overall food consumption cording to the 2011–12 NSSO data, only in these poor villages shows the high SMEs dominate FSCs: Between 72% and 21.5% of all the food consumed in India dependency of even the hinterlands on 83% of food consumed in India is han- (in value terms) is foodgrains. This is 25% the food markets. dled by private SMEs.3 The SMEs are in in rural areas and 19.2% in urban areas. Thus, India’s FSC in terms of the pur- wholesaling (both on-market in mandis Thus, 78.5% of India’s food consumption is chased food market is enormous. Using and off-market in rural towns), process- of non-grain, mostly perishable products
WEEKLY the food balance sheets of the Food and ing, logistics, retailing (for example, kira- like vegetables, milk, fi sh, chicken, edi- Agriculture Organization Corporate Statis- nas, haats), and food services (such as ble oils, and fruit. The implication is that tical Database (FAOSTAT) for a rough small restaurants and street meal ven- nearly 80% of food supply is via supply estimate, one fi nds that India produced dors, or dhabas). These SMEs are prolif- chains of products with short shelf lives 1.224 billion tonnes of food in 2017, ex- erating very fast, often in spontaneous that need to be continuously replenished. ported 35 million tonnes (or 2.8% of its clusters as part of supply chains to cities, food output) and imported 29 million such as the dynamic clusters of potato Rural–urban food and labour market tonnes of food (or 2.4% of its food output). cold storages in Agra serving the Delhi integration via FSCs: Rural households Ninety-two percent of 1.224 billion tonnes, market (Das Gupta et al 2010) and in are closely linked (directly and indirectly) that is, 1.12 billion tonnes of food, consti- several zones of Bihar, serving the Patna to FSCs and, at the same time, highly tutes the purchased food market of India. market (Minten et al 2014). The food integrated with towns and Tier 1 and system related SME sector is especially Tier 2 cities, and farms rely on labour POLITICAL Private sector-dominated purchased important to Tier 2 and Tier 3 cities and markets. Several points regarding rural food markets: The private sector sells rural towns that constituted 58% of the employment stand out that are impor- & 95% of all purchased food, while only urban population in 2011 (Tripathi 2013). tant for our theme. 5% comes from the government via the Moreover, the SMEs in the FSCs provide Rural areas are densely populated, public distribution system (PDS). Over- self-employment to large numbers of with a large share of these areas being all, the government plays a tiny direct people and extensive casual employment peri-urban as well as close to and linked role in national food security (in terms for day labourers for loading and unload- with “corridor zones.” The latter are where of distributing food). This implies a very ing the produce from trucks and carts in large highways cross rural areas, creating limited capacity of the public sector to mandis and haats, for workers in numer- strong “magnetic” linkages with the “replace” the private sector in supplying ous small mills and warehouses, and so swaths of rural areas around (Bhalla 1997). food to the Indian consumers. on. The SMEs have higher labour/output The high population density in rural areas We estimated the 5% share of the gov- and labour/capital ratios compared to the in India and Bangladesh is striking. For ernment2 based on that: (i) the PDS large fi rms. Moreover, workers are in dense example, 80% of rural areas in Bangladesh bought 27.6% of rice and wheat output sets in the workplaces. There are multi- were classed as “peri-urban” based on den- ECONOMIC in 2017–18 (Mann 2018), (ii) rice and tudes of domestic hired workers, shop- sity measures used across countries in a wheat constitute 74% of all foodgrain ping and cooking for millions of Indian pan-developing region employment study output (Tiwari 2020), (iii) foodgrains urban homes, commuting in from towns by the International Fund for Agricul- constitute 21.5% of all food consumption or poor districts (Jain and Mishra 2018). tural Development (2019). While we could (in value terms) as per the 2011–12 NSSO There is an emerging modern sector fi nd no comparable calculation for rural survey, and (iv) PDS supplies 4.8% of supermarkets (Reardon and Minten India, there is ample evidence that peri- (rounded to 5%) of the food consumed 2011; Sutradhar et al 2019), fast food urban areas are a broad “urban shadow” in India (with 4.8=4.4/0.92). chains, and large processing fi rms (Sharma and Chandrasekhar 2014) and (Nuthalapati et al 2018). While India’s cover an important share of rural areas. Post-farmgate dominates FSC activities: modern food sector is among the fastest For example, 37% of new census towns Sixty percent of all FSC activities are growing in Asia (Reardon et al 2012b), it declared in 2011 are concentrated around post-farmgate. We calculated this from has a relatively small share of the overall major metropolises (Aijaz 2019).
Economic & Political Weekly EPW MAy 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 19 COMMENTARY Rural households depend for 61% of as 92% of food consumed in India is pur- control the fl ow of entering customers and their income on rural nonfarm employ- chased from FSCs. There is very little implement social-distancing measures. ment (RNFE) based on NSSO 2011–12, “subsistence enclave or refuge” that will SMEs lack essential tools that super- while 39% of their income is from agri- be outside of the market effects. markets and fast food chains have for culture. In the past four decades, the It will have other system-wide effects assuring the continuity of access to prod- share of agriculture in rural incomes has such as food price infl ation and related ucts and enforcing the hygiene proce- declined from 72% to 39%; the correlate social unrest that will undermine FSC dures among their suppliers. Large fi rms is that RNFE has increased from 28% to and, thus, food security in the short use direct purchase arrangements (mini- 61% (Chand et al 2017). About 88% of term and productivity investments in mising the middlemen), distribution farming households rely on some RNFE the medium run. Higher food prices are, centres, contracts, private standards, and (Chand rasekhar and Mehrotra 2016). in turn, likely to signal impending short- specialised wholesale agents, to assure We posit that a substantial amount of ages. These effects can compound each supply continuity and hygiene practices. In RNFE is linked directly to the FSC (in other in a vicious cycle that is likely to contrast, the SMEs must go to the mandis agrifood wholesale, processing, logis- cause social unrest (Bellemare 2015). and jostle among many in the auctions tics, retail, and food service) or indirectly and rely on spot market transactions. to FSCs (in logistics and other services). Post-farmgate effects: Most of its effects After the food safety and disease We were not able to fi nd a study with the will be on the post-farmgate FSC—the shocks in the FSCs internationally, it is specifi c shares of RNFE to these sub-sec- fi rms and workers in the midstream common to see a consolidation; examples
WEEKLY tors, but the importance of the food wholesale, processing, and logistics seg- are the avian fl u in Egypt (Dixon 2015) economy in rural areas and towns would ments, and downstream in retail and and dairy food safety in Brazil (Farina suggest the link between RNFE and FSC. food service—and much less on farms et al 2005). The less competitive SMEs However, this point should be tempered and farm workers. This is for reasons often exit the market because of the ini- by the fi ndings of Lanjouw and Murgai rooted in the FSC facts as mentioned tial income shocks and investment (2009) that RNFE employment is not sta- above: (i) 60% of the FSC and, thus, the requirements to re-enter the market and tistically signifi cantly correlated with formation of food prices and FSC em- meet more stringent food safety and local agricultural yields but is more ployment come from post-farmgate ac- biosecurity regulations. There is likely strongly correlated with proximity to tivities; (ii) post-farmgate activities tend to be an acceleration in the shift towards urban areas. to be clustered in peri-urban rural areas, e-commerce both for retail and for res- A large share of RNFE comes from towns, and secondary cities in areas taurant delivery. This appears to be commuting between rural areas and towns close to farm areas. Given the properties already emerging in India (Mukherjee POLITICAL (Chandrasekhar 2011). Shocks to the FSCs of COVID-19, which is transmitted most and Malviya 2020) when stay-at-home in towns (such as those that we argue easily via human contact, greater popu- regulations are in place. It is likely that & are produced by COVID-19) reverberate lation densities tend to facilitate its consumers will not fully return to prior into the livelihoods of large numbers of spread; and (iii) post-farmgate activities buying habits. E-commerce fi rms and rural households (Dsouza et al 2020) that are dominated by large numbers of SMEs supermarket and fast food chains, and supply labour to the FSCs in the towns. that tend to operate in de facto, spontane- delivery services may see an accelera- Farmers depend on (largely landless) ous clusters or in dense enclosed areas tion of their displacement of the kiranas farm wage workers for a third of the such as mandis, while farms are spread and the dhabas. labour for their farm. Some of these out by comparison. workers commute from local towns to Effects of midstream SMEs: COVID-19 rural areas, while the rural landless Effects on downstream SMEs: COVID-19 will also strongly affect SMEs in the mid- depend partly on farm wage labour. We will have its greatest impact on the SMEs stream segments of wholesale, logistics, estimate from NABARD (2018) that agri- in the downstream segments of retail and processing. It will have less impact cultural wage labour constitutes rou ghly and food service. Recall that 92% of on large-scale processors. ECONOMIC 32% of rural incomes in 2016–17.4 Indian food consumption is purchased, The line of argument for wholesale and and 80%–90% of purchases are from logistics is similar to our points about COVID-19’s Impacts on FSCs these SMEs. From the perspective of ope- retail. The mandis will be under strong In light of the aforementioned characte- rations and marketing, downstream SMEs constraints, particularly to the extent ristics of the Indian FSCs, we infer that are labour-intensive, with high densities that logistics controls are enforced for COVID-19 will not only affect the overall of workers in small spaces. They have truckers and rural fi eld brokers (Biswas FSC, but also its distinct segments little control over the hygiene practices 2020). The implementation of these con- differently. of their product suppliers or customer straints will probably be more rigorous habits and crowding. In contrast, large in the Tier 1 and Tier 2 city mandis and Effects on food security: COVID-19’s fi rms face a lower risk of clients and the main highway routes. However, huge most important effect will be on national employees contracting the disease as they mandis like the Azadpur mandi in Delhi food security via its effects on the FSCs, can enforce hygiene practices and and Vashi mandi in Mumbai usually
20 MAy 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 EPW Economic & Political Weekly COMMENTARY receive tens of thousands of trucks and villages may be constrained by mobility Policy challenge: In the short term, other vehicles per day. A full stoppage restrictions. That would accelerate a millions of FSC businesses will face lower may be impracticable. Mobility is also long-term trend of farm wage increase, foot traffi c, lower incomes, and substan- likely to be less controllable in the rural inducing accelerated mechanisation, tial unemployment. In the medium term, wholesale markets in villages and small which would affect the landless. COVID-19 impacts on these segments rural towns. However, if urban economic condi- may be like the past episodes of avian fl u The processing SMEs, such as the tions rapidly deteriorate with the crisis, in South East Asia in the 2000s, which thousands making atta and achar will urban workers may return to family vil- induced concentration, leading to rapid be faced with the same challenge as the lages and swell the farm labour ranks. increases in market shares of large pro- kiranas and the dhabas. They tend to be That would depress farm wages and cessing fi rms and supermarkets. in dense clusters with strong vulnera- depress the incomes of the landless. The The above means that the govern- bility of their employees’ health, mar- effects will be more pronounced on ment is juggling with three challenges: kets to kirana stores that usually source rural women, since 39% of rural women (i) reducing COVID-19 with health meas- from them, and face uncertainty of work in causal non-farm jobs (Dsouza ures such as movement restrictions and access to ingredient supply chains. et al 2020). hygiene investments; (ii) supporting FSC’s Again, large processors are in a better Fourth, COVID-19 will likely reduce output and employment in the face of position as the latter tend to have their RNFE, hurting the households of both movement restrictions linked to health own logistics operations and stocks of farmers and the landless. Recall that as measures; and (iii) marshalling scarce NSSO RNFE
WEEKLY ingredients in warehouses to tide them per 2011–12, forms 61% of rural government’s resources to implement over. They also produce packaged goods incomes in India, and that much of RNFE the fi rst two as fast as possible, given the that may be perceived as more hygienic is linked to the FSC directly or indirectly. ascending social and political tensions and storable by consumers. RNFE is important to fund food purchase attendant to food price increases, job as well as farm input purchase and will losses, and the diseases. Effects on farm sector: The direct ef- thus affect food security and medium- fect of COVID-19 on farms is likely to be term productivity of farms. Policy recommendations: How should limited. Because farms are relatively the Indian government respond to mini- spread out, the human density induce- Effects on informal sector: COVID-19 mise supply chain disruptions and fall- ment to COVID-19 spread will be less than will have a massive impact on the in- out from lockdowns and other restric- in the cities. However, as noted above, comes and jobs of millions of informal tions? The general strategy must be India’s rural areas are far denser than sector workers in the rural and urban two-pronged: (i) implementing robust POLITICAL other regions suffering from COVID-19; areas. These workers are with no formal public health measures to slow the much of the rural areas is in fact a peri- safety nets. We showed that half of rural spread of disease; and (ii) addressing & urban dense area (Pingali et al 2019), employment is in RNFE, and half of that food security impacts, particularly the so COVID-19 spread may still occur in is commuting, involving daily or weekly potentially enormous effects on income farm areas. commuting that can be stopped or con- and employment. However, the indirect effect of COV- strained by mobility regulations. Masses Recall that, of the enormous volume ID-19 on farms is likely to be substantial, of informal male and female workers of food consumed, the Indian govern- through several channels. First, COV- operate hundreds of thousands of agri- ment directly supplied only 4% of it. It is ID-19’s main effect on farmers will be food SMEs that provide 80% of India’s clear that even if the Indian government through constraining effective demand food, and depend on mandis and haats, doubles its sales or even transfers of from consumers via the constraints on and on continuous movement as hawkers, food, it has the capacity of covering 8% the midstream and downstream of the as kiosk operators, as dudhyas and dhaba or just one month of the food market. It FSC and because of reduction in consum- waiters, and day workers loading tens of is probable that the “burn down” rate ers’ real incomes in the crisis. The effect thousands of trucks in the great mandis of COVID-19 and the disruption in the ECONOMIC will be strongest on perishable products of the land. They are, along with the food economy will last much more than such as milk, fruits and vegetables, and farmers, the food system heroes, but one month. fi sh and chicken, which require more themselves live hand to mouth. Our key recommendation is thus to handling and are more income-elastic in not start with the idea of government demand. Second, its effects on the mid- Policy Implications emergency supplies replacing the market, stream of input supply chains such as Policy responses for mitigating COVID-19 but rather focusing on how to combine fertiliser and seed will hurt farmers. will create economic hardships. Enfor- health measures with strategies to make Third, COVID-19 could affect farmers’ cing social distancing and limits on the market work, and helping the FSC heal access to labour. While most farm labour internal and external logistics in FSCs, and rebound. That is the only way to avert (70%) is own labour, recall that 30% of will transform health risk problems into a food security and employment crisis. farm labour is hired. The fl ow of hired income and employment risks, and Addressing the FSC issues will require workers from towns to villages or across political risks. three complementary policy paths.
Economic & Political Weekly EPW MAy 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 21 COMMENTARY Implementing new, broad safety nets for supermarkets (Nuthalapati et al 2018), (ii) pur- Correlates,” The Indian Journal of Labour SME chased food is 92% of all food consumed in Econo mics, Vol, 61, pp 659–79. the s and workers in the midstream India, and (iii) 96% of purchased food is sold Kumar, S, L Lim-Camacho, J R Bogard, R Padmaja, and downstream segments of the FSCs by the private sector, and 4% by government. B G Ridoutt, E Khan, S Pramanik and is necessary in the short run: (i) for the 4 NABARD (2018) reports shares of income from S Nedumaran (2019): “Mapping Rural Food different sources for farm households and Environment Identifying and Evaluating SMEs, especially in the midstream and landless. Casual (daily wage) labour (from two Nutrition-oriented Value Chain Interventions,” downstream, the government could pro- components, agricultural wage labour and paper presented at the 27th conference of the non-agricultural wage labour) constitutes 34% Agricultural Economics Research Association vide immediate support to meet rents of farm households’ income, and 54% of land- (AERA), Ludhiana, 17–19 December. less households’ income. The former are 48% Lanjouw, P and R Murgai (2009): “Poverty Decline, and energy and water input needs and of the nationwide sample and the landless are Agricultural Wages and Non-farm Employ- labour bills, (ii) for the consumers, the 52%. The overall casual labour share is 54%. ment in India 1983–2004,” Agricultural Eco- government could provide direct income NABARD did not break this down by the two components. We, thus, roughly estimate agri- nomics, Vol 40, pp 243–63. support for the neediest to meet rents and cultural wage labour’s share in total rural in- Mann, G (2018): “Demand for Grants 2018–19 Anal- ysis: Food and Public Distribution,” PRS Legis- buy food and energy, indirectly helping come by multiplying 54% by 75%, which is the share of farm households engaged in agricul- lative Research, Institute for Policy Research SMEs because it will enhance demand, and tural wage income based on NSSO (GoI 2013). Studies, New Delhi. (iii) for the workers, the government can We realise this is a rough assumption. But it pro- Minten, B, T Reardon, K M Singh and R Sutradhar duces a share for agricultural wage labour in rural (2014): “The New and Changing Roles of Cold also establish cash-for-work schemes to areas nationally of 32%. This may be close to Storages in the Potato Supply Chain in Bihar,” employ workers to distribute emergency correct as Lanjouw and Murgai (2009) show Economic & Political Weekly, Vol 49, No 52, for the employment share (not income share) pp 98–108. food rations, to upgrade sanitation in 30% for all India from agricultural wage labour. Mukherjee, W and S Malviya (2020): “Companies wholesale markets and wet markets, and Join Hands to Deliver Groceries to Customers References Doors,” Economic Times, 14 April. WEEKLY to maintain essential operations in their NABARD (2018): NAFIS: All India Rural Financial own enterprises so that these will exist Aijaz, R (2019): India’s Peri-urban Regions: The Inclusion Survey 2016–17, Mumbai: National when the crisis passes. Need for Policy and the Challenges of Govern- Bank for Agricultural and Rural Development. ance,” ORF Issue Brief No 285, March 2019, Nuthalapati, C S R, R Sutradhar and T Reardon While food distribution should be Observer Research Foundation. (2018): “Inclusiveness, Technology and Profi ta- mostly through the private sector, we Bellemare, M F (2015): “Risking Food Prices, Food bility in Supermarkets: SUR Model Results Price Volatility and Social Unrest,” American from Semi-arid Region,” Indian Journal of Agri- recommend that the government monitor Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol 97, No 1, cultural Economics, Vol 43, No 3, July–Septem- 1–21 January. hotspots requiring emergency food dis- ber, pp 293–308. Bhalla, S (1997): “The Rise and Fall of Workforce Onda, K, P Sinha, A E Gaughan, F R Stevens and tribution, and public action can augment Diversifi cation Processes in Rural India: A private sector supply channels in those Regional and Sectoral Analysis,” Centre for N Kaza (2019): “Missing Millions: undercount- Economic Studies and Planning, New Delhi: DSA ing Urbanisation in India,” Population and areas. In the short and medium term, it Working Paper, Jawaharlal Nehru University. Environment, Vol 41, pp 126–50. is crucial for the government to make sure Biswas, S (2020): “Will Coronavirus Lockdown Pingali, P, A Aiyar, M Abraham and A Rahman (2019): Transforming Food Systems for a Rising that logistics services are left free to op- Cause Food Shortages in India,” BBC News, POLITICAL 7 April, https://www.bbc.com/news/world- India, Palgrave Studies in Agricultural Eco- erate smoothly. Where there are shortfalls asia-india-52176564. nomics and Policy, Palgrave: Macmillan. in logistics capacity, the government Chand, R, S K Srivastava and J Singh (2017): Reardon, T and B Minten (2011): “Surprised by
& “Changes in Rural Economy of India, 1971 to Supermarkets: Diffusion of Modern Food should augment it. 2012: Lessons for Job-Led Growth,” Economic & Retail in India,” Journal of Agribusiness in The government should monitor and Political Weekly, Vol 52, No 52, pp 64–71. Developing and Emerging Economies, Vol 1, No 2, Chandrasekhar, S (2011) “Workers Commuting pp 134–61, October. regulate wholesale markets, retail wet between the Rural and Urban: Estimates from Reardon, T, K Z Chen, B Minten and L Adriano markets, and processing clusters more NSSO Data, Economic & Political Weekly, (2012a): The Quiet Revolution in Staple Food Vol 46, No 46, pp 22–25. strictly, and urgently upgrade and rede- Value Chains in Asia: Enter the Dragon, the Chandrasekhar, S and N Mehrota (2016): “Dou- Elephant and the Tiger, Asian Development sign their sites for improved health prac- bling Farmers’ Incomes by 2022,” Economic & Bank and IFPRI, December. tices. It should establish clear mechanisms Political Weekly, Vol 51, No 18, pp 10–13. Reardon, T, C P Timmer and B Minten (2012): “The Dasgupta, S, T Reardon, B Minten and S Singh (2010): Supermarket Revolution in Asia and Emerging to monitor, implement and enforce the “The Transforming Potato Value Chain in Development Strategies to Include Small emergency programmes. India: Potato Pathways from a Commercialised Farmers,” PNAS: Proceedings of the National Agriculture Zone (Agra) to Delhi,” IFPRI–ADB Finally, the government needs to Academy of Science of the USA, Vol 109, No 31, Report. 31 July, pp 12332–37. Dixon, M W (2015): “Biosecurity and the Multipli- make long-term investments to help the Sharma, A and S Chandrasekhar (2014): “Growth cation of Crises in the Egyptian Agri-food SME of the Urban Shadow, Spatial Distribution of s change their hygiene practices and Industry,” Geoforum, Vol 61, pp 90–100. ECONOMIC Economic Activities, and Commuting by Workers Dsouza, A, A K Mishra and S Hirsch (2020): provide better site designs for mandis in Rural and Urban India,” World Development, “Enhan cing Food Security through Diet Quality: Vol 61, pp 154–66. and small business cluster districts that The Role of Non-farm Work in Rural India,” will enhance health while helping them Agricultural Economics, Vol 51, No 1, pp 95–110. Sutradhar, R, C S R Nuthalapathi and M F Bellemare (2019): “Whither the Pin Factory? Modern remain competitive. Farina, Elizabeth M M Q, G E Gutman, P J Lavarello, R Nunes and T Reardon (2005): “Private and Food Supply Chains and Specialisation in India,” Public Milk Standards in Argentina and Brazil,” Agricultural Economics, Vol 50, No 4, pp 395–405. Notes Food Policy, Vol 30, No 3, June, pp 302–15. Tiwari, R (2020): “India Clocks Record Foodgrain Government of India, Ministry of Statistics and Production in 2018–19,” Economic Times, 1 This average share abstracts from distinctions Programme Implementation, National Sample https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/ over net food sellers, net buyers, autarkic, and Survey Offi ce (2013): “Key Indicators of House- economy/agriculture/fi nal-production-estimate- landless. hold Consumer Expenditure in India,” NSSO 2018-19-india-clocks-record-foodgrainproduc- 2 PDS supplies 5% of the food consumed in India 68th Round, 2011–12, New Delhi, India. tion/articleshow/74102786.cms. (4.4/0.92). IFAD (2019): Creating Opportunities for Rural Youth, Tripathi, S (2013): “Do Large Agglomerations Lead 3 We arrive at this fi gure based on the estimates Rural Development Report, Rome: IFAD. to Economic Growth? Evidence from Urban that (i) 80%−90% of the volume of purchased Jain, S and U S Mishra (2018): Demand for Domestic India,” Review of Urban and Regional Development food is handled by the SMEs and 10%−20% by Workers in India: Its Characteristics and Studies, Vol 25, No 2, pp 176–200.
22 MAy 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 EPW Economic & Political Weekly during partition that speaks not just to Continuity of Madness, the practical dimensions or everyday life but also the metaphorical expansion the Border, and Partition of India of “madness.” It is evident through the streets and political offi ces of both newly created Pakistan and India, as Srishtee Sethi well as through repeated reference to Toba Tek Singh, a Manto classic through- But once in Lahore, now Pakistan, Manto book reviewS out the length of the text and the sup- was inconsolable. “Despite my best efforts,” posed nirvana of the character of Bishan he writes, “I could not dissociate India from Pakistan and Pakistan from India.” The Psychological Impact of the Partition Singh on no-man’s land. (Sethi 2012) of India edited by Sanjeev Jain and Alok Sarin, Each subsequent article in this edited New Delhi: Sage Publications, pp 260, `850 (hardbound). volume disentangles further the partition– hat was such a writer—one psychiatry interface. Sanjay Jain’s article who saw maddening continui- understanding of syncretic languages, as an instance revisits nationalism from Wties where borders had been sociocultural belongingness, nostalgia and, a psychological and social behavioural
WEEKLY drawn—to do? The dismay and perplex- as some may say, a severe case of fratricide perspective explaining the years leading ities that Manto faced articulated above have remained. up to the retreat of colonisation. There is by Ali Sethi in the “Seer of Pakistan” and The alternating usage of terms such enough there to get reoriented into the the subsequent revisiting of Manto’s as violence and brutality and a single partition narrative by understanding the work such as the “Siyah Hashiye” (“Black brushstroke usage of the term madness, non-physical responses. The reference to Margins”) are a glimpse into the emo- provide the levy to ignore treatment of the UNESCO report on applying psycho- tional expedition through the travails and such occurrences and events much as the logical principles to the partition of India toils of partition. madman was left ignored. As this volume unravels the intricacies of the systemic This emotion resonates with several will highlight, psychiatry remains under- social distancing and violence during more people than who readily admit to applied and little has changed since partition. This article also importantly it in present-day India. Grief, sadness, partition in the context of social turmoil, highlights the “rosy optimism of the angst and madness are words that are especially in India. The editors address post-colonial projects” and the “jolts of POLITICAL often used to describe partition, its this vast chasm present in research within realpolitik” reinforcing notions of the journey, rehabilitation, essentially the partition literature and pronounced other for upcoming years thereby con- & entire process of division. All stages—the silences in the aftermath of partition on cretising borders through space and mind. before, during and after partition events— mental health, trauma and the overall The signifi cant unpacking of termi- are highly charged with layers of experi- discourse on psychiatry. This silence and nology in this volume is expedient inso- ence, representation, misrepresentations, inherent chaos also continued through far as trauma, individual autonomy, anger and biases. Furthermore, the obvi- the years after partition incalculably where episode of madness, psychopathology are ous symbol of an oracular past, partition the collected essays of this edited volume concerned. This connotes metaphorical enables revisiting the idea of secularisation present accounts on institutes such as as well as theoretical overtones neces- of the mind and the “madman” as the mental hospitals, asylums, prisons, psy- sary for a nuanced understanding of symbol of social disorder, which was chiatry practices, statecraft, medical partition as an event, syndrome, episode framed in the last few centuries. Madness services and civic life before, during and and for some a historical convolution. now can be used as a metaphor, both in its immediately after partition. Arguably, an The essays provide a chance for philo- tragic and pejorative connotations as is essential insight into this specifi c period of sophical and psychosomatic remem- ECONOMIC discussed in the essays within this volume. history where the volume assists by break- brance while diving deep into the incon- This timely collection of articles serves ing down archival material, psychological spicuousness and intricacy of violence, as a potent dive into an extremely complex perspectives and specifi c institutional loss, recovery, rehabilitation, border- event of South Asian history especially explorations brings to the fore the terrains, drawing and imagined community that in the disciplinary boundaries of psy- trajectories and tribulations of the parti- have thus far been absent from the disci- chology, making excellent overlaps with tion of 1947 that were thus far unknown. plinary literature on partition. sociology, anthropology and social science The topics of the essays are diverse in general. The partition of 1947 is Partition–Psychiatry Interface but thematically linked to partition, knowingly an emotive yet impervious The volume presents a vital and hitherto its implications and specifi cally its space to tread on with a vacuum that absent rhetoric by exploring the disruption subconscious/psychological impacts. For has survived through 70 years of lived in medical services and the shutdown of instance, in the essay titled “Anger Is a experiences. Obvious gaps around the active engagement with asylum patients Short Madness,” authors Gopa Sabharwal
Economic & Political Weekly EPW may 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 23 BOOK REVIEW and Anjana Sharma refl ect upon deep Nationalism and the 1947 partition,” its emotional aftermath are extensively inner individual confl ict that Gandhi Sukeshi Kamra uses rhetoric as a sig- covered through this volume. went through and his intense emotional nifi cant part of the scene of violence The unaddressed emotionality of and bodily reaction to the “fratricidal that defi ned partition. While she shifts partition witnesses leads them to a communal division.” The partition period, our attention to the rhetoric that was point of no return. Are they, therefore, therefore, has drawn the analogy with evident from the 19th century to the in fact, living as schizophrenics? The mental health, with a disease, in which independence including the rhetoric of angst, the psychological trauma of Gandhi as a physician is increasingly popularist nationalism—“the language displacement, bordering, social and overwhelmed by a new pathology of a of disease”—she furthers the meaning ideological underpinnings of the people form that escapes both diagnoses and, of shared trauma and how it depends who lived through it all, need to be dis- even worse, possibly a curative treatment. on collective processes of cultural cussed for the wounds to heal. Many interpretations. As is evident from who faced the turmoil have passed on, Social Trauma partition both individual trauma (one but the question of transgenerational It compels us to consider that Gandhi that was repressed, denied and brought effects is a vital one. The volume, there- himself was a victim of trauma and pain into the consciousness) and collective fore, paves the way for more research turbulent emotional upheaval, something trauma which was symbolic (stories within post-traumatic stress disorder rarely unpacked within the partition and characters created for framing) and unpacking of the incessant cycles narratives. Gandhi remains its victim were present then and are present today of violence, grief and guilt. Can the dis-
WEEKLY both philosophically as well as medically. in the shape of intergenerational trauma, cussion and analysis of partition move The repeated effects of “this fratricide” I would argue. beyond the binaries of religion, countries engulfed his body and mind (the distur- Why partition was not historicised in and communities providing room to bances to body politic are not external to the way colonialism was and thereof study the human mind which in fact Gandhi and the strain more psychological the absence of partition as a problem- may transcend borders of difference, than physical) as indicated in the essay atic in the national and collective intolerance, violence that the society by Sabharwal and Sharma. The authors consciousness remains a signifi cant presents all too often. realistically highlight “the trauma of the question raised by Kamra. Further- Thus, in this contemporary polarised partition, the neurosis that it endangered, more, what is left of partition history is world one is forced to refl ect on Gandhi’s the trajectory of hatred and violence that almost a liminal refl ection of an “oracu- anguish on the uneven borderlines it unleashed.” The distrust that was built lar past,” an attempt at “erasure of the drawn in 1947, marginalisation from the in institutions such as the police and past” and the “diffi culty of undoing it.” discourse of the nation and untold POLITICAL army during the time remains till date Kamra states vehemently that assimi- stories of belongingness since they do and the syncretic composite subcontinen- lating partition in the mainstream not align with the imagined statehood in & tal culture now lays at rest with Gandhi. would mean “rupturing cherished no- India or Pakistan. As expressed in the Ayesha Kidwai, in the essay “Are We tions that anchor national identity the present volume, Gandhi remains like Women Not Citizens? Mridula Sarabai’s lynchpin of which is independence.” Manto’s fi ctional character—a citizen of Social Workers and the Recovery of Thus, the praxis of violence and no country, stateless and permanently Abducted Women,” shifts our attention interpretation of psychological trauma in exile as we enter the 74th year of to the quintessential yet under-researched (including intergenerational trauma) is independence. aspect of gender violence as traumatic never outside the historical context. The and symbolic brutalisation of women in mental and physical trauma of individuals Srishtee Sethi ([email protected]) partition. A vital question this article and its implications for people who not teaches at the Tata Institute of Social poses is whether women activists or only underwent immense distress on Sciences, Mumbai. social workers became cronies of the account of the dislocation and separation Reference state with its patriarchal inklings that but also faced the violence of the worst ECONOMIC Sethi, Ali (2012): “The Seer of Pakistan,” New York almost always leave the emotions of the kind as a result of partition is most obvi- Times, 30 August, https://www.newyorker. women unattended and disregarded ous but overlooked. As highlighted com/books/page-turner/the-seer-of-pakistan. during this tumultuous time. The writings through the essays cohesively, we fi nd and work on the recovery of women the gaps in literature addressed insofar during partition have been vastly layered as lived realities of victims, institutional with privilege, hierarchy and political changes, rehabilitation and other chal- available at class. Besides, the absolute absence of lenges of partition that had remained narratives and challenges of the socially on the fringes. A signifi cant under- Ideal Books 26/2082, Tutors Lane stratifi ed communities of the time espe- standing of the psycho-social dilemmas, Secretariat Statue the dysfunctionality of institutions cially lack voices from within. Thiruvananthapuram 695001, Similarly in the essay “The Rhetoric of such as the prison and mental asylums, Kerala Violence: Cultures of Affect in Resistant personal experiences of partition, and
24 may 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 EPW Economic & Political Weekly BOOK REVIEW or discrimination is an outcome of dispa- Impacts of Stereotyping on the rate treatment or disparate impact.
Criminal Justice System Stereotyping and Race Chapter 1 introduces the concept of ste- reotyping and highlights the different Vijay Raghavan ways in which stereotyping of people can be identifi ed: self-reports, implicit abelling theories, which emerged Shadows of Doubt: Stereotypes, Crime, and associations, snap judgments, interracial in the 1960s and 1970s in crimino- the Pursuit of Justice by Brendan O’Flaherty and contact, incentives, location stereotypes, logical studies, emphasised that Rajiv Sethi, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2019; essentialism, and racial stigma. In L pp xi + 372, $27.95. deviance is not an inherent category but Chapter 2, the authors do a general a socially constructed one, whereby the discussion on crime and classify crimes majority communities or the “social audi- commit, prevent, or punish crimes. into two categories: crimes of appropri- ence” (Becker 1973) label the behaviour The book starts with an introduction, ation and crimes of destruction. They of minorities as deviant, which leads to followed by 12 chapters and ends with a further analyse the crime rates across how crime and criminals are defi ned. conclusion chapter titled “Hope.” these categories over the decades, based Tannenbaum (1938) fi rst spoke about In the introduction, the authors map on the Federal Bureau of Investigation’s UCR
WEEKLY the labelling of criminals through a the landscape of the book. It places the Uniform Crime Reports ( s) and process of “tagging,” which led to their fact of over-representation of minorities National Crime Victimisation Surveys further criminalisation. Lemert (1951) in American prisons at the centre of the (NCVSs). They also analyse arrestees and introduced the concept of primary and discussion, but goes beyond the big pic- victims across the two categories on the secondary deviance. Everyone is a po- ture to highlight some interesting ele- basis of race and colour. Chapter 3 takes tential or a primary deviant, but the ments. It draws the attention of the reader a close look at robbery as a crime category process of labelling, identifying, self- straightaway to the meat of the arguments and highlights patterns in the crime identifying, and “dramatisation of evil” in the book; for example, by pointing out data, frequency of occurrence over time, by criminal justice agencies, media, and that, with respect to property offences, use of violence, profi le of victims in civil society leads to secondary deviance. black arrestees are twice as high for rob- terms of race and involvement in illegal Once labelled, the social stigma (Goffman bery as for burglary or theft, thus forcing activities, and chances of arrest of 1963) as a consequence of the institu- the reader to want to know more about offenders and the reasons thereof. POLITICAL tionalisation process makes it diffi cult to this nugget. This is explained by the Chapter 4 looks at murder crimes and exit the system, and the person is forced authors by pointing out that burglary provides useful insights about the phe- & to lead a life of crime. In this context, the and theft do not involve face-to-face nomenon; for example, people kill in stereotyping of communities on the contact between the offender and the order to avoid being killed. Fear of being basis of caste, class, gender, or race plays victim, thereby reducing the chances of killed with impunity increases the chances a signifi cant role in the labelling process, falling back on stereotypes; on the other of taking pre-emptive action, leading to and leads to the over-representation of hand, robbery involves face-to-face con- the killing of the opponent. This has ma- minorities in criminal justice statistics tact and, therefore, stereotypes about jor implications on the chances of blacks and institutions. race, physical build, age, and sex come and whites engaging in violent acts. The Shadows of Doubt: Stereotypes, Crime, into play while making decisions about, authors assert that if the courts act more and the Pursuit of Justice, by Brendan for example, who to victimise and leniently with whites than with blacks O’Flaherty and Rajiv Sethi, makes an whether or not to resist the offender. when arrested for homicides, it may spur important contribution to the under- The book is full of such insights, drawn persons seeing lesser chances of getting standing of how stereotypes are impli- from literature and secondary data, justice taking the law into their own ECONOMIC cated in the working of the criminal justice about what makes people behave or act hands. The chapter also takes a look at system in the United States, and how the way they do, and how and why they the rates of solving murder cases in they have made an impact on social jus- behave or act in that manner in matters terms of race, that is, the rates of solving tice. The book makes a deep dive into the relating to crime and justice. The chapter murder cases of white versus black victims decisions made by offenders, victims, introduces the reader to the concept of and its impact on propensity to engage police, prosecutors, judges, and jurors disparate treatment (differential treatment in violent acts leading to murder. The on the basis of the limited information of members of groups without good rea- ability to access guns and lawyers, and its they have access to and under severe son) and disparate impact (policies that link with murder rates and geographical time constraints. It attempts to demon- have an impact on members of groups variance in murder rates is also well strate, and with some degree of success, differentially), which the authors refer to analysed in this chapter. the role that stereotyping plays in making throughout the book. The authors attempt Chapter 5 is about public action or, in quick decisions as stakeholders try to to analyse whether over-representation other words, actions by public offi cials in
Economic & Political Weekly EPW may 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 25 BOOK REVIEW response to crimes or alleged violations makes people realise their inferior social Chapter 10 is about factors that infl u- of the law. Public action may involve two standing and expresses the underlying ence the behaviour of juries and judges kinds of discrimination: discrimination injustice of racism, otherwise defi ned as and how prosecutors and defence lawyers by individual offi cials or discrimination expressive harm. exploit these stereotypes to infl uence embedded in the system. In trying to un- the justice process in their favour. Exam- derstand discrimination by the criminal Law and Justice System ples such as black jurors not necessarily justice offi cials and the system, the authors Chapters 7 and 8 are about use of force being more favourable towards black look to another sector to understand this and lethal use of force, respectively: the defendants help deconstruct sweeping on which suffi cient research exists: the manner in which it is done, the conver- generalisations about how stereotypes employment sector. Disparate treatment sation that takes place during the use of play out. Data shows that location is discrimination occurs on account of dis- force, and the issue of trust which plays sometimes a proxy for race, given the crimination by the public offi cial con- a crucial role in terms of how the en- extent of racial segregation that exists cerned, either out of racial bias or due to counter plays out. The authors highlight in the US. Belief differences arising stereotyping, for example, a police offi cer that police-related killings, both of civil- from life experiences lead to differential mistaking a person reaching for the car ians (by the police) and police personnel interpretations of evidence, different dashboard to take out their driving li- (killed in the line of duty), in the US deliberations in the jury room and dif- cence for pulling out a gun, and fi ring at are amongst the highest in the world. ferent verdicts in cases. The role of the person in self-defence. In disparate Chapter 8 analyses the reasons for the gender stereotypes also plays out in this
WEEKLY impact discrimination, the organisation same and points to factors such as the process. The chapter highlights ways in maintains a policy that adversely affects easy availability of guns in American which these stereotypes play out in members of a particular group. The society, the use of kevlars (the fabric affecting decisions relating to executions, question to be asked here is: Are members chest-guards invented in the 1960s) as bail, plea bargaining, and compounding of a particular community dispropor- protective gear, the impact of the fear of of offences. An interesting highlight of tionately harmed by the policy or practice? getting killed, the nature of police–civilian the chapter is its analysis of how algo- For example, the authors point out contact, geographical variance in killings, rithms also do not end up being race and that the crack epidemic in the 1980s and the impact of mutual fear in cross- gender blind, as “the pursuit of justice engendered a largely punitive response, race encounters. The chapter concludes is contaminated by human biases and whereas the opioid epidemic in the 2010s that the American police is far more frailties,” and while algorithms can has engendered a response that includes aggressive towards blacks than whites, is bring some of these to light, “algorithms a treatment component and investment more likely to stop African Americans, themselves are subject to objections and POLITICAL in harm reduction technologies. use force against them, and kill them. pitfalls” (p 192). Chapter 6 analyses police stops as a They are also more aggressive towards Chapter 11 highlights incarceration & crime reduction strategy. One way to just about anybody when compared to rates across race and colour and tries to detect discrimination in the stop-and- police in the developed world. understand the reasons why they rose in search strategy is to apply the hit-rate Chapter 9 brings home the importance the period between the 1970s and the test or, in other words, compare the of testimonies during trials in the justice 2010s, and have since fallen and stabilised. contraband recovery rates across groups delivery process. Studies show that faith It compares prison populations between to infer whether different standards of in the police and the law had a direct link county jails, and state and federal prisons suspicion were indeed applied. For ex- with the willingness to come forward to and the reasons thereof, and also analyses ample, four-fi fths of pedestrian stops in give testimony in court. Further, the data relating to persons out on probation New York between 2008 and 2012 were authors highlight that perceived fairness or parole. It analyses the offences that blacks and Hispanics who constitute of procedure, rather than positive out- have increased the incarceration rates in half of the city’s population. This led to a comes, has a bearing on perceived legiti- the recent past, and presents data to weapon recovery rate of 2.5%, 3.6% for macy of the legal process, and therefore show who ends up in prison and who ECONOMIC Hispanics and 11% for whites. Highlighting shapes willingness to cooperate with the gains more from the plea-bargaining the issue of racial profi ling, another law. Through case studies, they analyse process. It looks at the factors that in- study found that a mismatch between the why witnesses hesitate or refuse to coop- crease mass incarceration and points out offi cer’s and the motorist’s race increased erate, why there is collective silence that it is dependent on how quickly people the likelihood of a search. The chapter when a crime takes place in full public enter the system and how slowly they concludes that a programme of wide- view, and what factors lead to the fl ood- leave. This, in turn, depends on the spread, low-threshold stops does not gates being opened and witnesses turning number of laws that get legislated; for produce any miracle of crime reduction up in large numbers. They also explain example, the impact of the “three strikes and, contrary to what many believe, why and how errors and racial hoaxes law” or the introduction of minimum there is no discernible trade-off between occur during testimonies, and the process mandatory sentences on incarceration fairness and safety. The authors assert through which false confessions take rates. Incarceration rates are also infl u- that racial profi ling is harmful as it place and innocent people are convicted. enced by voter behaviour towards crime
26 may 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 EPW Economic & Political Weekly BOOK REVIEW and punishment and its relationship take the reader through a journey of stereotyping and its impact on criminal with public policies drafted by political hope and optimism in the face of the justice processing in particular and racial parties and governments, and the conse- harsh realities presented throughout the relations in general in American society, quences of retributivism and consequen- book. For example, through a moving but also for the several uncomfortable tialism on the sentencing process. The account of a teenager who was arrested questions it raises and the solutions it impact of racial stigma on incarceration in a case of carjacking and ended up attempts to put forward to address the rates is explained by pointing out that being killed by his partner, the authors challenges. Despite its “academic” content, there continues to be a disproportion- say that every incarcerated individual the authors seem to have made a con- ately high number of blacks in American for a violent offence has a story, but few scious attempt to reach out to other prisons without any public uproar or dis- are ever told. As the authors very poign- readers as well. The research fi ndings comfort being created on account of the antly say, “most lives are mixtures of and data are presented in a manner that racial stigma. The chapter ends with dis- good and bad, but remembering only makes the book eminently readable cussion on the economic and social costs the bad about someone is to despair and, yet, does not compromise the of mass incarceration. about their capacity to be other than depth of analysis. This book is highly Chapter 12 looks at how justice deliv- their worst” (p 286). They appeal to our recommended for students and teachers ery could be improved. The authors conscience to forgive once a person has of sociology, criminology, law, social highlight, based on available literature, paid the price for their act. They further work, and social sciences, as well as that “we really don’t have any good evi- point out that if the police and prosecu- anyone who is interested in knowing
WEEKLY dence on whether any specifi c strategy tors continue to believe that some bad about justice delivery processes and reduces crime on a citywide basis and apples will remain bad apples, they outcomes in multicultural societies. we know very little about long-run would fi nd some pretext or the other to impacts” (p 242). But, it looks at a range re-arrest them time and again, and such Vijay Raghavan ([email protected]) teaches at of strategies, for example, situational persons would have no incentives to the Centre for Criminology and Justice, crime-prevention measures like repairing abide by the law. If the general public School of Social Work, Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai. fences, improved lighting, and improving believes that people need to be killed to recreational opportunities for the youth. maintain public safety, people will con- References It exhorts policymakers to take steps to tinue to be killed. While stereotyping Becker, H (1973): Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology break the cycle of mistrust between the cannot be avoided, self-awareness and of Deviance, New York: The Free Press. police and people of colour, and put a recognising the effect that our beliefs Goffman, E (1963): Stigma: Notes on the Manage- ment of Spoiled Identity, Englewood Cliffs, stop to “dignitarian insults” (a term can have on others may help change the
POLITICAL NJ: Prentice-Hall. coined by political philosopher Ajume road map towards a more just society. Lemert, E M (1951): Social Pathology, New York: Wingo, referring to police behaviours This book is important not only for the Mcgraw-Hill.
& Tannenbaum, F (1938): Crime and the Community, that are insulting to human dignity as issue it tries to highlight, that of racial New York: Columbia University Press. “a member of a modern dignitarian democratic society;” p 244). It makes a series of concrete suggestions like mak- ing murder clearance rates by race and ethnicity public, hiring more police in BUDGET 2019–20 specifi c locations, analysing the ratio of police to murders, incentivising longer August 17, 2019 careers of good police detectives, poli- Road Map for Structural Reforms in Budget 2019: A Reality Check —M Govinda Rao cies that reduce racial segregation in housing, school desegregation, creating Betting on Animal Spirits: Budget 2019 in a Neo-liberal Bind —C P Chandrasekhar systems whereby victims could testify Much Ado About Nothing: Financial Sector in the 2019 Union Budget —Partha Ray ECONOMIC without getting identifi ed, decriminalisa- Putting the Cart before the Horse: Agri-food in the Union Budget 2019–20 —Ashok Gulati tion of some categories of drug consump- Vision for Industrial Growth in Budget 2019–20 —M Suresh Babu tion, gun control laws, using technology to prevent police homicides, better Growth, Employment and Labour through a Budget Lens —K P Kannan training of police, analysing what went Social Sector in the 2019 Union Budget —S Mahendra Dev wrong in police shootings, alternatives to imprisonment, having a competent For copies write to: public defender system, improving prison Circulation Manager, conditions, and creating robust rehabili- Economic & Political Weekly, tation programmes. 320–322, A to Z Industrial Estate, Ganpatrao Kadam Marg, Lower Parel, Mumbai 400 013. The book concludes with a chapter email: [email protected] titled “Hope.” This chapter attempts to
Economic & Political Weekly EPW may 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 27 PERSPECTIVES
First is the systematic degradation of Epidemics and Capitalism the public health institutional frame- work in the neo-liberal phase of capita- Accurate Identifi cation of Contradictions lism, particularly in the last half a century (Prashad and Denis 2020).1 The second aspect is the extreme levels of Sandipan Baksi physical connectivity across the globe, made possible through advanced means In the context of the spread of n 11 April 2020, the United States of transport, following the needs of and COVID-19, a number of left and (US)—the world’s most economi- the opportunities created by economic cally developed nation, with globalisation (liberalisation of fi n ance progressive thinkers, scholars, and O 2 access to the most advanced scientifi c and globalisation of trade). Third is the activists have deliberated upon the knowledge, including the fi eld of medi- destruction of natural ecosystems, parti- linkage between contemporary cine—suffered the misfortune of becom- cularly forests, by capitalism, industrial capitalism and epidemics. Many ing the fi rst country to record over 2,000 agriculture (including livestock produc- deaths in 24 hours. As a newspaper head- tion) to be precise, in its relentless pursuit of them tend to argue that such COVID 3
WEEKLY line highlighted the dichotomy: “ -19: of profi t. epidemics originate due to US Healthcare System, One of the Best in The fi rst two aspects are concerned tendencies inherent in the World, under Deep Stress” (PTI 2020). The with the greater and faster spread of the capitalist system of production. news was sobering, coming as it did in disease due to the contemporary organisa- the wake of the high death toll due to the tion of capitalistic production, and the While these interventions present disease in at least two European nations, systemic inability of capitalism to plan some useful critical analyses, they Italy and Spain, or three, if France is in- and prepare for risks and uncertainties also tend to present a one-sided cluded. The scale of the pandemic and the that cannot be easily commoditised and, view of this relationship, founded measures required to contain and manage therefore, be made part of the circuit of it, as damaging in their impact on people’s capital. However, the third aspect tends on a deeper confusion regarding lives as perhaps the disease itself, has to argue that diseases, like COVID-19, the human–nature relationship occasioned a great deal of commentary on are fundamental to capitalism, as they POLITICAL under contemporary capitalism. the relationship between the global social originate due to tendencies inherent in and economic order, particularly in the the capitalist system of production. All & developed world, and the origin and na- these arguments seem to somehow draw ture of epidemics in this globalised world. from the notion of a “metabolic rift,” Especially among left and progressive popularised by Marxist scholar John thinkers, scholars, and activists, the Bellamy Foster in his study of “Marx’s ongoing battle against the pandemic Theory of Metabolic Rift: Classical Foun- across the world has set alight a vigorous dations for Environmental Sociology” debate on the linkage between contem- (Foster 1999). porary capitalism and global pandemics, While these interventions present some particularly those, like COVID-19, caused useful and critical analyses of the mech- by zoonotic diseases, that originate due anisms by which the contemporary eco- to pathogens jumping species, from other nomic, social and political order is related animals or insects to humans. Active fi g- to the possibilities of the emergence of ECONOMIC ures in this debate include David Harvey, epidemics and pandemics, I argue that John Bellamy Foster, Mike Davis, Rob several of these writings also tend to Wallace, and Vijay Prashad, to name only present a one-sided view of this rela- a few prominent names among several tionship, founded, as they appear to others. Their writings clearly try to high- be, on a deeper confusion regarding the The author would like to thank T Jayaraman, light the structural issues that underlie the human–nature relationship under con- Senior Fellow Climate Change, MSSRF, origin and spread of the disease, and temporary capitalism. Chennai, for his comments on suggestions. urge us to regard it as more than a Sandipan Baksi ([email protected]) unique emergency, which indeed it is. Fundamental Contradictions is a doctoral candidate at the Tata Institute of These writings, between them, broadly Capitalism as a system runs on the objec- Social Sciences, Mumbai, and works with the argue for three distinct aspects of the link- tive logic of profi t. It is this logic—mani- Foundation for Agrarian Studies, Bengaluru. age between capitalism and epide mics. festing as contradiction between capital
28 MAy 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 EPW Economic & Political Weekly PERSPECTIVES and labour, as well as competition among captures this deep chasm between the the pandemic will soon be over, following the class of capitalists—that eventually potential of scientifi c knowledge and which the global economy will fall back leads to science, including the institu- its realisation under capitalism, in the to normalcy. They can, of course, afford tions and methods of science, becoming context of the research on prevention and to suggest, thus, in view of the fact that a productive force. Therein lies the source cure of coronaviruses. He refers to the even a conjunctural crisis, such as the of an immense and never-ending devel- “huge progress that had occurred into present one, operates through the exist- opment in scientifi c knowledge and tech- the function and structures of the ing socio-economic structures, implying nology. In other words, capitalism creates SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome) thereby that it is the working classes enormous potential for humans to inter- coronavirus, including some research that would eventually bear the real vene and shape the natural world external into vaccine development and evaluation brunt of the crisis. to their species, as well as their own on animal models.” The research, how- social worlds. However, the extent and ever, he clarifi es, could never reach cul- Nature–Human Dialectic nature of the eventual realisation of this mination as there was “no incentive to The origins of COVID-19 lie in contradic- potential that it engenders is, once again, further develop SARS–CoV vaccines,” after tions that are foundational to human signifi cantly shaped and also undermined the SARS outbreak subsided by 2005. evolution. The human species has been by the obje ctive logic of profi t. Capitalism Further, he clarifi es, there was “no money consciously intervening in nature ever creates the necessary capacities, which, either for development of antivirals (for since it evolved to attain the capacity of however, might just remain idle in the people who have already been infected applying conscious labour for material
WEEKLY absence of the requisite profi t incentive. by the virus). That is, there is no money production. In fact, it can be argued that Capital, as Marx clarifi es, is the “real to be made.” The story of a grave neglect even before such an evolution, the barrier of capitalist production” (empha- narrated by the article underlines the pre-Homo sapiens, like every other animal sis in original). Further, he states, “the sordid fact that, in the absence of requi- species, would have been forced to means—unconditional development of site profi t incentive, the pharmaceutical migrate to unexplored territories due to the productive forces of society—comes industry has never been interested in sudden cal amities and catastrophes. Such continually into confl ict with the limited developing medicines and vaccines for mig ration and exploration of the un- purpose, the self-expansion of the exist- such infectious diseases. known perhaps is a basic feature of the ing capital” (Marx nd). survival of life. This would naturally have The contradiction between the scien- A Conjunctural Crisis implied an exploitation of a new ecosys- tifi c and technological potential and its While it is evident that the COVID-19 crisis tem, disturbing the existing equilibrium actuality plays out starkly today against has sharpened, amplifi ed, and laid bare therein. It would have also allowed various POLITICAL the background of COVID-19 in the these contradictions within capita lism, microorganisms to jump species and advanced capitalist world, epitomised it is, however, critical to appreciate that hijack the biological system of the & by the US. The US is the repository of the this is a conjunctural crisis, one that did newcomer. In fact, it is conceivable that, most advanced knowledge and technical not originate due to tendencies that are in many such cases, the in-migrating capacities in all areas, including in the fundamental to capitalism. human communities, or animal groups, fi eld of medical science, but was found Crises, whether cyclical or historical, might have seriously taken to sickness. It completely unprepared to fi ght against are an ever-present but latent feature of is also quite possible that the contemporary the spread of COVID-19, despite an early the capitalist system of production. The empirical knowledge of healing might warning (Lipton et al 2020). It lacked the possibility of a crisis emerges from the have been quite ineffective against a new material capacity to produce even the assertion or amplifi cation of the various disease spread. In such a scenario, one most basic medical supplies, like personal contradictions that are fundamental to can argue that the morta lity rates might protective equipment, face masks, and test capitalism. However, capitalism, like any have been signifi cant. These are, of course, kits, to the extent the different states, other system, is also liable to conjunc- speculations and need evidence from local governments, and hospitals, were tural crises, contingent in nature. The history and archaeology; nonetheless, ECONOMIC reported as competing with each other latter is not an outcome of the assertion of they are very well within the realm of logic. in order to acquire them. It even failed the fundamental contradictions of capi- What, however, changed with human to place large-scale orders for medical talism; rather it leads to the sharpening evolution was the attainment of a degree equipment up until as late as early March. of such contradictions. The COVID-19 out- of agency (we will come to the question “In one short week,” announced a BBC break falls into the latter category, and it of agency in a while), which has con- report on 20 March, “the US has gone has starkly highlighted the dichotomies sistently expanded thereafter. While from being the world’s superpower, to of capitalism. As a matter of fact, as both humans (or pre-humans), like all other asking nurses to sew their own protec- supply and demand coll apse, the whole animals, were initially compelled by tive gowns and masks” (Kay 2020). ideological and policy apparatus of capi- various natural occurrences to interfere In a recent article titled “The Free talism appears to be at a loss to under- with other ecosystems with the newly Market Isn’t Up to the Coronavirus Chal- stand and deal with the crisis. The capi- acquired agency, they now also began to lenge,” Leigh Phillips (2020) distinctly talist ideologues seem to suggest that choose to migrate to unknown territories.
Economic & Political Weekly EPW MAy 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 29 PERSPECTIVES As a matter of fact, this apparent agency not automatically wither away in a post- and in tolerance to a range of abiotic stresses, and choice was also, in essence, driven capitalist society. especially soil toxicities, but we also must persist in efforts to raise maximum by obj ective principles, the logic of the genetic potential, if we are to meet with The Degree of Exploitation system of material production itself. the projected food demand challenges Nonetheless, the drive for intervening in Once we agree to the fact that the before us, without serious negative impacts the unknown was now, more often than human–nature contradiction is not on the environment. not, social in character, and did not origi- unique to capitalism, and that its origins The point being that growth in produc- nate only due to ecological circumstances. do not lie in the social system that tivity, while arrived at solely due to the Capitalism, driven solely by the logic of defi nes contemporary human existence, capitalist drive for profi t, has played a profi t, undoubtedly enhances the rate of it then leaves us to deal with the argu- crucial role in restraining further exploi- exploration of newer avenues and eco- ment about quantity; that the pace and tation of the ecosystems like primary logical spaces, and, therefore, their exploi- rate of exploitation of different ecosys- forests. It is also worth a mention that tation to levels that are unprecedented. tems expands tremendously under capi- the need for higher agricultural produc- In effect, therefore, capitalism greatly talism, by way of increased commodifi - tivity is to become even more critical in expands the pace of something that is cation of the “wild,” and through the the face of changing land use patterns and very fundamental to the living world, pursuit of a constant rise in productivity growing urbanisation, as well as due to and particularly so for a species that is through promotion of genetic homoge- the yet unpredictable impacts of climate defi ned by the use of conscious produc- neity over diversity. change. This nuance has somewhat esca-
WEEKLY tive activity through the use of labour. These concerns emerging from the ped the analysis of a number of commen- The question that then follows is: Why basic tendencies of capitalism are extre- tators and scholars from the international is it at all critical to appreciate this fea- mely important, but the argument in its left and progressive sections. While criti- ture as more fundamental than capita- explication invariably appears to become cising the agribusiness fi rms for the re- lism itself? We live in a social system one-sided. It does not appreciate the fact lentless destruction of natural ecosystems, governed by its laws, and it appears that while capitalism has increasingly particularly forests, they do not seem to natural to attribute characteristics that extracted natural resources in its relent- appreciate the modern technologies that are foundational to our existence to the less pursuit of profi t, it has also played a have developed under industrial agricul- social system in which our lives operate. signifi cant role in reducing the rate of ture, and the underlying potential therein. However, the failure to distinguish the exploitation of such resources due to Their criticism appears to unequivocally features that are fundamental to us as a increased effi ciency and productivity. target both, the technology and the species from the characteristics that are For instance, it completely fails to recog- question of its ownership. POLITICAL foundational to capitalism, opens the nise the signifi cant gains made in terms In a similar vein, this line of argument gateway to the belief that such charac- of forest conservation due to the tremen- also tends to ignore that as capitalism & teristics were, or would be, absent in any dous increase in agricultural producti- increases the pace of exploitation of other system but capitalism. It, therefore, vity from the success of the much abused nature, it also, in the process, generates also opens the doors to the sentiment of green-revolution technologies in the the ideas and methods to deal with the romanticism with the pre-capitalist past, 20th century. While delivering the spe- ensuing disequilibrium. This is a feature a past where it is assumed that the human– cial 30th Anniversary Lecture, at the unique to capitalism because, as earlier nature relationship was all harmonious, Norwegian Nobel Institute, Oslo, Nor- mentioned, it is under this system that and that the confl ict began only with the man Borlaug (2000) underlines that science becomes a productive force itself. advent of capitalism. The human–nature During the 20th century, conventional It must be appreciated that the idea of contradiction—where humans are both breeding has produced—and continues to sustainability as a concept that accounts part of nature and apart from it, by produce—a vast number of varieties and for intergenerational equity itself arose hybrids that have contributed immensely to virtue of them being capable of applying much higher grain yields, stability of har- under capitalism. The remarkable achi- conscious labour for material produc- vests and farm incomes, while also sparing evements in healthcare and medicine in ECONOMIC tion—is fundamental to human existence. vast tracts of land for nature (wildlife habi- the last century give us the confi dence Since we live under the capitalist system, tats, forests, outdoor recreation). that COVID-19 will not possibly be as it is perhaps natural for us to believe that He illustrates the point through a severe and as long-lasting as the infl uenza the feature is unique to the system, but it is chart (reproduced as Annexure 1, p 31) of 1918, despite the almost complete dis- important to appreciate that such is not that showed the land that was spared mantling of the public health institutions the case. The exploitation of the material from being used for cereal production in the last 50 years. Capitalism in its world for survival, and particularly for in the second half of the 20th century trajectory of development regularly production, is fundamental to our sur- due to higher productivity attained engenders crises—economic well as envi- vival and the trajectory of evolution that through improved technology. He argues ronmental—due to its incapacity to readily we have followed since the beginning of further: account for factors beyond profi t. None- human history. It is also important to There also have been important improve- theless, in the process, it also ends up emphasise that this contradiction will ments in resistance to diseases and insects, creating the knowledge and technology
30 MAy 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 EPW Economic & Political Weekly PERSPECTIVES to fi ght against such crises, and often to lay on “industrial model of agriculture and, Kay, K (2020): “Coronavirus: Has America Ever pre-empt the threats against its existence; more specifi cally, livestock production.” Fur- Been This Humbled?,” BBC News, https://www. ther, he says, “Capital is spearheading land bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-51981627. the contradiction, however, lies in its grabs into the last of primary forest and small- Lipton, E, David E Sanger, Maggie Haberman, Michael realisation in actuality. holder-held farmland worldwide. These in- D Shear, Mark Mazzetti and Julian E Barnes vestments drive the deforestation and devel- (2020): “He Could Have Seen What Was Coming: opment leading to disease emergence. The Behind Trump’s Failure on the Virus,” New York In Conclusion functional diversity and complexity these Times, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/11/ huge tracts of land represent are being stream- The article seeks to re-emphasise that as us/politics/coronavirus-trump-response.html# lined in such a way that previously boxed-in click=https://t.co/LVXXYOYBqQ. capitalism exploits society and nature pathogens are spilling over into local livestock Marx, Karl (nd): “Chapter 15, Exposition of the and human communities. In short, capital Internal Contradictions of the Law,” Section II, for its own expanded reproduction, it centers, places such as London, New York, and titled: “Confl ict Between Expansion of Produc- Hong Kong, should be considered our primary cannot but revolutionise the productive tion and Production of Surplus-Value,” Capital disease hotspots.” forces, in terms of science and technology. Volume III, Part III, https://www.marxists.org/ On the other hand, however, it also archive/marx/works/1894-c3/ch15.htm. References Phillips, Leigh (2020): “The Free Market Is Not Up creates fetters to the realisation of the Borlaug, N (2000): “The Green Revolution Revi sited to the Coronavirus Challenge,” Jacobin, https: potential that it creates, by making it a and the Road Ahead,” Special 30 Anniversary //jacobinmag.com/2020/02/coronavirus-out- slave to the logic of profi t. Lecture, The Norwegian Nobel Institute, Oslo, break-free-market-pharmaceutical-industry. 8 September. Prashad, Vijay and Subin Denis (2020): “An Often The need, therefore, is to imagine a Davis, Mike (2020): “The Coronavirus Crisis Is a Overlooked Region of India Is a Beacon to the social and economic system that all ows Monster Fueled by Capitalism,” https://inthe- World for Taking on the Coronavirus,” https:// setimes.com/article/22394/coronavirus-crisis- peoplesdispatch.org/2020/03/24/an-often- for science and technology to fl ourish capitalism-covid-19-monster-mike-davis. overlooked-region-of-india-is-a-beacon-to-the- world-for-taking-on-the-coronavirus/. WEEKLY without these fetters; a system that can Foster, John Bellamy (1999): “Marx’s Theory of promote and utilise the developments in Metabolic Rift: Classical Foundations for Envi- PTI (2020): “COVID-19: US Healthcare System, ronmental Sociology,” American Journal of One of the Best in World, Under Deep Stress,” science and technology without giving Sociology, Vol 105, No 2, September, pp 366–405, Economic Times, 30 March https://economic- in to the notions of private ownership. The DOI: 10.1086/210315. times.indiatimes.com/news/international/ — (2000): Marx’s Ecology: Materialism and Nature, world-news/covid-19-us-healthcare-system- foremost step towards imagining such a NYU Press. one-of-the-best-in-world-under-deep-stress/ social system is to clearly differentiate Foster, J B and Farooque Chowdhury (2020): “Cat- articleshow/74887314.cms. between science and technology on the astrophe Capitalism: Climate Change, COVID-19, Wallace, Rob (2020): “Who Should We Blame for and Economic Crisis: An Interview of John Coronavirus?—Rob Wallace Has Some Ans- one hand, and the question of its owner- Bellamy Foster,” Monthly Review, https:// wers,” Monthly Review, https://monthlyreview. ship under capitalism on the other, in mronline.org/2020/04/01/catastrophe-capi- org/press/who-should-we-blame-for-corona- talism-climate-change-covid-19-and-economic- virus-rob-wallace-has-some-answers/. our criticism of capitalism. crisis/. Wallace, Rob, Alex Liebman, Luis Fernando Chaves Such a social system, we argue, will also Harvey, David (2020): “Anti-capitalist Politics in the and Rodrick Wallace (2020): “COVID-19 and allow us to account for critical aspects Time of COVID-19,” Jacobin, https://jacobin- Circuits of Capital,” Monthly Review, https:// POLITICAL mag.com/2020/03/david-harvey-coronavirus- monthlyreview.org/2020/04/01/covid-19-and- like environmental sustainability and political-economy-disruptions. circuits-of-capital/. biosecurity as part of the development of & science and technology, as it will not be Annexure 1: World Cereal Production Area Saved through Improved Technology, 1950–98 driven by profi t. At the same time, such 1,800 a social system will not fall into the trap
of imagining a romantic pre-capitalist 1949–51 680 million tonnes phase with dismal levels of productivity. 1995–97 2,025 million tonnes The latter, we must reiterate, will not be a pathway to sustainability. 1,400
Notes 1 See, for instance, the commentary by Mike Davis Land spared (2020). These arguments voice the urgent need to “break the power of Big Pharma and for-profi t 1,000 healthcare.” These writings have also high- ECONOMIC
lighted the achievements of regions, like the hectaresMillion Indian state of Kerala, in fi ghting the disease due to a strong public health infrastructure; see for instance Prashad and Denis (2020). 2 For instance, David Harvey (2020) argues, “Earlier 600 experience had shown that one of the downsides of increasing globalisation is how impossible it is to stop a rapid international diffusion of new diseases. We live in a highly connected world Land used where almost everyone travels. The human net- works for potential diffusion are vast and open. 200 The danger (economic and demographic) was that the disruption would last a year or more.” 3 See, for instance, Wallace (2020) or Foster and 0 Chowdhury (2020). 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1997 Wallace, for instance, distinctly argues that the blame for disease outbreaks like the COVID-19, Source: Borlaug (2000).
Economic & Political Weekly EPW MAy 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 31 SPECIAL ARTICLE
Small Businesses, Big Reform A Survey of the MSMEs Facing GST
Sangeeta Ghosh
This paper draws evidences from field surveys to bring he goods and services tax (GST) was implemented in out the impact of the goods and services tax on the India on 1 July 2017 subsuming a number of central and state taxes with the primary objective to simplify the micro, small and medium enterprises by exploring issues T 1 indirect tax structure. One of the principal departures from of coverage, rate, selection and exemption of taxation, its predecessor value added tax (VAT) is a broader provision of and subsequently, its effect on the competitiveness and input tax credit (ITC) across the entire value chain, particularly viability of these businesses. The coping mechanisms when levied by the centre and the state on a dual collection
WEEKLY the units undertook to tide over the crisis they faced as principle which is likely to remove the erstwhile jurisdictional hurdles to claiming ITC. While the seamless fl ow of ITC can well as the GST Council responses are also discussed. minimise the cascading of taxes, the principle of reverse charge mechanism (RCM) and a system of invoice matching are envis- aged as self-policing mechanisms to control tax evasion. Also, covering a much larger base of enterprises with lower exemp- tion thresholds than before, it is seen as a mechanism to for- malise the economy, by bringing informal enterprises under the tax net. With more than two years since the roll-out of the GST regime, certain issues have come to the fore, which put to doubt the positive expectations regarding this overhauling tax reform. POLITICAL First, the multiple and frequent changes brought out by the GST Council demonstrates that the envisaged GST is far from being & a simplifi cation to the indirect tax regime. Second, media reportage and reports published by the industry associations have frequently cited that the impact of GST on the informal sector has been contrary to the expectations. A major repercussion is potentially on informal sector employment, especially with the sector reeling under weak demand situation in the country. Lack of macro data, however, has restricted informed research on these issues. In this paper, I seek to identify the processes and channels through which the micro, small, and medium enterprises (MSMEs) are affected by the GST, drawing insights from primary surveys. I explore issues of coverage, tax rate, selection and exemption of taxation, and subsequently, ECONOMIC their effect on the competitiveness and viability of these businesses. The coping mechanisms the units undertook to tide over the crisis they faced as well as the GST Council This paper is part of a project of the Institute for Studies in Industrial responses are also discussed. Development (ISID), titled, “Understanding Criticality of Flow of Funds for Robust Growth of MSMEs” sponsored by public sector banks. The author is thankful to the Ajeevika Bureau, and the Confederation of Data and Methodology Indian Industry for assistance in conducting the surveys in Mumbai The survey was conducted across 157 MSMEs in three cities, that and Surat, and contacting enterprises in Delhi, respectively, and to is, Delhi, Mumbai and Surat, between December 2018 and Atul Sarma, Satyaki Roy, M R Murthy and P S Rawat for insightful March 2019 using both structured questionnaires and unstruc- discussions on the draft. tured interviews. Sangeeta Ghosh ([email protected]) is with the ISID, In the absence of a readily available offi cial listing of the New Delhi. MSMEs, a sample framework could not be devised. I used
32 MAy 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 EPW Economic & Political Weekly SPECIAL ARTICLE
snowballing as a method to identify enterprises. This could micro category, reported their turnover to be less than `20 lakh. result in bias as enterprise resource persons might recommend Though this category of fi rms is exempted from registration others who face situations similar to them. To avoid this, the under GST if their transactions are intra-state, they could fi rst units of survey were selected purposely to ensure diver- choose to register under GST optionally. About 51% of the units sity in the size structure, product lines, activity, type of busi- surveyed reported a turnover between `20 lakh and `1 crore. ness, and so on, based on similar mixed methodology as sug- It is important to note that 84% of the units with an annual gested in Pickbourne (2018) and Pickbourne and Ramnarain turnover between `20 lakh and `1 crore are in the micro enter- (2018). I also used a supply chain framework for tracing the prise category, while 16% are SMEs. At the time the survey, this interrelated and interdependent product lines and businesses category of turnover was eligible for the optional composition so as to understand the ecosystem of business relations scheme if their transactions were intra-state. About 43% of the between enterprises, and how this tax regime change affected fi rms reported their turnover to be more than `1 crore; 79% of these existing systems. the SMEs and 19% of the micro units were in this category. At the time of the survey, it was necessary for this category of Categorising the enterprises: Of the 157 enterprises surveyed, fi rms to register under the GST.4 66% were involved in manufacturing activities, 19% were exclusively trading units, around 2.5% pursued both manufac- Coverage of Enterprises turing and trading activities, and 12% were perfor ming job- According to the 2019 report of the Comptroller and Auditor work on material supplied to them. Table 1 provides a detailed General, total registrations under GST as on 28 February 2019
WEEKLY description of the sample units by product and activity lines. were 1.20 crore, of which normal taxpayers accounted for 84% The sample units were further classifi ed into micro, small and composition taxpayers were around 15%. Of the total and medium (the latter two being clubbed into a single category registrations, 59.74 lakh migrated from pre-GST regime, of small and medium enterprises [SMEs]) by the size of their accounting for around 50% of the registrations, while the investment in plant and machinery in case of manufacturing balance were new registrations (CAG 2019: 31). The service sec- units and equipment in case of service sector units.2 Since the tor and large sections of small businesses account for these structure of GST underlines various exemption thresholds new registrations that include certain commodities exempted according to the turnover of the fi rms, I categorise enterprises from taxes in the previous regime. by turnover.3 This is a huge departure from the past. The National Sample Table 2 provides a distribution of the enterprises by their Survey Offi ce’s 73rd round of surveys of unincorporated non- plant size and turnover. Around 6% of the units, all in the agricultural enterprises in 2015–16—a year before GST—found only 4% of the 633.93 lakh estimated enterprises to be regis- POLITICAL Table 1: Distribution of Sample Units by Activities and Product Lines (%) VAT Product Activities tered under the or sales tax. This had wide variations Manufacturing Trade Jobwork Manufacturing Total across industrial sectors and states, type of enterprise, own-
& and Trade erships, location of enterprises, turnover, investment size, Chemical 11.46 1.91 0.00 1.27 14.65 and so on. Elastics 7.01 3.82 0.00 0.00 10.83 Grey cloth 9.55 0.00 0.00 0.00 9.55 While only 1.46% of own account enterprises were regis- VAT Hardboard 7.64 0.00 0.00 0.00 7.64 tered with /sales tax, this percentage was at 16% for estab- Hosiery 3.18 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.18 lishment enterprises. Among the sectors that have a high Job work in textiles 0.00 0.00 8.28 0.00 8.28 presence of enterprises in the unorganised sector, wholesale Latex thread 3.82 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.82 and retail trade (excepting motor vehicles) had 26% and Leather 4.46 3.18 0.00 1.27 8.92 almost 7% of the enterprises registered under VAT/sales tax, Machinery 7.64 0.00 0.00 0.00 7.64 respectively, followed by machinery and equipment (23%), Metal 11.46 0.64 3.82 0.00 15.92 electrical equipment (16%), recorded media (12%), fabricated Textile and hosiery retail 0.00 9.55 0.00 0.00 9.55 metal (5%), paper products (6%), chemical products (5%); Total 66.24 19.11 12.10 2.55 100.00 while manufacturing of food products, tobacco, textiles, ECONOMIC Source: Field survey. apparel, leather, furniture, etc, and services such as, repairing Table 2: Distribution of Sample Units by Plant Size and Turnover activities and food and beverages service—that make for the Plant Size* Turnover (`) bulk of the unorganised sector—had VAT registrations as low Less than Between 20 Lakh More than Total as 0% to 1.5%. 20 Lakh and 1 Crore 1 Crore Micro 10 (11) 67 (71) 18 (19) 95 (100) Consequently, in our sample almost two–fi fths of the enter- GST SME 0 13 (21) 49 (79) 62 (100) prises reported of being exempted from taxes in the pre- Total 10 (6) 80 (51) 67 ( 43) 157 (100) regime. These exempted units were concentrated mainly in Pearson chi2(2) = 56.3464 Pr = 0.000. the textiles and hosiery supply chains such as, grey cloth *Manufacturing sector (investment in plant and machinery): manufacturing, trading of grey cloth, hosiery manufacturing, Micro: <`25 lakh; small: >`25 lakh but < `5 crore; medium: > `5 crore but < `10 crore. *Service sector (investment in equipment). and woven and braided elastics. Some micro units of leather Micro: `10 lakh; small: > `10 lakh but < `2 crore; medium: > `2 crore but `5 crore. products also reported to be exempted from paying VAT. Of the Figures in the parentheses give the share of firms in each plant size category. Source: Field survey. remaining enterprises, another 40% were paying VAT only,
Economic & Political Weekly EPW MAy 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 33 SPECIAL ARTICLE Figure 1: Comparison of Tax Rates Pre- and Post-GST (No of enterprises in %) brought down to 5% from 12%. Earlier, the 24.20 2.55 1.27 4.46 4.46 2.55 incidence of taxes was thus, even higher for
No taxes s (39.5%) No No taxes (39. 5%) Taxe 22.55 11.46 6.37 0.64 many of these units. VAT 5% VAT 6% 7.01 Small Business and Tax Exemption VAT 12.5% 8.28 Before GST was launched, discussions took VAT 13.5% 1.91 place about the exe mption thresholds for VAT (39.5%) VAT 5%, 13.5% 0.64 small businesses due to higher compliance VAT 12.5%, 22% 0.64 costs and information technology (IT) depend- S.
Service taxes (1.9%)%) Service Tax 28% 1.91 Tax (1.9 ency of the tax reform. A majority of the VAT 5%; CST 2% 1.91 MSMEs were competitive precisely because VAT 12.5%; CST 5% 3.18 they were out of the tax net, and thus, VAT 6%; Excise 2% 3.82 exemptions were considered important. It VAT 6%. Octroi 5-7% 2.55 has been argued that the compliance cost for VAT 5%, 12.5%; Excise 12.5%; CST 2% 3.18 the small businesses would be high from VAT 5%; Service Tax 14.5%; Excise 12.5% 0.64 both sides (for the state as well as for the Multiple Taxes (19.1%) VAT 5%, Excise 12.5%; Service Tax 14.5% 3.18 businesses) and hence an exemption would VAT at 12%, Excise 12%; CST 3% 0.64 benefi t the industry. In recognition of this, vari-
WEEKLY ous exemptions were put in place for small Source: FieldGST RatesSurvey. 5% 12%' 18% Different Rates rates Composition Scheme scheme NotNot Filling filling businesses. Businesses with a turnover of Source: Field survey. less than `20 lakh (now extended to `40 while 19% were paying multiple taxes (VAT, excise, octroi, CST, lakh) were exempt from GST and a composition scheme put in service tax) but not more than three indirect taxes. These were place for enterprises doing intra-state business with an aggre- seen mostly in the chemical sector, machinery manufacturing, gate turnover of up to `50 lakh (the present limit is `1.5 crore). metal parts, and washing and dyeing of fabrics. Under the composition scheme, a taxpayer has to pay 1% of his annual turnover as tax on a quarterly basis. However, they Taxes before and after GST cannot collect GST from the customer and cannot claim ITC After the introduction of the GST, most of the fi rms surveyed for their purchases. (94%) were subject to taxation either via composition scheme While these exemptions are in place, under RCM, the onus or the GST itself. Seven of the 10 fi rms with an annual turnover of tax collection is on registered buyers if the supplier is POLITICAL of under the threshold of `20 lakh were also registered as part unregistered or under the composition scheme or falling of the GST network (GSTN) as they had interstate transactions. under certain specifi ed categories like goods carriers, law- & I provide a comparison of the pre- and post-GST tax rates yers, etc, which led to additional compliance burden for the levied on the products of the surveyed enterprises in Figure 1. buyer fi rm. As Banerjee and Prasad (2017: 19) mention, an Nearly 40% of the fi rms were not paying any taxes before GST. exemption of `5,000 per day is allowed to registered dealers Only 2.5% of these are now not fi ling any returns, while 4.5% to make purchases from unregistered vendors without the RCM are under the composition scheme. The remaining 32.5% of obligation. This daily exemption allows for petty expenses. the enterprises, incurred GST at rates of 5%, 12% and 18%, and However, for an aggregate of transactions, this daily exemp- in some cases, different GST rates for the different products tion is small and does not solve the obligation of RCM for that they manufactured/sold. registered dealers. In the next group, another 40% of the enterprises were fi l- In recognition of this problem and the hurdles it places in ing VAT returns alone, at rates of 5%, 6%, 12.5% and 13.5%. front of the MSMEs procuring from unregistered dealers, the Two enterprises in this group paid VAT at 5% and 13.5%, and GSTC in its 28th meeting held on 21 July 2018, suspended the 12.5% and 22%, based on the different types of products sold. levy of GST on RCM on receipt of supplies from unregistered ECONOMIC In this group, 35% of the enterprises were paying higher GST suppliers, except for specifi ed goods in case of certain notifi ed rates at 12% or 18%. Around 19% of the enterprises were classes of registered persons. This provision was extended to paying multiple taxes, which were now subsumed under GST, September 2019 (CAG 2019: 16).5 mostly in the 18% tax rate slab. However, the surveyed fi rms seemed quite unaffected by During the time of the survey, more than 70% of the enter- (or mostly unaware of) these provisions while making their prises surveyed reported paying a higher tax than in the buying decisions. During the survey, a quarter of the fi rms earlier regime. The GST Council has periodically reduced tax reported to have stopped buying from unregistered dealers in rates, particularly for the 28% tax slab. During the survey, order to avail of ITC, while almost half of the units reported 27% of the units reported a reduction in the GST rates, espe- all their sellers to be registered. Only about 4% said that the cially in the chemical and leather sector where the 28% tax unregistered sellers they were previously doing business with, rate was reduced to 18% for many products, and in the had gone out of business and so they were buying from regis- elastics sector where the tax rate for knitted elastics was tered sellers now. Around 18% of the fi rms reported to carry
34 MAy 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 EPW Economic & Political Weekly SPECIAL ARTICLE on business with unregistered sellers as they had long-term The Economic Survey (2017–18) talked of voluntary registra- relations with them and got cheaper material. Only two fi rms tions of 17 lakh registrants that were not obliged to register reported to be aware of thresholds for buying from unregistered under GST as of December 2017. While it views these registra- sellers and said that they bought within the limits. Otherwise, tions as voluntary, it points to the compelling nature of the tax they were procuring from registered dealers alone (Table 3). structure that has forced low threshold businesses to also register under GST. Registration under GST came with the Table 3: Reasons whether Buying from Unregistered Dealers Micro SME Total heavy cost of compliance in terms of increased paperwork, Stopped To claim input tax credit 26 (27.4) 14 (22.6) 40 (25.5) additional fee to accountants, and the mental load of keeping buying All registered sellers 38 (40.0) 37 (59.7) 75 (47.8) track of all bills, and collecting detailed invoices and receipts Unregistered sellers gone even for small transactions. out of business 3 (3.2) 3 (4.8) 6 (3.8) Continues Always bought from Declining Competitiveness to buy unregistered sellers 23 (24.2) 5 (8.1) 28 (17.8) Rarely if shortage 5 (5.3) 0 (0) 5 (3.2) Some of the businesses surveyed wanted the council to get rid Limited buying within threshold 0 (0) 2 (3.2) 2 (1.3) of the multiplicity of rules for similar businesses. Though their Stopped buying any inputs 0 (0) 1 (1.6) 1 (0.6) businesses were small, they were paying GST, while the com- Total 95 (100) 62 (100) 157 (100) position dealers were able to sell at lesser prices as they did not Pearson chi2(6) = 16.9995 Pr = 0.009. collect GST and were paying an annual rate of tax on their Figures in parenthesis represent share of firms. Source: Field surveys. turnover. Even though these businesses could avail input tax
WEEKLY credit, they perceived competition and a loss of their market Composition scheme: The same was applicable to composi- from the composition scheme dealers who were able to sell at tion suppliers as well. At the time of the survey, 58% of our lesser prices. respondent enterprises had the threshold turnover that could make them eligible for the composition scheme. But out of Furniture manufacturers in Mumbai: The steel almirah these, 73% of the enterprises were not eligible for the compo- manufacturers we interviewed in Sakinaka, Mumbai had 5% sition scheme as they had interstate transactions, while out VAT on their products before. Now, the GST rates were at 18%. of the remaining 27% enterprises, I found only 28% to be The composition dealers in the same line of business do not registered under the composition scheme. collect 18% tax and sell at cheaper prices. In order to not lose The reasons for not registering under the composition market shares, these manufacturers reported to absorb a part scheme are many. First, because of a perception that if they of GST themselves and sell at meagre profi t margins. Migration were not registered under GST, they would face a loss in their to composition scheme was not seen as an option as they POLITICAL market share due to their transactions with businesses that feared loss of business, selling to registered dealers them- wanted to avail of ITC. If they were B2B businesses, not register- selves. Even though they could claim ITC for their inputs, the & ing under GST was not seen as an option. Second, the threshold price difference between them and the composition dealers of the composition scheme itself was low when the GST was was a cause for concern for them. Additionally, there were rolled out. Most of the enterprises surveyed got a GST registra- higher compliance costs for GST registered enterprises. This, tion in July 2017 itself, when the threshold was only at `50 they said, was in no way a demonstration of “one nation, one lakh. Thus, when GST was rolled out, the businesses, particu- market, one tax.” larly the B2B businesses, already fearing loss of business due These fi rms seemed to be sandwiched between two sources to the RCM clause, preferred opting for GST instead of the of competition. On the one hand, if small fi rms did not register composition scheme. The relaxations to RCM came only a year under GST, they could stand to lose market share as registered later. Thirdly, these enterprises also reported that they feared clients would not buy from them due to the perception of RCM harassment by tax authorities if not registered under GST, as it and non-availability of ITC. On the other hand, small fi rms would be diffi cult for them to prove that their transactions that choose to join GSTN faced higher compliance costs and the were below a certain threshold. They thought it better to be burden of excessive paperwork. If their business was with ECONOMIC “transparent” in an auditable fashion under GST, even if that unregistered clients, they would have to absorb a part of GST meant fi ling nil returns. themselves or lose market share. While a coercive formalisa- Even as the GST Council decided to raise the threshold of the tion into the tax system is in play, the working margins of the composition scheme to provide relief to the businesses, the small businesses is put to risk. Additionally, the incidence of aforesaid reasons deterred opting for this scheme. Alarmingly, GST on small businesses was higher than the taxes they had the revenue secretary Ajay Bhushan Pandey is quoted to have faced earlier for a majority of enterprises, where many of them said that, “even though currently the exemption limit is `20 were never paying taxes before. Moreover, the prices of the lakh, but still there are about 10.93 lakh taxpayers who are small manufacturers, after a 18% GST, had moved closer to the below `20 lakh but are paying taxes” (Economic Times 2019). branded products and they faced stiff competition from the That itself would mean that 9% of the total GST registrations organised sector that was eating into their market shares. The are from enterprises that are below the threshold of `20 lakh last factor has found resonance in many newspaper reports and are fi ling nil returns. (Srinivasan and Shankar 2018).
Economic & Political Weekly EPW MAy 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 35 SPECIAL ARTICLE A mechanism seemed to be in play, and no matter which labour alone. The percentage of micro enterprises not hiring any path small businesses chose for themselves, it affected them worker at all increased from 7% to 18%, as the entrepreneurs adversely. Being part of a paper trail, however diffi cult its were unable to sustain paying wages to their employees and upkeep, was deemed necessary to do business. production itself was cut. In the power loom sector the workers who are paid on a Power loom sector in Surat: Manufacturing cheap polyester piece-rate basis for per metre of cloth that they produce during sarees and garments for low middle-class income groups, each shift of 12 hours, saw a reduction in their wage rate from demonetisation and the ensuing cash crunch in the economy `1–`1.25 to `0.90–`1.10. However, their total income had in- dried up the demand for sarees and garments, and in turn creased even as the wage share in total output fell as they for grey cloth. Even before they could recover or sell off were producing more cloth per shift by working on six to their inventories, the GST was launched. The unorganised eight machines, instead of the four on an average previously. power loom industry was facing the incidence of indirect This meant intensifi cation of labour during each shift, being taxes for the fi rst time. Previously, their profi ts rose out of low more swiftly “on-foot,” with even lesser breaks. More discon- wages paid to the workers on the one hand, and the absence certingly, the conditions of work in this industry, like much of of taxes on the sector on the other. Meanwhile, one of the the unorganised sector, is highly exploitative.7 essential inputs for production, yarn was taxed at 18% after From manufacturing 4 crore metres per day, the grey cloth GST was launched (12% subsequently), while the output— manufacturing production in Surat fell to 2.5 crore metres per grey cloth—was taxed at 5%, creating a situation of inverted day, and out of the 6.5 lakh looms in the city, 1.25 lakh looms
WEEKLY duty structure for these manufacturers. This resulted in were sold off as scrap. Reportedly, 50,000 power loom workers blocked capital for the sector, and stiffer competition from lost their jobs in the months following the launch of GST.8 the integrated units.6 Migrant workers from states like Odisha, Bihar and Uttar An illustration is in order. To make 15 metres of grey cloth, Pradesh bore the brunt of job losses. Suggestions to allow the 1 kilogram (kg) of yarn is required. Let us assume that cost of refund of ITC on account of inverted tax duty structure were 1 kg of yarn is `100, with 12% GST. Thus, the GST paid by the discussed for the textiles sector. Since the sector had huge em- power loom unit to make 15 metres of grey cloth is `12. If the ployment potential, there was consensus that the sector must selling cost of grey cloth of a decentralised unit is `14 per be provi ded relief even if that meant a fall in revenue. The GST metre with a 5% GST, then the GST collected by the unit by Council in its 28th meeting held on 21 July 2018, recommend- selling 15 metres of grey cloth is `10.50. Thus, for every 15 ed allowing refunds on account of inverted duty structure metres of grey cloth sold, there is an accumulation of `1.50 in with prospective effect from 27 July 2018. However, the power the GST credit ledger for the decentralised power loom unit loom units surveyed had not received any refunds at the time POLITICAL due to the inverted duty structure. This amount was found to of survey and were suffering from severe cash crunch and vary between `1 and `2 depending upon the qualities of the blocked working capital. & yarn and the grey cloth. Comparatively, for an integrated unit that is able to sell the dyed cloth at a price of say, `26 a metre, Hosiery supply chain: The scenario in this supply chain was its GST collection is at `19.5 for 15 metres, and there is no rather complex, primarily distorted due to different tax rates. instance of inverted taxation. The VAT rates on latex threads were 5% previously and under The owners of the power loom units we interviewed report- GST this had increased to 12%. For woven elastics, it reduced to ed to run less number of machines than before. Many of the 5%, while for braided elastics, it had remained at 12%. weavers, particularly the smallest in the sector who ran 12 or The latex thread manufacturers said that their clients, less machines, shut shop, sold their machines to scrap, and mostly small manufacturers, would be unwilling to pay the leased out their units to others. Their income now was the rent GST rate of 12%. This would result in them absorbing some of arising from the factory spaces. We held informal interviews the GST cost themselves, particularly right after GST, as many with 20 such owners who had shut their shops. With a profi t of their clients were unregistered businesses who would not rates at 1%-2%, down from 8% earlier, their businesses were be willing to pay the higher prices due to taxes. With time, a ECONOMIC no more viable. One remarked, “we were job creators before, part of their clientele took GST registration, and this problem now we have turned job-seekers.” Further, many family owned eased. But delayed payments, a problem that was always businesses were found to be spilt into different units of smaller there, increased further after GST, with delays increasing. sizes to escape labour laws. They are mostly registered under from 45 days to 75 days. the Shops and Establishment Act, and though many employ as Further, the woven elastic manufacturers faced inverted many as 100 workers, these units are split to escape registra- duty structure while purchasing rubber latex threads and saw tion under the Factories Act. much higher input costs than before, while the braided elastic Another obvious route of coping with adverse conditions of manufacturers were facing stiff competition due to the higher demand and downturn of turnover was to retrench workers; taxes on their products. Many of the manufacturers we inter- 93% of all the enterprises surveyed by us reported to have viewed had tried to diversify their manufacturing to knitted sacked workers. In certain cases, the enterprises had fi red all and woven elastics due to higher taxes. They were unable to their workers and instead banked on own and/or family sell their products to hosiery manufacturers as the hosiery
36 MAy 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 EPW Economic & Political Weekly SPECIAL ARTICLE manufacturers, in turn, were facing inverted duty structure they witnessed after demonetisation and the launch of GST, and were unwilling to pay the 12% GST, when they could not to mention the boom in e-retailing. collect only 5% on their products. The demand conditions for the small manufacturers of latex Impact on Business Viability threads and micro elastic units had turned adverse as their More than half of the enterprises surveyed said their turnover end clients, small hosiery manufacturers, had reportedly gone had reduced by 10%–30%, while more than one-third of the out of business after GST. The hosiery manufacturers we enterprises perceived their turnover to have reduced by more interviewed in Delhi, also reported a downturn in their sales, than 30% after the GST was introduced (Table 4). and an increase in their cost of production after GST. Their A major shock to demand, particularly to the units that products were untaxed before, and were not competing well almost exclusively dealt in cash transactions was expected after with the branded products after GST. the immediate roll-back of 86% of currency from the economy.9 For the wholesalers and retailers in the textiles industry, Almost 90% of the enterprises (97% of the micro units and 77% imposition of the GST deterred their erstwhile informal pro- of the SMEs) reported that even before things could stabilise cess of doing business, wherein they could either return or sell and they could deal with their unsold inventories, their sales their unsold inventory elsewhere. After GST, the spatial fell further after GST was introduced in July 2017. movement of the inventory came under severe restrictions due Besides the lack of demand, other reasons predominantly to the paperwork involved. Retailers complained that whole- identifi ed by the surveyed fi rms for a downturn in business are salers, unwilling to undertake the requisite paperwork, would increase in input costs due to taxes, blocked working capital,
WEEKLY be unwilling to take back unsold stock like before, and thus, facing inverted tax duty, greater delays in payments, increased they would have to be wary about buying goods. This put a cap compliance costs and associated paperwork, distortions in on the amount, variety, and quality of goods the retailers buyer–supplier chains, and restrictions on fl exibility of move- could display to consumers on demand. The wholesalers too, ment of stock (Table 5). It is interesting to note that for the were simply not buying as much as they did before. During our textile supply chain for example (manufacture of grey cloth interviews with wholesalers and retailers in Surat and Delhi, and hosiery products, job work in textiles, as well as retail), this was one of the repeated narratives. the imposition of a tax itself was not perceived as a problem as Some of the hosiery retailers under the composition scheme much as other issues identifi ed before. said that procuring goods from the branded organised sector had become more diffi cult for them after the GST, and many Complications of compliance: Compliance with regard to GST of the registered wholesalers were not willing to do business was one of the most diffi cult challenges facing the small busi- with them, especially during the months following the launch nesses. As seen in Table 5, four-fi fth of businesses surveyed saw POLITICAL of GST. At that point of time, they had diversifi ed their fare by compliance as challenge. The kind of knowledge about tax pro- stocking other goods. At the time of the survey, their procure- cedures and rules that the businesses required was simply not & ments had smoothened, but they still faced diffi culties. Addi- available to them. Most of them were not even paying any taxes tionally, there was an unprecedented lack of demand that before, and those who did were not used to such elaborate and GST Table 4: Effect on Perceived Monthly Turnover by Enterprise Type complex bookkeeping. The rules under also kept changing Reduced Increased Same Total swiftly as did the tax rates, the threshold limits, RCM clauses, Micro 92 (96.84) 1 (1.05) 2 (2.11) 95 (100) and rules pertaining to late fi nes, deadlines for fi ling taxes, and SME 48 (77.42) 1 (1.61) 13 (20.97) 62 (100) so on. Initially, all businesses registered under GST were to fi le Total 140 (89.17) 2 (1.27) 15 (9.55) 157 (100) three returns per month and one annual return, amounting to Pearson chi2(2) = 15.6504 Pr = 0.000. 37 returns in a year (Banerjee and Prasad 2017). Figures in parentheses represent the share of firms in each plant size category. Table 5: Perceived Problems to Viability of Business after GST Product No of Percentage of Firms Reporting the Reasons Constraining the Viability of Business after GST Sample Lack of Higher Higher Input Costs Blocked Working Inverted Greater Delay Compliance Buyer–Supplier Restrictions to Units Demand Taxes Due to Taxes Capital Duty Structure in Payments Costs Linkages Movement of Goods
ECONOMIC Chemical 23 87.0 52.2 26.1 69.6 30.4 34.8 69.6 69.6 0.0 Elastics 17 100.0 64.7 100.0 64.7 64.7 100.0 100.0 100.0 0.0 Grey cloth 15 100.0 0.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 Hardboard 12 100.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 100.0 0.0 Hosiery 5 80.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 100.0 60.0 Job work in textiles 13 61.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 69.2 0.0 0.0 Latex thread 6 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 0.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 0.0 Leather 14 100.0 50.0 100.0 85.7 0.0 100.0 64.3 0.0 100.0 Machinery 12 66.7 41.7 0.0 41.7 0.0 41.7 66.7 41.7 0.0 Metal 25 92.0 100.0 24.0 84.0 0.0 56.0 100.0 80.0 4.0 Textile and hosiery retail 15 100.0 0.0 0.0 40.0 0.0 40.0 40.0 40.0 100.0 Total 157 90.4 49.7 43.9 58.6 21.0 44.6 81.5 55.4 21.0 Source: Field surveys.
Economic & Political Weekly EPW MAy 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 37 SPECIAL ARTICLE Many of the respondents we spoke to told us that it was not returns under GST. The new return formats—“sahaj” (for B2C just the rate of tax or the imposition of taxes that bothered outward supplies) and “sugam” (for both B2B and B2C outward them, but the very mechanism of record-keeping and account- supplies)—are to make the compliance process simpler for the ancy through which they had to go through. Thoroughly unfa- small businesses where taxpayers up to a turnover of `5 crore miliar with the software systems that GST necessitated, they could opt to fi le any of the three forms on a quarterly basis. had to depend on part-time chartered accountants, as most of the enterprises did not have an in-house accountant like the Business Relations organised sector. Some of them had to hire an accountant to More than three-quarters of the enterprises we surveyed were manage their books, even as they saw their profi ts and incomes business-to-business (B2B) fi rms, and most amongst them, the affected due to the factors discussed before. Others who could small units in particular, had a large part of their business not afford to hire someone for bookkeeping, banked on family with unregistered clients. For example, acid traders in Sakinaka, labour. We saw in several cases, that one of the male children, Mumbai were supplying to metal part manufacturers, half of often pursuing some other line of education, took over book- whom were unregistered small businesses with a turnover of keeping just to keep the family business afl oat. less than `20 lakh. They reported to have to absorb part of the Monthly fi ling of taxes was the biggest incumbent to busi- 18% GST, otherwise lose a signifi cant share of their market. ness. As brought out in the minutes of the 32nd GST Council They were thus forced to sell at the previous VAT rate of 6%, meeting, businesses with an annual turnover of as small as or slightly higher, which in turn affected their small profi t `60 lakh that were paying taxes of only `5,000 annually, would margins and working capital as the additional tax would have
WEEKLY have to spend `15,000–`20,000 annually to fi le the taxes to be paid out of their pockets. (32nd GST Council Signed Minutes, 10 January 2019, p 9). For the hardboard manufacturers in Delhi, who manufac- While 30% of the SMEs (mostly medium-sized fi rms) we tured boards for bag lining, cartons, boxes, and so on, not only surveyed had in-house accounts, all of the micro units under many erstwhile clients had gone out of business, but the existing GST had to hire accountants spending from `12,000 to `30,000 unregistered clients were unwilling to pay the GST rate of 12%. annually. A number of power loom units we surveyed in Surat They too would have to absorb the GST rates themselves making were sharing the accountant costs. The benefi ts of fi ling a their businesses with small fi rms unsustainable. But accessing single tax were reaped only by medium-sized enterprises that an established clientele was not easy either. already were accustomed to fi ling taxes digitally and had an In some instances, where they sold to larger clients, the in-house accountancy department. Along with this were the impact on their overall turnover was not as severe. Similarly, glitches vis-à-vis the ineffi cient GSTN, the failure of the IT the elastic traders in Delhi who were selling to more estab- dependent system, which meant that the businesses had to lished organised businesses did not fare as badly as the ones POLITICAL waste a number of days just trying to fi le the taxes. who had been dealing with smaller businesses. In fact, some of In such a scenario, the proposed increases in exemption and the enterprises surveyed, in spite of some facing some decrease & composition scheme thresholds might not be benefi cial unless in their annual turnover, listed benefi ts arising out of GST, something concrete is done about the RCM clause and the ITC such as the ITC claims (also increase in the coverage of ITC structure. Since these are very much a part of the GST fabric, with services in its ambit), and/or the e-way bill easing inter- ease of compliance becomes the most important route. The ITC state trade, ease of compliance and the convenience of paying claims were to happen through matching the invoices of the a single indirect tax (Table 6). buyer with that reported by the seller. Any incorrect or unmatched transactions fi led by the supplier leads to the Gainers from GST: Our interviews with six medium-sized denial of credit to the buyer. This led to huge problems, as the dye manufacturing units in Surat revealed that though the suppliers were not technically adept at recording these trans- industry faced a downturn in their production and sales due to actions on the one hand, and on the other IT-related glitches Table 6: Perceived Benefits Due to GST made it diffi cult to cater to such a huge fl ow of information. Product No of % of Firms Reporting on the Perceived Benefits Due to GST This led to problems of buyers not being able to claim ITC and Sample Units Ease of Interstate Trade; Ease of
ECONOMIC ITC Claims E-way Bill Compliance affected their working capital. Chemical 23 100.0 87.0 30.4 The GST Council is well aware of the challenges that face Elastics 17 64.7 100.0 0.0 businesses, particularly small businesses, due to compliance, Grey cloth 15 0.0 0.0 0.0 and certain steps were taken to ease the burden of compliance. Hardboard 12 0.0 100.0 0.0 Businesses with a turnover of less than `1.5 crore are now Hosiery 5 0.0 0.0 0.0 allowed to fi le returns and pay taxes on a quarterly basis, Jobwork in textiles 13 100.0 53.8 23.1 which will be a big relief for small businesses. GSTR-2 (a Latex thread 6 16.7 0.0 0.0 Leather 14 0.0 64.3 0.0 purchase return) and GSTR-3 (input–output return) were sus- Machinery 12 58.3 58.3 33.3 pended due to its complex structure, and instead, GSTR-1 (the GSTR B Metal 25 24.0 12.0 0.0 sales return) and -3 , (summary input–output return) Textile and hosiery retail 15 0.0 0.0 0.0 remain, along with the annual return form. The new forms Total 157 38.9 47.8 8.9 are uploaded from 1 April 2019, in an attempt to simplify the Source: Field surveys.
38 MAy 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 EPW Economic & Political Weekly SPECIAL ARTICLE adverse demand conditions, the manufacturers largely felt However, they perceived all their products to be cheaper that they had benefi ted through the GST. These units with after the GST. large modern factory spaces, registered under the Factories Act, employing more than 70 regular workers and with a Conclusions turnover of above `20 crore, were the only ones in our sample While the fi ndings reveal that the benefi ts of the reforms till date that were exporting their products directly. seem to be skewed towards the medium-sized businesses, it For them the GST had made exporting goods much more might be too early to completely rule out the prospects for the convenient. Before GST, they had to fi ll six sheet of paper for small businesses, in particular. How resilient the small businesses container shipments and 402 border forms used radio frequency will be to this change, is a matter of time and largely contin- identifi cation (RFID) seals and paid octroi. Post GST, a simple gent upon whether and how the attempts for simplifying the bill went with the material, and the manufacturers could put design of the GST regime for the small businesses pan out. the seal themselves. Transportation with e-way bill saved As far as higher threshold exemptions are concerned, they them time. Their compliance burden had reduced substantially might not yield desired results, unless the GST in its very struc- and refunds had become convenient—being directly credited ture with RCM and invoice matching makes the task of compli- into their accounts, with less paperwork and follow-ups. How- ance easy. Tax fi ling on a quarterly basis will be a welcome ever, it is also important to note here that these fi rms already move, however, one needs to see how it works out along had in-house accountants, and were not unfamiliar with the with the provisions for invoice matching. The issue of inverted process of fi ling taxes and digital bookkeeping. tax duty structure too might not be creating a level playing GST
WEEKLY Another example of a gainer from is one of the manu- fi eld for all businesses. Added to it is the issue of multiple tax facturing and trading fi rms we had interviewed. Again, a rates, where many similar kinds of products in the same value medium-sized enterprise, registered under Shops and Esta- addition chain are facing different rates. blishment Act, employing 75 regular workers, had gained I acknowledge that the caveats of this study are its sample from GST, as it could now collect ITC for its vast expenditure size, and limited scope and coverage of the variegated MSME on advertisements. With the increase in their turnover, they sector. However, the strength of the exercise lies in the fact that could now pass on the benefi ts of lower production costs it is amongst the rare attempts, if not the only one till date, of to the customers. The tax rate on some of their products exploring the effects of a mammoth tax reform like the GST, has declined, while on some others it has increased. empirically, though our fi ndings are largely qualitative in nature.
Notes whose aggregate turnover does not exceed Economic Times (2019): “Boost for SMEs: Exemp- POLITICAL 1 For a comprehensive reading of the journey of `20 lakh have been exempted from registra- tion Limit for GST Hiked to `40 lakh from `20 Lakh,” 5 August, https://economictimes.in- indirect taxation towards GST, see Mukherjee tion under GST. diatimes.com/small-biz/policy-trends/boost-for- and Rao (2019) and Bhattacharjee and Bhat- 5 This was again changed from 1 April 2019, via & smes-exemption-limit-for-gst-hiked-to-rs-40-lakh- tacharjee (2018). notifi cation No 07/2019-Central Tax (Rate) 29 March 2019 to specify supply of goods from-rs-20lakh/articleshow/67471417.cms?from 2 The defi nition for micro, small and medium =mdr. related to construction activity liable for RCM. enterprises is as per the MSME Act, 2006. GST Council Signed Minutes, GST Council, various 6 These are a small number of companies that 3 It was not possible to verify the annual records meetings, http://www.gstcouncil.gov.in/. are vertically integrated and do most of of the units (neither did all the units keep a Mukherjee, Sacchidananda and R Kavita Rao (2019): the production in-house. They buy yarn from book of accounts). Even the NSS rounds report Evolution of Goods and Services Tax in India, only 12% of the enterprises to maintain a book outside but do the weaving, printing and post- UK: Cambridge. production work like embroidery in one factory. of accounts, and data from the book of acc- Pickbourne, Lynda and Smita Ramnarain (2018): ounts is collected for a negligible percentage 7 For an account, see Subramanian (2018). “Separate or symbiotic? Quantitative and of enterprises (0.13%). During the survey, I 8 Author’s personal interview with Ashish Gujarati, Quali tative Methods in (heterodox) Economics saw a reluctance on part of the entrepreneurs President of Pandesara Weavers’ Association, research,” Handbook of Research Methods to give details about turnover. In many cases, Surat. and Application in Heterodox Economics, I provided them with the range (as used in 9 More than half of the enterprises surveyed Freferic S Lee and Bruce Cronin (eds), UK: this analysis: less than `20 lakh, between reported that a majority of their transactions Edward Elgar. `20 lakh and `1 crore, and more than `1 crore), were still in cash. This was true for three-quar- Pickbourne, Lynda (2018): “Combining Qualitative and then the information was much more ters of the micro enterprises and a quarter of and Quantitative Methods in Fieldwork: An ECONOMIC forthcoming. Wherever possible, for example, the SMEs surveyed. These responses were in Application to Research on Gender, Migration in the case of grey cloth manufacturers, I urban centres. It can be fair to expect a much and Remittances in Ghana,” Handbook of triangulated the fi gures reported to me by higher percentage of cash-based transactions Research Methods and Application in Heterodox Economics, Freferic S Lee and Bruce Cronin asking about the capacity of the machines, at the all-India level. the number of machines operated, days of (eds), UK: Edward Elgar. operation, and the prices of grey cloth per metre, Srinivasan, Raghuvir and Jay Shankar (2018): and so on. “Goods and Services Tax Has Reduced Competi- References tion from Unorganised Sector: T T Jagannathan,” 4 The threshold for the optional composition Hindu, 28 October, https://www.thehindu.com/ scheme stands at `1.5 crore from 1 April 2019, Banerjee and Prasad (2017): “Small Businesses in the GST Regime,” Economic & Political Weekly, business/Economy/goods-services-tax-has-re- bringing a parity to the earlier regime where duced-competition-from-unorganised-sector/ Vol 52, No 38, pp 18–22. manufacturers were exempt from the pay- article25354263.ece. Bhattacharjee, Govind and Debasis Bhattacharya ment of central excise duty up to an annual Subramanian (2018): “Synthetic Fabric, Authentic turnover of `1.5 crore. The exemption limit (2018): GST and Its Aftermath: Is Consumer Really Despair,” People’s Archive of Rural India, from GST has been upped at `40 lakh. Further, the King? Sage Publications India Private Limited. 12 June, https://ruralindiaonline.org/articles/ states of India have been given the option to CAG (2019): Report No 11 of 2019, Compliance Audit synthetic-fabric-authentic-despair/?fbclid=Iw decide the exemption threshold from GST. of Union Government, Department of Revenue AR2m6JmSOPwcw0mGk9BOtgrOYn6kfK95lX- Service providers making interstate supplies, (Indirect taxes-Goods and Services Tax). ekWvEHZsPRdK0rb4WYKP_h_SQ.
Economic & Political Weekly EPW MAy 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 39 SPECIAL ARTICLE
‘Piloting’ Gender in the Indian Railways Women Loco-pilots, Labour and Technology
Arundhathi
Women loco-pilots in the Indian Railways, although few unning a railway system not only requires trains, in number, face unique challenges as they negotiate tracks, signals, stations and electricity but also people with masculine forms of labour and technology in a R who are skilled to run this system. As of early 2020, there are 18 zones in Indian Railways, each further divided male-dominated work environment. While, into divisions. The labour involved is also arranged in a hierarchy, theoretically, they are treated at par with their male with gang men and unskilled mechanical labour at the lowest counterparts, new hierarchies are created on the job rungs and the Railway Board in New Delhi at the top. Given its
WEEKLY when they are expected to aspire to “masculine” huge geographical expanse, Indian Railways has developed into a fragmented as well as hierarchical professional domain; standards of performance and discouraged from taking the fragmented nature due to physical distances and the hier- up the full range of tasks designated for loco-pilots. archies as inherited from colonial times. Thus, the entry of women in loco-piloting seems to This article looks at one specifi c category of workers, namely reinforce its appearance as a masculine profession, and women loco-pilots, or engine drivers, as they are known in common parlance. While the profession of engine driving is as neither is the gendered nature of the system questioned, old as the inception of the railways, women’s entry into it is a nor is it actively challenged. fairly recent phenomenon, especially in the Indian context. Surekha Shankar Yadav is known as the fi rst woman train driver in India, who joined the railways in the late 1980s (Think Change India 2018). Since then, several women have followed POLITICAL in her footsteps, in different zones across the country. However, the number of women loco-pilots is still low. In 2015, out of a & total of 55,803 loco-pilots in India, only 291 were women.1 For the purpose of this research, in-depth interviews of 10 women loco-pilots from two different zones of Indian Railways were conducted, and non-participant observation was under- taken to observe their working conditions. Informal discussions and conversations with several male loco-pilots were also con- ducted. Ths article is an attempt to understand these women’s negotiations with labour and technology in a male-dominated workplace, and how this impacts the gendering of the very no- tions of labour and technology. Several other professions (such as the army) have also been traditionally male- dominated and continue to remain so, but I chose to look at loco-piloting, as ECONOMIC there is scant literature in the Indian context on the struggles of women workers in the railways. While loco-piloting is in no way the only profession in the railways in which women are under-represented, it was chosen due to a combination of This article is an excerpt from the author’s MPhil thesis titled Drivers of Change: Women Loco Pilots in Indian Railways. The author would like personal interest and a few stories circulated in the media that to thank her research supervisor Asha Achuthan, and employees of the provided the fodder for initial research. Indian Railways who provided inputs for this research. In addition, the author would also like to acknowledge the anonymous reviewer at EPW Labour and Technology in Postcolonial Times whose comments have helped her strengthen and clarify her arguments As is common knowledge, the railways were introduced by the and certain sections of the article. British, and in the initial days, although few in number, they Arundhathi ([email protected]) is a doctoral scholar at the dominated the railway hierarchy (Kerr 2007; Hurd and Kerr Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai. 2012). After independence, the railways were transferred
40 MAy 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 EPW Economic & Political Weekly SPECIAL ARTICLE completely into indigenous hands and, before long, all posts with masculinity as it involves hard physical labour (although (both technical and non-technical) were taken over by Indians. not so much these days compared to that of steam traction), This affected the Eurasians and Anglo-Indians severely, who engagement with technology, extensive mobility (and hence, had hitherto enjoyed monopoly over skilled jobs in the railways staying away from home for long periods of time) and by (Bear 2007). Although reservations for Anglo-Indians were extension, erratic work timings. maintained in the railways for some years, they were soon phased Given that loco-piloting was once an option for the margin- out. This development went hand in hand with the phasing out alised, it is ironic that this profession opened its doors to women of outdated technologies as well. Anglo-Indians were mostly only after becoming an option for the privileged. Women started employed as drivers for steam engines, which started being entering this profession once the ITI eligibility criterion was phased out in the 1980s. A power controller had remarked to me introduced. This meant that only women who were privileged in this regard that eligibility conditions (such as an Industrial enough to have a technical education could aspire for this job. Training Institute [ITI] qualifi cation or diploma) for the job of Given that the number of women having access to technical engine drivers was announced somewhere around this time education were few, it is only women privileged by their class (personal interview, 2016), as new forms of traction required a and caste positions who entered this profession. Not all women different form of labour for their operations. I interviewed had the matriculate-cum-ITI qualifi cation. Some Viewed from the labour-process perspective, it is obvious came with higher qualifi cations such as a B tech or a diploma that technical improvements lead to a deskilling of labour or in engineering. Two of my research participants who held a to the privileging of certain kinds of labour over others. The B tech degree had previously worked with multinational
WEEKLY labour-process perspective views technology as being hand in companies. Four other women participants reported how they glove with capitalism, used by capitalists to their advantage had simultaneously pursued graduation degrees in history and to the disadvantage of workers, providing greater produc- and zoology. Two of them had also contemplated teaching in tivity and lesser costs to the capitalists. This is perhaps most schools. Security of employment in a government establishment pertinent in the case of a profession like loco-piloting. is what made them look at loco-piloting as an option, even During the days of steam traction, engine driving did not when some of them were clearly qualifi ed for more skilled require one to have a defi nite type of education. Many men jobs. This merits a critical refl ection on how the entry of women would be inducted as fi remen and get trained on the job. As into loco-piloting is not a fact to be celebrated, especially if steam locomotives gave way to electric and diesel locomotives, it is taken up by women who are overqualifi ed for the job. unskilled labour was forced to give way to skilled and educated It suggests that women lack career options that match their labour. From the 1980s, the eligibility criteria for applying for advanced skill sets. the post of an assistant loco-pilot was an ITI diploma. Prior to Nearly all women were introduced to loco-piloting by men. POLITICAL the introduction of this eligibility criterion, the job of an Some were asked to take the Railway Recruitment Board engine driver was one that was an option for the marginalised (RRB) examination by their fathers, while some attempted it & (Eurasians and Anglo-Indian, and members of minority com- along with their brothers. Some women found out about the munities such as Indian Christians and underprivileged job through male classmates while some others knew about sections of Indian society during British rule). With the change the job from male relatives in the railways. In a nutshell, male in eligibility criteria, the job was opened to people from sections gatekeepers for a male-dominated job facilitated the entry of of society that had access to lower-level technical education. In these women into loco-piloting. Patriarchal familial relations doing so, eligibility criteria in terms of family heritage and and their replication also played a role in bringing as well as race were now replaced by the access to modern, technical sustaining these women in this profession. education (which was ultimately a product of caste, class and Similar to India, Western countries saw women taking up gender privileges) and new hierarchies were established. train driving in the 1970s and 1980s (at a time when the West had already witnessed the women’s movements) (Cahn 1993). Women’s Entry into Loco-piloting This was only after the replacement of steam engines by elec- Although many women did work on construction sites along tric and diesel engines, which were “easier” to drive. Initially, ECONOMIC with their families in the initial days of the construction of it was believed that the easing of certain technologies would railway lines, no records exist to give us exact fi gures or identities. make way for women’s entry into hitherto male-dominated When the railways were fi nally built, the debate shifted to professions. loco-piloting certainly proves this belief wrong. women’s access to railways and whether they were safe enough Despite trains becoming more “driver-friendly,” the gendered for them to travel, but there was no discussion surrounding codes governing labour required have not undergone much women’s work in or for the railways. change. Those women who do enter this job struggle to make a The percentage of women employees in the Indian Railways place for themselves. The domination of men is reinforced both is barely 5.96% (as of 2013).2 As one of the largest employers in by the visible control over space and infrastructure as well as India, this is a dismal fi gure. The dominance of men and the through their control over knowledge, skills and labour. complete absence of women is more keenly felt in certain tech- The women who were interviewed had taken for granted nically skilled jobs such as that of engineers or loco-pilots. the disproportionately large presence of men in this profes- Many women do not apply for this job due to its close association sion. Having been exposed to technical education, which is also
Economic & Political Weekly EPW MAy 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 41 SPECIAL ARTICLE male-dominated, these women did not necessarily feel awkward are denied both individuality and a sense of connection with in the midst of so many men. Even during the days of training, the job on the grounds of gender. Having no other women role many of the women were the only ones in their batch. Their models or even women trainers, all women ALPs/loco-pilots experience of training was quite different from the actual have to learn from their male counterparts. While this learn- working of the loco, not so much in the nature of the job, but in ing process is rather untroubled during the days of training, the nature of relations with male co-workers. strained gender relations mark it during the actual job. The training for loco-piloting consists of theory and practical lessons as well as some training on the simulator and footplate Experiences in the Engine Cab in order to get some hands-on experience of driving. While It is common knowledge that loco-piloting is a highly stressful driving is an important component of a loco-pilot’s job, it is job, owing to tough physical conditions and erratic, long work- equally important to fi gure out whether the engine is working ing hours. While these often cause severe psychological stress, fi ne and troubleshoot any issues as quickly as possible. Due to women loco-pilots have emphasised issues such as lack of a rigid schedule for trains (which gets compromised more toilets, lack of women-only running rooms and the erratic timings often than not), loco-pilots are often under pressure to drive of the job. While some of these are infrastructural issues, on time and under emergencies, and if they are unable to several other issues arise as men and women loco-pilots work troubleshoot and fi x the loco themselves, they are supposed to together in the engine cab. These have implications for the contact and inform the power controllers. association of technology with a certain gender, and this sec- Most women reported getting along fairly well with their tion aims to highlight these implications. Many women report-
WEEKLY colleagues during training. They were treated by their male ed that they actually got along well with their male colle agues colleagues as “sisters” and did not report any discomfort in the during training, and they would often help one another in learning environment. The way in which most women spoke learning. This seemed to change the moment they entered the of their training could at best be described as dismissive. The job. Almost as soon as they entered service, women ALPs would reasons behind such an attitude could be several—the most either have to work with older, more experienced but slightly important of those, perhaps, is how technology and technical rigid male loco-pilots or sit in the crew lobby as they could not training is often viewed as “neutral.” be sent on “unsafe routes.” This would often result in two dif- While such a view helped many of these women pick up the ferent outcomes. Depending on where these women worked, job skills, it did not allow them to question the nature of technolo- the attitude of their male co-workers would mostly be hostile, gy they were using. The gendered nature of technology becomes although for different reasons. more apparent once they start working on the footplate, although If women stayed in the lobby and did not actually take up women loco-pilots would not express it in terms of gendering. the job of driving, they were often accused of taking the “easier” POLITICAL For instance, some women assistant loco-pilots (ALPs) reported aspect of the job and not knowing the struggle of working on how they took a long time even to open the heavy door of the the footplate. It is not as if only women work in the lobby; & cab during their initial days. Even checking the engine would sometimes even male loco-pilots are assigned to the lobby on take longer because they would have to climb up and down the grounds of ill-health or otherwise. When men occupy the lobby, engine often, bending and stretching to check various parts. no criticism is directed against them, but when women per- Climbing the engine would often be strenuous, as most loco- form the same job, they are accused of performing “easier,” motives would have a rather narrow, but steep ladder. This re- and “lighter” tasks, when they were originally appointed for fl ects the ways in which seemingly neutral aspects of the built “harder” work. Work in the lobby is mostly of a clerical nature, environment would serve to exclude women or complicate their and involves handling employment and leave records and access to technical jobs. Most technologies that women use scheduling of duties. Given that any division often deals with (whether domestic or otherwise) have almost never had women at least a few hundred loco-pilots, handling their individual as their fi rst intended users (Wacjman 1991). Since most of these records or scheduling their duties is no easy task. technologies (for military or industrial uses) have been developed Yet, the moment women are assigned this task, its value in by men, for the use of men, women’s comfort in being able to the labour hierarchy falls. Since women perform clerical work ECONOMIC handle them has never been a priority at the design stage and men drive the trains, men’s work is immediately accorded (Wacjman 1991). Since women are more conscious of using their higher respect. The technology that women are capable of bodies to do some work and experience of technology is mediated operating (computers, in the case of the lobby) is seen as infe- through the body, the physical nature of this engagement with rior to what the men can handle (the engines). No value is acc- technology was something that they were extremely conscious of. orded to the skills of women in keeping the lobby running A constant comparison with male counterparts was also smoothly. When men perform the same technical labour in the prevalent and has its roots in the days of training, as a conver- lobbies, their skills are not devalued or looked down upon. sation with an assistant mechanical engineer (AME) revealed. They are probably seen as an extension of the “masculine” This female AME would often oversee the training of women work needed to keep engines running. ALPs. She told me that she would often tell them, “not to be What is also important to note is that this devaluation of afraid and do it like a man” (personal interview, 2016). When clerical lobby work was not actually in practice before women men’s performance becomes the benchmark in this job, women entered the loco-piloting profession. With the entry of women,
42 MAy 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 EPW Economic & Political Weekly SPECIAL ARTICLE
a more visible form of gendering took place, which created a Since this “feudal” relationship3 between loco-pilots and ALPs hierarchy, even within the tasks performed by a loco-pilot. cannot be sustained between a male loco-pilot and a female ALP, This resulted in the footplate job being associated with the mas- many men refuse to take women along in the engine. Offi cially, culine, and the lobby tasks being associated with the feminine. a loco-pilot cannot choose which ALP to take along. However, in This binary is analogous to other binaries such as that of private/ case of misunderstandings or awkwardness, crew controllers public and stationary/mobile, which can also be read in terms of often step in and take such matters in their own hands. Regard- their gendered associations. The lobby is a “stationary” space, akin ing women, this matter assumes heightened importance, as to the private. It is located in a fi xed location on the station plat- women’s safety from sexual harassment has to be taken into form, and the relegation of women to this stationary realm is akin consideration. The solution to this, as a power controller put it, to the relegation of women to the private sphere, away from the was “We only send women ALPs along with those male loco- “mobile,” “public” of the engine cab. This has several implica- pilots who treat them as their sisters or daughters” (personal tions for women, in denying them the opportunity to exercise interview, 2016). This clearly points to the imagination of the their potential, as well as from accessing certain forms of tech- workplace in terms of the patriarchal family unit and the engine nology and know-how necessary for their professional growth. cab becomes the site of the reproduction of patriarchal familial All women who join the profession of loco-piloting enter the relations. There is a refusal to view women in any other role job with the necessary skills for this form of labour. However, when except that of sisters or daughters, both of which are vulnerable they are made to work in the lobby instead of the engine, they positions in the family unit, closely linked to the notion of honour, are unable to put to use any of the skills cultivated so far. As a which needs to be protected. While this replication of patriar-
WEEKLY result, their promotions get affected. To be promoted from one chal relations seems to be an easy solution to diffuse the ten- level of loco-piloting to another, one needs to have driven at least sion between male and female employees, in practice, it does 60,000 km. If a woman stays in the lobby without any route not actually work that way. Many women reported that the “de- miles to her credit, she cannot effectively move towards the glass cent” male loco-pilots would often let the women stay on in the ceiling, leave aside break it. This is one of the key reasons why engine cab if it was after dark or in any other such untoward women who join as loco-pilots but choose to stay in the lobby at circumstance, and do the tasks designated for the ALPs them- the very beginning of their careers tend to get restricted. It is selves. This would often lead to resentment among male loco- only with the growth in the number of women that the possibility pilots, who would feel the burden of doing the job of both the of accommodating them in the lobby is no longer feasible. loco-pilot and the ALP, further fuelling a sentiment to keep This has led to women being sent to the engine cab, some- women away from the cab. times aligned with and sometimes against their wishes. Many Another reason for not expecting anything from female women I spoke to said that they preferred sitting in the lobby ALPs was also a deep-seated fear of being accused of sexual POLITICAL or doing “stationary” duties. Alhough all the women I met had harassment by them, as a power controller told me (personal done footplate duty for a considerable amount of time, very interview, 2016). As a result of this, male loco-pilots would & few of them actively looked forward to it. often try to avoid taking women along in the fi rst place. In Since very few zones have women loco-pilots, most women doing so, the men display a deep resistance to changing social ALPs accompany and assist male loco-pilots in the engine. This as well as spatial norms. A power controller also remarked how, itself has been the cause of several issues ranging from awk- before the coming of women, even men of different castes wardness in working with older men in close physical proximity to would work together in harmony, but just refuse to share food not being able to fulfi l certain “expectations” of fellow loco-pilots. with one another (personal interview, 2016). The very same When women do accompany men as assistants, they are often men were now unable to come to terms with new gendered expected to do anything that a male assistant would do. This spatial dynamics, which would entail sharing space with a ranges from tasks such as checking diesel and water levels to woman (sometimes, even as a senior; if the woman is a loco- bringing tea or snacks for the loco-pilot. While the former is pilot and the man an ALP), and hence, many men would con- the designated task of an ALP, the latter is a culturally deter- sider it best to avoid working with women. mined obligation. For instance, some several women ALPs/ These strategies and workplace tensions point out the extent ECONOMIC loco-pilots told me that male ALPs would often jump out of a to which patriarchal notions of women’s safety and honour int- slow locomotive, which was just pulling into the platform, in eract with the gendering of workplace relations in the profes- order to buy tea or food for their seniors or remove their luggage sion of loco-piloting. Women have often claimed the need for from the locomotive at the end of duty hours. However, women unstinting familial support in order to continue in this profes- ALPs could not be expected to wait on their male loco-pilots sion, but what they probably do not expect is the replaying of in such a fashion. This is because most women would not certain familial relations and restrictions in this professional venture onto crowded platforms, risking their safety in order domain. It is ironic that while women need the support of a to fulfi l the whims of a senior. All women told me that crowds patriarchal familial unit to break out of the “private” and enter could not be trusted, and in case of some mishap, the estab- the “public” professional realm, it is the same patriarchal rela- lishment would not hesitate to wash its hands off them since, tions that govern the working of the professional realm as well. offi cially, they were not required to do such tasks for their None of the male loco-pilots I spoke to reported any technical loco-pilot seniors. incompetence on the part of women. Their chief complaint
Economic & Political Weekly EPW MAy 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 43 SPECIAL ARTICLE
was that women did not know the harsh realities of the job as Not all women ALPs and loco-pilots view this absence of they mostly avoided the diffi cult aspects of it. Even women interaction as a disadvantage. Some of them see it as the best who drove independently as loco-pilots, or assisted on all trains part of their profession. There was no need to appease bosses or be were often exempted from night duties, driving goods trains at the beck and call of seniors for promotions. As long as one had and outstation duties (this often depended on the decisions of one’s safety records and route mileage, promotions keep happen- senior offi cers, who took the plight of women into account and ing. However, this can only be said with absolute certainty when assigned them “easy” duties). This too contributed to the men and women have the same working conditions. If women devaluing of women’s labour. Even if they were effi cient with have to struggle to even get line duty to begin with, it certainly jobs, such as shunting or assisting, their labour was not accorded points to something more than plain technical requirements at the same respect as men. The hierarchies in the loco-piloting work. If men decide whether or not women are fi t to do footplate job get fi rmly entrenched along gender lines. duty, then, clearly gender is a huge part of how technology is kept Once one is promoted to the position of a loco-pilot, one can running, something which feminists have been pointing out since independently drive trains. This form of labour is slightly differ- the beginning of feminist critiques of science and technology. ent from what is expected from an ALP because ALPs can only start or switch off the engine. Very few women I interacted with were Negotiating the Labour Union loco-pilots and none were passenger/mail/express loco-pilots. The other aspect of the workplace where gender plays a key Nevertheless, all of them talked about driving with fondness. role is the All India Loco Running Staff Association (AILRSA), One said that it was the most tension-free form of driving, as one the loco-pilots’ union and the only offi cially designated forum ALP
WEEKLY only had to concentrate on the signal, and there was no traffi c to for the discussion and negotiation of their issues. All the s bother about compared to driving a vehicle on the streets. Ano- and loco-pilots I interacted with, whether men or women, ther loco-pilot echoed these sentiments, when she told me how reported paying the membership fees of `200 per annum to she found her two-wheeler more cumbersome than the engine. the AILRSA but none of them had ever attended its meetings or But driving is not the only skill a loco-pilot is expected to master. even approached it for resolving any of their issues. On probing a Any engine, when designed, is handled by at least 11 different little more, loco-pilots and ALPs told me that the AILRSA was engineers from different specialisations. However, a loco-pilot, full of corrupt men who only joined the union to wield some who may operate any of the many different engines which ply infl uence over the seniors so as to prevent their transfers or line on a route, is expected to know all these cabs inside out, even their pockets with the money collected as membership fees though they are only responsible for its operation and driving. (personal interview, 2016). I got an opportunity to speak to This dichotomy between the expert and the operator and how only one senior union member, who emphasised the need for a loco-pilot is expected to straddle both domains poses a problem, a separate union for the running staff due to the peculiar POLITICAL primarily for male loco-pilots. This is because most women nature of the job, which other workers often did not understand loco-pilots do not get a chance to handle different types of (personal interview, 2016). He also stressed the necessity of a & engines, given that they are often sent on limited routes. This union to support ALPs and loco-pilots as there were no witnesses has serious implications for women’s access to certain types of to attest to the actions of ALPs and loco-pilots due to the isolated knowledge as well as their consequent professional growth. nature of their jobs. The activities of the union included holding This knowledge is not something one can be taught during regular meetings to discuss issues plaguing the running staff. training—it is more about hands-on learning. As one of my The most pertinent of these issues were the reduction of duty participants mentioned, one learns only by being on the loco- hours and the removal of the “signal passing against danger” motive (personal interview, 2016). She further went on to (SPAD) clause.4 While negotiations with the establishment have mention how male ALPs were often at an advantage over women yielded results in the form of reduction in duty hours (at least ALPs because senior male loco-pilots would often willingly on paper), SPAD as an issue remains to be tackled. share their experience in order to train male ALPs. However, Through the entire duration of my conversation with this since many male loco-pilots often avoided taking women union member centred around the various diffi culties faced along as assistants, let alone talking to them, women ALPs by the loco-pilots not once were women mentioned. Every ECONOMIC were forced to learn from their experience on the line (which time this member referred to his comrades, he would use would often be limited as they might not be sent on all routes phrases such as “our boys.” When I prompted him by mentioning to begin with). Another participant loco-pilot remarked that the existence of women in the system, his response was that one of the reasons she avoided interacting with male colleagues they were really few in number. He acknowledged that they was that they never had any meaningful conversations about could not be expected to “work as men” and due to this, they technical aspects of the job (personal interview, 2016). The were confi ned to doing only some kinds of duties. He admitted male loco-pilot’s unwillingness to discuss any technical details that men were aware that women were given “preferential” about the engine or other technical know-how is evidence of treatment, and men were cooperative because women were their attempt to keep away certain forms of knowledge from very few in number. According to him, so far, since women had women. While the intent may not necessarily be to keep women been very few in number, no confl icts had arisen between the in the dark, women miss out on learning or gaining skills since two genders. However, he was not sure how things would men do not readily converse or interact with women. change if more women entered the job.
44 MAy 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 EPW Economic & Political Weekly SPECIAL ARTICLE Although this was only one conversation with a union member, often function together to privilege certain body types for this it served to throw light on how gender had been marginalised profession. While a preference was given to Eurasians or domi- as a concern in an arena that otherwise had the potential to ciled Anglo-Indians in colonial times (Bear 2007), in contem- initiate a dialogue on the aspect of the gendering of loco-piloting. porary postcolonial times, men are preferred for loco-piloting.5 Given that none of the offi ce holders of the union were women This shows that erstwhile racial hierarchies have now been and nor were any of the women ALPs and loco-pilots (who I replaced by gendered hierarchies in engine driving. The entry interacted with) members of the union, there is little hope for of women in loco-piloting seems to reinforce its appearance as any collective action towards promoting gender sensitivity or a masculine profession and because of this, neither is gender- addressing the concerns of women. Several women ALPs and ing of the system questioned, nor is it actively challenged. loco-pilots I spoke to mentioned the need for a women’s collec- The aspect of the gendered division of labour, particularly tive or union since they did not feel that their needs were in loco-piloting, prompts one to refl ect seriously on the run- adequately addressed by the AILRSA. However, they also rued ning of Indian Railways as an organisation. Much has been the fact that the possibility of such an alliance was aborted due said about how the railways runs on certain norms of colonial to the absence of a large number of women in this profession. morality6 (Bear 2007), but the feudal as well as gendered over- tones of the organisational structure merit closer examination. Driving On Despite loco-piloting being a well-paid profession, loco-pilots In a job that has been the mainstay of men since its very inc- do not occupy positions of power within the railway hierarchy. eption, based on their access to and control of technical knowl- The positions of power are occupied by those who enter the
WEEKLY edge, women are confronted with a number of challenges. organisation by clearing the Union Public Service Commission When they enter the job, they are expected to aspire to male standard entrance examinations, which clearly test one’s theo- standards of performance. When the “masculine” standards retical knowledge rather than practical skills. Thus, even though (such as being able to do night duties or drive goods trains) are technical skills are compensated monetarily, they do not diffi cult to aspire to, new hierarchies are created within the possess the capacity to radically alter power hierarchies, job, gendering certain aspects of the job and creating binaries which are more or less fi xed since colonial times. Power is still into which various tasks get slotted. in the hands of those with a “superior” intellect (which is a re- This highlights how certain professions, owing to the con- sult of privileging certain forms of knowledge and those who tinued presence of men, become gendered. However, the very have access to that kind of knowledge, such as, men belonging entry of women is not suffi cient to challenge or rethink this to upper castes and classes). Male loco-pilots then are subjected gendering process, and it often results in taking the gendering to a form of feudal exploitation and servitude, except that it is process to an extreme. For instance, women’s inability to cope now legitimately permitted by the state through one of its own POLITICAL with certain jobs of the loco-piloting profession only serves to employment avenues. Where then do women loco-pilots reinforce stereotypes about appropriate feminine roles and belong? In attempting to negotiate their place in a work envi- & jobs (such as those in the crew lobby). ronment governed by the same rules as the patriarchal family, Technology, which could have been a possible ally in chal- these women’s access to any power whatsoever is even more lenging gender roles, instead serves to entrench them fi rmly, curtailed than their male counterparts. While male loco-pilots either by creating divisions within the technologies used (com- often feel frustrated that their labour is not accorded due puters in the crew lobby associated with the feminine and the respect, women loco-pilots cannot even make claims to respect engine cab with the masculine) or by denying access to certain as they are often not allowed to engage in labour to begin technologies to women (not allowing them to drive, based not with. Women bear the brunt of policies that are a result of a on technical but social reasons). Embodiment and technology nexus of feudalism and patriarchy.
Notes how Eura sian and European drivers would often Bear, Laura (2007): Lines of the Nation: Indian 1 This fi gure has been arrived at by compiling treat Indian fi remen as their “valets.” Railway Workers, Bureaucracy, and the Intimate data received in response to a Right to Informa- 4 In case a loco-pilot or ALP does not stop at a red Historical Self, New York: Columbia University signal, it is an offence punishable by immediate Press. ECONOMIC tion (RTI) request fi led by the author. Each zone sent division-wise data, and some divisions did suspension and removal from service, unless Cahn, Susan (1993): “A Woman’s Place Is in the not respond to the author’s query due to which and until further enquiries absolve the driver. Cab: Motormen, Women, and Train Operating she has compiled the numbers of only those 5 This has not become an offi cial preference by in New York City,” Journal of Progressive divisions which provided did supply informa- rendering women ineligible to apply for the job Human Services, Vol 4, No 2, pp 25–43. tion. What is also important to note is that not on the grounds of sex, but by keeping them Hurd, John and Ian J Kerr (2012): India’s Railway from doing line duty on biological grounds all parts of the compiled data were received History: A Research Handbook, Leiden: Konin- (like menstruation or pregnancy), the symbolic at the same time. Responses were received klijke Brill NV. message that is repeatedly sent out is that between December 2014 and March 2015 and women’s bodies are not meant for such a job. Kerr, Ian J (2007): Engines of Change: The Railroads compiled after that. That Made India, Delhi: Orient Blackswan. 6 Practices such as “charge-sheeting” of an employee 2 The RTI Act query through which this statistic accused of wrongdoing and immediate suspension Think Change India (2018): “Meet 51-year-old was obtained is numbered MORLY/R/2014 have their roots in colonial times (Bear 2007). Surkeha Yadav Who Is India’s First Woman /60701—from the Ministry of Railways, Govern- Train Driver,” YourStory, 4 January, viewed on ment of India, on “Number of Women Employees 14 March 2020, https://yourstory.com/2018 in Indian Railways till March 2013.” References /01/surekha-yadav-female-train-driver/. 3 This feudal relationship between drivers and Aguiar, Marian (2011): Tracking Modernity: India’s Wajcman, Judy (1991): Feminism Confronts Techno- their assistants also has its roots in colonial prac- Railway and the Culture of Mobility, Minneapo- logy, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State Univer- tices. Scholars such as Marian Aguiar (2011) note lis: University of Minnesota Press. sity Press.
Economic & Political Weekly EPW MAy 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 45 SPECIAL ARTICLE
Implementation of Community Forest Ri ghts Experiences in the Vidarbha Region of Maharashtra
Geetanjoy Sahu
The Vidarbha region of Maharashtra presents a unique he Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers case in the implementation of community forest rights (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006 (hereafter FRA), recognises and vests two broad types of rights to forest- where much of the region’s potential community forest T land with forest-dwelling communities: individual forest rights rights claims have been recognised in the name of gram (IFR) and community forest rights (CFR). While IFR secure an sabhas under the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional individual the right to hold, self-cultivate, and live in forest- Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006. land under individual or common occupation, CFR have the
WEEKLY potential to bring about radical changes in forest governance The key factors like the collective action of gram sabhas, by, inter alia, conferring community forest resource rights and the role of non-governmental organisations, grassroots management authority on forest-dwelling communities. Over organisations, and state implementing agencies, and the last 12 years, a total of 76,154 CFR claims to 88,04,870.81 their collaboration in advancing the implementation of acres of forestland1 have been recognised and, in many of the recognised CFR villages, forest dwellers have begun to exercise CFR are explained here. There is need to support the their rights. This includes harvesting and selling bamboo and upscaling of CFR across India, and to analyse the kendu leaf (Diospyros melanoxylon), increasing forest protection broader implications for forest resource governance and reducing destructive practices, managing fi res, regenerating at a national scale. degraded patches, and identifying patches that require strict conservation in recognised forest areas. But the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra stands out from the rest of the country, as POLITICAL much of the region’s potential CFR claims and areas fall under the customary and traditional boundary of gram sabhas & (village assemblies) under the FRA. Most of the other states are yet to recognise CFR claims, and in the states that do so, the CFR area is less than the potential CFR area of the gram sabha. The Vidarbha region of Maharashtra constitutes 31.6% of the total geographical area of the state and houses 21.3% of its total population (Government of India 2011). Around 28% of the tribal population of the state lives in this region, which has about 53% of the state’s total forest cover (Ministry of Environ- ment, Forests and Climate Change 2017). This area, with its large tribal population, suffers from inadequate development, poor infrastructure, poverty, unemployment, agrarian crises, and migration from rural areas. Recent attempts to attract ECONOMIC investors by providing subsidies and various economic incentives have been unsuccessful as most prefer to invest in Mumbai– Thane–Nashik and Pune (Nagpur Today 2018). Due to the absence of livelihood and employment opportunities, forest The author would like to thank Vijay Dethe, Keshav Gurnule, Dilip Gode, Purnima Upadhyay, Satish Gogulwar, Mukesh Shinde, Mohan Hirabai dwellers in the Vidarbha region have largely depended on Hiralal, Sharachchandra Lele, Manisha Verma, Parimal Singh, and the agriculture and forest resources for their subsistence. In such members of the gram sabhas in the study areas for sharing their views circumstances, the enactment of the FRA has given hope to and information in the process of writing this paper. The author also forest dwellers who have been otherwise alienated from their thanks the anonymous reviewers for their many insightful comments forestland and deprived of its resources for centuries. and suggestions. There are four aspects in which the Vidarbha region stands Geetanjoy Sahu ([email protected]) teaches at the School of Habitat apart from rest of the country in its recognition of CFR. First, Studies, Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai. the boundaries of community forest areas in most parts of this
46 MAy 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 EPW Economic & Political Weekly SPECIAL ARTICLE region overlaps with the traditional and customary boundary of In several cases where CFR claims have been recognised, the the gram sabha. Second, more than 1,500 villages in this region recognised forest area is smaller than the claimed area, which have asserted their rights over non-timber forest products (NTFP) is based on the traditional and customary boundaries of forest- by opting out of the traditional NTFP regime of the Maharashtra dwelling villages. For example, the recognised CFR claims of Forest Department. Third, since recognising CFR, the socio- several villages, such as Jamguda in Odisha, Chalkarikala in economic benefi ts to forest dwellers have increased signifi cantly. Jharkhand, Kamepur in Chhattisgarh, and many other villag- The fourth unique aspect of the Vidarbha region is the range of es across India, are not as per the traditional and customary community forest resource management plans facilitated and boundary of these villages. The recognised area under CFR is supported by the Maharashtra Tribal Development Department either part of the joint forest management (JFM) area or an along with grassroots organisations and non-governmental or- area decided on by members of the district-level committee. ganisations (NGOs). Thus, it is worth discussing the processes and Another major concern in the enforcement of CFR across India factors that contributed to the implementation of CFR and its is that gram sabhas with recognised CFR are not allowed to impact on the socio-economic conditions of forest dwellers in exercise exclusive ownership rights to NTFP; the nodal agency the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra. and district-level line departments do not extend the required The analysis in the paper is based on case studies from 14 technical support to the gram sabhas to protect and conserve the villages in three districts of the Vidarbha region—Gondia, recognised forestland. In contrast, the nature, process, and impact Gadchiroli, and Chandrapur—and information obtained from of CFR recognition in the Vidarbha region is unique in many ways. gram sabha federation members, facilitating NGOs, and forest The following section highlights some of the most recent ad- CFR
WEEKLY rights groups working in other parts of Vidarbha, namely, Nagpur, vances in the recognition of claims, and the socio-economic Amravati, Yavatmal, and Bhandara. Villages were selected benefi ts and management of recognised CFR areas in Vidarbha. based on the following criteria: villages with homogeneous and heterogeneous social groups; existing and potential CFR titles; Nature and status of recognition process: Several facts and Panchayats Extension to Scheduled Areas (PESA) and non-PESA; a fi eld insights from case studies indicate the effectiveness of gram sabha federation or a lack thereof; dense or openly de- CFR in Vidarbha. First, those in Vidarbha constitute 92% of all the graded surrounding forest; and NGO intervention or a lack CFR claims recognised in Maharashtra (of the 7,084 recognised thereof in claiming CFR. Village-level information on the nature claims in Maharashtra, 6,488 are from Vidarbha). Moreover, of CFR recognition and the process of obtaining it was collected by the number of pending and rejected claims is relatively lesser conducting focus group discussions and interviews with members compared to in other parts of Maharashtra.2 Also, 73% of the of the gram sabha, the community forest rights management recognised community forest areas in Maharashtra are in this committee, and intervening NGOs and forest rights activists region (of 27,36,660.68 acres of forestland in Maharashtra, POLITICAL working to enforce CFR in the Vidarbha region. The impact of the 19,85,296.1 acres of forestland are in Vidarbha). While the average recognition of CFR on the socio-economic conditions of forest recognised CFR forestland in Maharashtra covers 386.31 acres, & dwellers was assessed through a household survey. State- and the average recognised CFR area in the Vidarbha region covers district-level offi cers dealing with the implementation of CFR 445.53 acres, which is greater than the national average of 115.62 were also interviewed to understand their role and methods of acres (Sahoo and Sahu 2019). Second, the recognised CFR area intervention following the recognition of CFR in the studied areas. in most villages precisely overlaps with the customary and The study was carried out in two phases in April–May and traditional boundary of the village. Villages like Mendha Lekha, September–December 2018. This paper is divided into four Pachgaon, Dhiwrintola, Palasgaon, Serpar, Dhamditola, and sections, including this part on background and methodology. many others in the Vidarbha region have the rights to their The next section provides a detailed description of CFR imple- customary and traditional forest areas as per the Nistar Patrak.3 mentation in the Vidarbha region. This is followed by an analysis Third, the recognition of a CFR claim is not based on the number on the key factors that contributed to the effective implemen- of households in a village or the JFM areas it protects. For tation of CFR in the Vidarbha region and the discussion. example, Bhimanpayili village in Kurkheda taluka of Gadchiroli has only 12 households and a CFR title for 4,000 acres of land. ECONOMIC CFR Recognition in Vidarbha Also, a total of 1,935 villages in this region populated by other The recognition of CFR claims across India has been slow and traditional forest dwellers (OTFD) have CFR titles. For example, ineffective. Of the 76,154 recognised claims, Madhya Pradesh, Shankarpur village in Kurkheda taluka of Gadchiroli became Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Odisha, and Gujarat are the top the fi rst OTFD village in the country to receive a CFR title. Another fi ve states in terms of number of recognised CFR titles; together, important feature of the CFR process in this region is that a these titles constitute 87.44% of all recognised CFR claims and total of 242 claims to 307.74 acres have been recognised for 80.10% of recognised CFR areas in the country (Sahoo and development projects under Section 3.2 of the FRA. For example, Sahu 2019). Without crucial evidence and effective implement- the Shankarpur Gram Sabha used around one hectare (ha) of ing agencies to facilitate the claim process, thousands of gram land to set up a transformer for village electrifi cation. sabhas across India are yet to claim their CFR or have submit- ted claims without proper evidence, so that they are either Harvesting rights to NTFP: One important provision of the FRA pending or have been rejected at different stages (TISS 2017). is that all powers related to the use and governance of NTFP
Economic & Political Weekly EPW MAy 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 47 SPECIAL ARTICLE are transferred from the forest department to gram sabhas. of the FRA and provisions for community rights to NTFP, gram With this regime transformation, gram sabhas have gained control sabhas continued to face hurdles and harassment at the hands over harvesting NTFP and have obtained the exclusive right to of contractors and the forest department (Sahu et al 2017). determine what and when to harvest, and where and to whom Realising the power of contractors and the forest department, to sell the NTFP. However, gram sabhas have the option to and the monopoly they have over forestlands and NTFP, several continue with the traditional NTFP governance, led by the forest gram sabhas have come together to form gram sabha federa- department, instead of acting autonomously. While forest tions at the taluka level without compromising their autonomy departments across India continue to regulate the NTFP access, and rights recognised under the FRA. use, and disposal rights of forest dwellers, more than 1,500 The idea of gram sabha federations has become popular and villages in the Vidarbha region have exercised their rights to has spread to other regions of Maharashtra over the last fi ve NTFP, especially kendu leaf and bamboo, in a remarkable way. years. It did not take long for tribal villages, especially in Fifth Mendha Lekha in the Dhanora taluka of Gadchiroli became the Schedule Areas, to come together under one platform because fi rst village in the country to exercise its rights to bamboo under collective action has traditionally been a part of tribal governing the FRA in August 2009. Drawing inspiration from Mendha Lekha, structures. In the Korchi taluka of Gadchiroli, 87 villages more than 1,500 villages in the Vidarbha region have opted out formed a gram sabha federation in December 2016 to increase of the traditional governance and marketing of NTFP, controlled their bargaining and negotiation powers vis-à-vis the state and by the forest department. These villages have taken suo motu market agencies with regard to the disposal of NTFP. Similar initiative and, sometimes, the support of grassroots organisa- associations of gram sabhas have been formed in Dhanora, NTFP
WEEKLY tions, to identify contractors and sell from their villages Kurkheda, Bhamragarh, and Etapalli talukas of Gadchiroli; for better prices. More signifi cant is how gram sabha members Sadak Arjuni and Deori talukas of Gondia; Ramtek taluka of assert their rights to NTFP even when their CFR claims are yet to Nagpur; Dharni and Chikhaldara talukas of Amaravati; and be recognised by the district administration. Maregaon and Pandharkawada talukas of Yavatmal. Each Gram sabhas have framed a set of rules to deal with NTFP gram sabha federation is organised as a multi-tiered network contractors: (i) payment for collected NTFP is made upfront at the taluka level and has provided a platform to thousands instead of being delayed for years, as was the case in the earlier of forest dwellers to voice their concerns about the NTFP gov- arrangement; (ii) upfront payment for the NTFP is used for agri- ernance process. These associations, through their executive cultural activities, because of which dependence on the local committees that consist of two representatives from each landlord for credit has come down drastically; (iii) forest dwellers gram sabha, identify contractors, bargain with them about without bank accounts are paid in cash on the day of the sale and price and payment, and engage with district administrations are not required to depend on middlemen to sell outside the gram to address the hurdles that gram sabhas face. POLITICAL sabha; (iv) contractors pay insurance coverage in the case of Along with NGO alliances and grassroots organisations, any accident during the collection of NTFP; (v) NTFP collectors are gram sabha federations have challenged conventional NTFP & not responsible in the case of any damage to NTFP materials after governance processes and have shown great interest in the pickup due to natural calamities like fi re or rain, and it is the introduction of scientifi c approaches to harvesting NTFP and sole responsibility of the contractor to pack and export NTFP the sustainable conservation of forest sources. However, gram materials from the village to markets; and (vi) the gram sabha sabha federations think beyond just NTFP and work towards the will not issue a transit permit pass to a contractor to transport overall development and empowerment of communities. Dis- NTFP materials, unless the latter makes the full payment as per cussions with members of gram sabha federations from the agreement. Dhamditola in Gondia, Mendha Lekha in Gadchiroli, Payvihir According to Ramkumar Madavi of Palasgaon village in Gondia in Amravati, and Awalgaon in Yavatmal reveal that the gram district, gram sabha members in this region believe that the sabhas in these villages have demanded the integration of line “recognition of [a] CFR claim is only a process and their rights department schemes at the district level with those targeted over NTFP have already been recognised under Section 3(1)(c) of at forestlands and resources. By bridging forest dwellers’ [the] FRA. [A] pending claim doesn’t mean rejection or denial immediate social and economic needs with line department ECONOMIC of their rights over NTFP.”4 Indeed, villagers do not wait for the schemes, gram sabha federations have played a crucial role in forest department to issue the transit permit book in order to shaping the agenda and priorities of local and district admin- dispose of forest products. For example, the gram sabha of istrations. As a result, there have been tangible economic Dhiwrintola village in Gondia district has printed its own transit benefi ts in these villages. permit book, as required under the FRA, which enables the contractor to take NTFP materials from the village to the Socio-economic benefi ts: There is a great deal of scepticism godown or nearby market. in the CFR management literature, especially in developing societies, about the possibilities for equitable decision-making Emergence of gram sabha federations: One of the most and the sharing of benefi ts from effective resource manage- important outcomes of CFR enforcement in Vidarbha is the ment among diverse social groups through community-driven emergence of gram sabha federations in this region, facilitated governance processes. This concern stems from the fact that by grassroots organisations and NGOs. Despite the enactment social structures in these societies are riddled with hierarchies,
48 MAy 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 EPW Economic & Political Weekly SPECIAL ARTICLE
patriarchal practices, inequality, and unequal distributions of obtained from gram sabha federations, NGOs, and forest rights power; these societies also lack vigilant civil society, the social groups from this region reveals how exclusive ownership rights auditing of public policy, and adequate access to information to NTFP, especially kendu leaf, has resulted in better economic and decision-making power. In India, several supposed com- returns for thousands of forest-dwelling households in this munity involvement programmes, including the widely dis- region. People in these villages earned a total of nearly `33 cussed JFM, exemplify the hijacking and appropriation of de- crore in 2017–18 from kendu leaf alone (Table 2). centralised forest resource management processes by powerful Another socio-economic benefi t is that dependence on mid- local elites and bureaucrats (Lele 2014). This is due to the par- dlemen for credit has come down drastically as the payment tial recognition of community rights to and power over forest for NTFP like kendu leaf and bamboo is made before 30 June resources and the absence of well-defi ned principles of every year, which helps forest dwellers fi nance their agricultural accountability and responsiveness in the use and management activities. The household survey administered in the studied of forest resources. areas revealed that migration has reduced and, in some areas, Even after the enactment of the FRA—which clearly defi nes reverse migration has started. For instance, in Pachgaon the role and responsibilities of gram sabhas and implementing village in Chandrapur, where migration was rampant, employ- agencies in facilitating and supporting forest dwellers in the ment opportunities through CFR—such as bamboo harvesting, enforcement of the act—local elite capture (village-level power- forest fi re line demarcation, and patrolling—have helped to ful persons deciding the terms and conditions for kendu leaf reverse the situation today. Survey results from all the harvesting and auctioning), contractor hegemony, and forest 66 households in Pachgaon and information obtained from
WEEKLY department monopoly over forestlands and resources continue focus group discussions revealed that not a single unskilled in several parts of India. Learning from past experience, inter- member from this village migrated to another area in the last vening NGOs and gram sabha members in the studied areas have three years. The recognition of exclusive rights to bamboo has developed rules and regulations to ensure the transparency, not only resulted in better economic returns but has also accountability, and participation of forest dwellers—especially provided work for over 150 workers from the village between women and those from landless households—in the benefi t October and June every year. The improvement in their eco- sharing and decisions about forest resource management. nomic condition has empowered the landless, marginalised Discussions with villagers and results from the household forest dwellers and women to be more assertive in decision- survey conducted in the studied areas reveal that there has been making processes at the gram sabha and panchayat levels a signifi cant change in the socio-economic conditions of forest- (Sahu et al 2019a). dependent people in the period after CFR recognition. A major economic benefi t is that the income of households from kendu leaf Sustainable use and protection of forest resources: Several POLITICAL harvesting has increased signifi cantly in comparison to during wildlife conservation groups have expressed concerns about the kendu leaf governance regime led by the forest department. forest dwellers’ ability and skill to use and manage the recog- & Table 1 explains the price difference for kendu leaf under nised CFR area in a sustainable manner. This concern stems two different regimes—the kendu leaf auctioning price under from the fact that CFR holders focus largely on meeting the Korchi Gram Sabha Federation and the kendu leaf auctioning subsistence needs of rural people for fodder, fi rewood, and price under forest department. minor forest products but do not adequately attend to the con- Table 1: Price of Kendu Leaf in Auctions by the Forest Department and servation and management of recognised forest areas. Since Korchi Gram Sabha Federation the enactment of the FRA, some have speculated and opined Average Price Paid Per Standard Bag* of Kendu Leaf (`) Forest Department Auction Federation Auction that the recognition of rights to forestland and resources 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 have led to the disappearance and degradation of forests 2,173 1,691 4,459 7,303 4,614 5,700 (Shrivastava 2015; Sahgal 2017; Goenka 2018). *Each standard bag of kendu leaf consists of 1,000 bundles and each bundle has 70 leaves. Source: Korchi Gram Sabha Federation (2019). Field insights from the studied areas, however, suggest that The recognition of CFR to NTFP has transferred the decision- there has been an increasing sense of responsibility among making power to communities to decide when, where, how, forest dwellers to protect, improve, and regenerate their rec- ECONOMIC and to whom to sell the NTFP that they collect. The remarkable ognised forest resources. In the Vidarbha region, evidence impact of ownership rights to these forest products on income from several villages shows that 12 years since implementing FRA and empowerment is evi- Table 2: Income from Kendu Leaf in the the , the prediction that conservationists made regarding dent in several parts of the Vidarbha Region (2017–18) the devastation of forests and wildlife has not materialised. In Vidarbha region, where District Number of Income from fact, there is counterfactual evidence that, in many cases, the Villages Kendu Leaf (`) community rights under Gadchiroli 162 23. 36 crore effective recognition of rights, particularly community rights, the FRA have been imple- Gondia 36 7.44 crore has led to much better protection of forests and wildlife. mented at scale; almost Amaravati 28 1.13 crore Discussions with community members and forest offi cers in 20 lakh acres of forests Yavatmal 17 57. 73 lakh this region reveal that, in the recognised community forest areas, have been transferred to Nagpur 3 47.32 lakh forest regeneration has increased and forest fi res have reduced; 246 32.98 crore the jurisdiction of gram Source: Information obtained by the author from in the earlier forest governance arrangement led by the forest sabhas. The information the studied areas in the Vidarbha region. department, these areas were not given adequate attention by
Economic & Political Weekly EPW MAy 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 49 SPECIAL ARTICLE the forest dwellers. In May 2018, at least 5,000 ha of land under rural development and panchayat raj department, the gover- the control of the Forest Department and the Forest Develop- nor’s offi ce has played a crucial role in facilitating the imple- ment Corporation of Maharashtra was gutted by massive mentation and recognition of the importance of CFR. Together, forest fi res in several parts of Gondia. Meanwhile, there was these four departments issued 87 orders in 2008–18 to expe- no incidence of a forest fi re in the recognised community dite the CFR implementation process and to provide resources forest areas, spread over 98,864 acres and controlled by 1,357 and institutional support in the post-recognition phase gram sabhas in Gondia.5 (Sahu et al 2019b). Some of the orders issued by the tribal Similarly, bio-physical variables gathered from satellite development department include: appointment of forest images of several villages with recognised CFR disclose an rights coordinators at the district level to facilitate the claims increase in forest cover compared to before forest rights were of gram sabhas; constitution of an FRA cell in every district to recognised. For instance, in Payvihir village of Amravati, the update and consolidate forest rights claims; review of rejected once barren 182 ha of land recognised under the FRA has been claims; regular monitoring and time-bound implementation converted into a lush green forest due to the efforts of gram of forest rights; constitution of a convergence committee at the sabha members from the village. The efforts of the villagers district level to integrate line department schemes with commu- were recognised in 2014 when Payvihir village was awarded nity forest rights holders; special grants to gram sabhas to the India Biodiversity Award by the United Nation’s Develop- prepare community forest resources management plans; seed ment Programme (UNDP) for successfully improving the forest grants to gram sabhas to dispose of NTFP; regular training and quality and cover. The village was also honoured by Sanctuary capacity building programmes for the sub-divisional level SDLC DLC
WEEKLY Asia with the Maharashtra Wildlife Service Award, which committee ( ), district level committee ( ), and line recognises its invaluable contribution to environmental department offi cers on forest rights recognition and integration conservation in the state in 2015. of programmes in the post-recognition phase; and most Forest dwellers in Pachgaon village decided not to harvest importantly, challenging any confl icting policies at the state minor forest produce from CFR recognised areas, which villagers level that seek to have an impact on the letter and spirit of the have traditionally worshiped. Of the 1,006 ha of forestland FRA. These and many other enabling orders have signifi cantly with recognised CFR, villagers have preserved 85 acres as a raised the hopes of forest dwellers in asserting their rights sacred grove and have decided not to harvest resources from over forest resources. this part. These villagers have also decided not to harvest kendu Likewise, the order of 16 February 2015 by the rural devel- leaves, as migratory birds eat the kendu fruit every year. Kendu opment department gives options to gram sabhas in Fifth leaves and fruits are used for different commercial purposes. Schedule Areas to decide how, where, when, and to whom to The leaves are used as raw materials to make beedis and the sell their kendu leaves. This order has made a huge impact POLITICAL fruits, a good source of carbohydrates and calcium, are eaten on the economic conditions of people in this region over the by the forest dwellers. The villagers could earn lakhs of rupees last three years.7 For example, in 2018, 1,171 villages in the & by harvesting kendu leaves, as do villagers across Maharash- Gadchiroli district opted to sell kendu leaves directly to con- tra; however, dwellers of Pachgaon are not interested in this. tractors, who provided them a better price than did the forest Instead, every year, the gram sabha spends `4–`5 lakh on pa- department tender process.8 Similarly, the planning depart- trolling the forest to protect it from neighbouring villagers who ment in Maharashtra issued an order on 16 May 2018 to pluck kendu leaves illegally in Pachgaon.6 This shows that the provide funds for NTFP use and disposal by gram sabhas in villagers are more concerned about conserving forest resources Fifth Schedule Areas. than about simply asserting rights and gaining economic ben- The governor’s offi ce in Maharashtra has been active in efi ts from forest resources. upscaling the implementation of CFR in Vidarbha. Over the last few years, the governor of Maharashtra has modifi ed a variety Contributing Factors of state and federal laws in order to protect and improve the rights Various factors have shaped the outcomes of CFR implementation of tribal people. These notifi cations have ensured the modifi ca- in the Vidarbha region. The objective here is not to provide a tion of state NTFP rules to the advantage of tribal communities; ECONOMIC complete set of factors, but to outline key factors and their cor- guaranteed that state laws align with the requirements of PESA; relations to advancing the implementation of CFR. This attempt is provided autonomy to gram sabhas to make decisions about also not to offer a model for the enforcement of CFR in other states, land alienation and the protection of commons; and amended but to contribute to the existing body of knowledge about CFR provisions to ensure devolution to Scheduled Area gram sabhas to implementation. The following section highlights some critical match the requirements of PESA. A separate dedicated tribal cell factors that have infl uenced the current state of CFR in Vidarbha. was set up in the governor’s offi ce in 2013 to undertake studies or surveys on socio-economic indicators to ascertain the status Implementing agencies: The Ministry of Tribal Affairs (MoTA) of the tribal community and the impact of various welfare at the federal level, and the tribal development department or measures, including forest dwellers’ rights to NTFP, initiated welfare department in each state, are the nodal agencies in the by the government. These interventions are unprecedented in enforcement of the FRA. However, in Maharashtra, in addition comparison to the actions taken by the governor’s offi ce to to the tribal development department, the planning department, promote the rights of forest dwellers in Fifth Schedule Areas
50 MAy 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 EPW Economic & Political Weekly SPECIAL ARTICLE
in the other nine states. The governor’s offi ce, along with the the importance of these NGOs. These implementing agencies tribal development and rural development and panchayat seek the perspectives of these NGOs and have involved some raj department, has enabled forest dwellers to assert their NGO representatives in drafting orders, circulars, and notifi ca- rights to forest resources and has neutralised the role and tions aimed at CFR empowerment and expansion.10 power of the forest department, which hitherto was reluctant to deregulate the norms and rules related to NTFP and to Contextual factors: There is a general perception that the recognise the rights of forest dwellers to their customary and implementation of public policy and statutory law undergoes traditional forest boundary. a linear process of institutional actions through established procedures and rational steps, which leads to desirable outcomes. Active NGOs and grassroots organisations: It is well known In reality, the implementation of statutory law is a dynamic, rather that hundreds of NGOs are involved in promoting community nebulous, process that constantly shifts in content and emphasis. forest resource management programmes across India, but The implementation of public policy depends on the prevalent there has not been any systematic attempt to analyse their socio-economic, political, and cultural contexts (Trostle et al impact on the socio-economic conditions of forest dwellers 1999). It is, therefore, important to contextualise the progres- and the state of forest resources. However, recent studies on sive direction of CFR in Vidarbha over the last decade within the the role of NGOs in community forest resource management in socio-economic and political histories of the region. India have yielded mixed results (Barnes and Laerhoven 2014; Over the last seven decades, there have been a series of Baruah 2011). These studies have advocated for the active movements across social groups in the Vidarbha region of NGO
WEEKLY involvement of s to produce tangible benefi ts for forest Maharashtra to demand control over forest and land resources, dwellers and to make community forest resource management development programmes, employment opportunities, auton- processes sustainable and democratic. Such active participation omy, and identity. Some of these movements include: the by NGOs in community forest resource management is already Bhoodan and Gramdan Movements in the 1950s and 1960s, being witnessed in the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra. which were followed by a demand for employment guarantee Forest-dependent communities in the Vidarbha region have for the rural population in the 1970s, and the continuous been mobilised by a number of grassroots organisations and demand for a separate state of Vidarbha (Amrutkar 2009). NGOs to actively defend their claim to customary and tradi- Among these movements, the struggle of forest dwellers, tional forest resources and demand their use of, and access especially in the Fifth Schedule Areas of the Vidarbha region, and disposal rights to, minor forest produce. Some NGOs for control over forestland has been the most contentious. working in the fi eld of forest rights and governance in the There are 11 districts in this region, of which four are within Vidarbha region include: Vidarbha Nature Conservation Soci- Fifth Schedule Areas and six are affected by left-wing extremism. POLITICAL ety (VNCS), Vrikshamitra, KHOJ, Gramin Samassya Mukti Around 80% of the state’s mineral resources are located in the Trust (GSMT), YUVA, Paryavaran Mitra, Srishti, Amhi Amchya Vidarbha region. Irrespective of ideological differences, political & Arogyasathi, and Gram Arogya. These NGOs were working in regimes have been reluctant to recognise the traditional and most parts of Vidarbha even before the enactment of the FRA, customary rights of forest dwellers to forestlands that are also and their long association with villagers has helped them to mineral reserves. Though community forest resource manage- easily familiarise gram sabha members with CFR. What ment has long been propagated as part of the JFM programme makes these NGOs unique in the Vidarbha region is that their in this region, and as a means to enhance local engagement with involvement in facilitating CFR claims does not solely depend the forest governance structure, forest dwellers have never on funding agencies to generate a certain number of claims had the opportunity to function independently under the JFM within a specifi ed time period. Instead, the NGOs orient and programme due to excessive bureaucratic burdens. However, involve gram sabha members to take ownership of the whole subsequent legislation, including PESA and the FRA, recognise claim process. the gram sabhas’ autonomy and decision-making power over Unlike NGOs in many other parts of India,9 these NGOs have the use of, and access and disposal rights to, forest resources. not limited their focus to the claim process, but mobilised These two acts and the orders issued from the Governor’s ECONOMIC gram sabha members to assert their rights to NTFP in the post- Offi ce of Maharashtra have provided a legal platform to forest recognition phase. Realising that tangible benefi ts from forest dwellers who have been organising and mobilising for several resources can sustain collective action and motivate villagers decades to assert their traditional and customary rights to to join community forest resource rights campaigns, these NGOs forestland and resources. have been in constant dialogue with state and district admin- Recognising strong collective action, local leadership, and istrations to deregulate the minor forest produce rules of the the presence of several other key contextual factors—active state and converge line department schemes with forest rights NGOs, a long history of tribal councils in Scheduled Areas, the holders’ recognised land and forest resources. This has resulted continuous demand for a separate state, law and order problems in several enabling orders being issued and power decentral- due to rising left-wing extremism, and a lack of implementation, ised to gram sabhas in decision-making processes related to and failure of, several promises to improve the region— forest resources. Implementing agencies such as the tribal the government agencies, especially the forest department, development department and governor’s offi ce acknowledge have found it diffi cult to interfere with the autonomy and
Economic & Political Weekly EPW MAy 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 51 SPECIAL ARTICLE decision-making power of gram sabhas as recognised under process is crucial to enhancing and empowering forest-dwelling the FRA.11 In fact, as stated above, a series of enabling orders communities to assert their rights beyond just access to minor issued by the tribal development department, governor’s forest products. This paper also advances the view that the offi ce, and rural development and panchayat raj depart- mere presence of implementing agencies will not result in the ment—ranging from rights to NTFP to obtaining prior consent policy being precisely executed because, in the absence of any of the gram sabhas before diverting ownership of and control demand for participation and capabilities to participate over forestland in Scheduled Areas—have set a precedent among possible benefi ciaries, public policy is likely to be inef- for thousands of villages in Vidarbha to exercise their rights to fective (Fleischman and Rodriguez 2018). The variation in forest resources under the FRA. the implementation of CFR within Maharashtra is testament to the fact over the last 12 years. Successful recognition of CFR In Conclusion and exercising recognised rights must inevitably require The experiences from the Vidarbha region provide rich negotiation power and a willingness among stakeholders to insight into what it takes to execute CFR and its implications enforce and follow procedures established by the law and, for socio-economic conditions and the governance of forest importantly, ensure consistent collective action at all levels. resources. The analysis has considered the relatively recent While the discussion on CFR implementation is based on a advances in the post-recognition phase in several villages of small sample of villages in Vidarbha, looking at the details of Vidarbha. Most of these experiences reveal the relationships the impact of CFR on socio-economic conditions and the between implementing agencies, NGOs, and gram sabhas in governance of forest resources can yield some useful insights CFR
WEEKLY the enforcement of . The discussion reveals that institu- for policymakers, scholars, and practitioners working in the tional support in the period after the forest rights claim fi eld of CFR.
Notes There is regular involvement of NGO repre- https://www.nagpurtoday.in/vidarbha-not-mag- 1 For more details, see the monthly update on sentatives in facilitating various government netic-enough-to-attract-investments/02211650. the status of implementation of the Scheduled schemes aimed at improving and protecting Sahgal, Bittu (2017): “Forest Rights and Wrongs,” Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers the rights of tribal people. Indian Express, 27 July, https://indianexpress. (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006 from 11 Several civil society members and government com/article/opinion/columns/wildlife-sanc- the Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Government offi cers shared this information with me dur- tuary-encraochers-social-activists-nameri-ti- of India. ing my research work in the Vidarbha region. ger-reserve-sonitpur-assam-forest-rights-and- 2 For more details, see the monthly update on wrongs-4375645/. the status of implementation of the Scheduled References Sahoo, Uttam Kumar and Geetanjoy Sahu (2019): Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers “Twelve Years Later: Implementation of the (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act 2006 from Amrutkar, Prashant (2009): “The Backwardness Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest
POLITICAL the Tribal Research and Training Institute and Demand for a Statehood of Vidarbha,” Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act (TRTI), Pune. Indian Journal of Political Science, Vol 70, 2006,” Indian Journal of Social Work, Vol 80, 3 Nistar Patrak, which refers to the rights No 2, pp 521–28. No 4, pp 423–38.
& conceded during the settlement process in Barnes, C and Van Laerhoven F (2014): “Making It Sahu, Geetanjoy, Mrinalini Paul and Vijay Dethe Maharashtra, outlines the land use pattern of Last? Analysing the Role of NGO Interventions (2019a): “Socioeconomic Benefi ts of Commu- the village and recognises customary and tra- in the Development of Institutions for Durable nity Forest Rights: A Case Study of Pachgaon ditional rights, including access to forestland Collective Action in Indian Community Forestry,” in Chandrapur District of Maharashtra,” and minor forest products made by people in Environmental Science & Policy, Vol 53, Indian Journal of Social Work, Vol 80, No 4, rural areas. pp 192–205. pp 501–16. 4 This information was shared by Ramkumar Baruah, Mitul (2011): “Joint Forest Management Sahu, Geetanjoy, Paul Sylvester Fernandes, Anuja Madavi, gram sabha member of Palasgaon, (JFM) and Role of NGOs: Cases from Rajasthan, Anil Date, Jay Dongare and Hemant Patange during fi eld work. India,” Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York, (2019b): “Compendium of Orders, Circulars, 5 This information was gathered from inter- http://iasc2011.fes.org.in/papers/docs/206/ Resolutions and Notifi cations of Maharashtra views with local forest users, intervening submission/original/206.pdf. Government in the Post-Forest Rights Act En- NGOs, and other selected key informants, such Fleischman, Forrest D and Claudia Rodriguez actment Phase From 2008–2018,” Tata Insti- as forest offi cers from Gondia district. (2018): “Institutional Supply, Public Demand, tute of Social Sciences, Mumbai. 6 In 2016–17, the Pachgaon Gram Sabha paid a and Citizen Capabilities to Participate in Envi- Sahu, Geetanjoy, Tushar Dash and Sanghamitra total of `5,84,000 in wages to villagers in- ronmental Programs in Mexico and India,” Dubey (2017): “Political Economy of Communi- volved in patrolling their forest for almost a International Journal of the Commons, Vol 12, month, to prevent neighbouring villagers from No 2, pp 162–90. ty Forest Rights,” Economic & Political Weekly,
ECONOMIC Vol 52, Nos 25–26, pp 44–47. stealing kendu leaves. Goenka, Debi (2018): “Forest Rights and Wrongs,” 7 The Government Resolution issued on 16 Feb- Indian Express, 28 March, https://indianex- Shrivastava, Kumar Sambhav (2015): “Claims of ruary 2015 by the rural development depart- press.com/article/opinion/columns/forest- Forest Rights Act Holding Up Growth are ment of Maharashtra, gives Gram sabhas two rights-and-wrongs-indian-farmer-crisis- Bogus,” Down to Earth, 4 July, https://www. options for whom to sell their kendu leaves to. 5113645/. downtoearth.org.in/news/claims-of-forest-rights- The fi rst is the forest department, that is, the Government of India (2011): “2011 Census of India,” act-holding-up-growth-are-bogus-47873. traditional NTFP governance structure, and Government of India, New Delhi. TISS (2017): “A Rapid Assessment Study on Rights the second involves identifying a contractor Lele, Sharachchandra (2014): “What Is Wrong with Recognition Process Under Forest Rights Act: and selling kendu leaves independently. Joint Forest Management,” Democratising For- Reasons of Rejection and Impact of Rights Rec- 8 This information was obtained from the PESA est Governance in India, Sharachchandra Lele ognised on Livelihood in Odisha, Jharkhand Cell of the Gadchiroli Collectorate Offi ce dur- and Ajit Menon (eds), New Delhi: Oxford Uni- and Chhattisgarh,” Tata Institute of Social ing fi eldwork in April 2018. versity Press, pp 25–62. Sciences, Mumbai. 9 For more details, see TISS (2017), a project re- Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Trostle, James, Mario Bronfman and Ana Langer port submitted to Oxfam India. Change (2017): “Forest Survey of India,” Gov- (1999): “How do Researchers Infl uence Decision- 10 This information is based on my discussions ernment of India, New Delhi. Makers? Case Studies of Mexican Policies,” and participation at several meetings of the Nagpur Today (2018): “Vidarbha Not Magnetic Health Policy and Planning, Vol 14, No 2, tribal development department in Maharashtra. Enough to Attract Investors?” 21 February, pp 103–14.
52 MAy 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 EPW Economic & Political Weekly CURRENT STATISTICS EPW Research Foundation
Wholesale Price Index Foreign Trade The year-on-year (y-o-y) WPI infl ation rate decreased to 1.0% in The trade defi cit narrowed down to $9.8 bn in March 2020 compared to $11.0 bn March 2020 from 3.0% a registered a year ago and 2.3% a month ago. reported a year ago. Exports declined by (-)34.6% to $21.4 bn and imports The index for primary articles decreased by 3.7% compared to 4.9% by (-)28.7% to $31.2 bn from $32.7 bn and $43.7 bn, respectively. Oil imports reported a year ago and 6.7% a month ago. The index for food articles were lower by (-)15% at $10.0 bn and non-oil imports by (-)33.8% at $21.2 bn decreased by 4.9% compared to 5.2% recorded a year ago and 7.7% a from their respective values of $11.8 bn and $31.9 bn registered a year ago. month ago. The index for fuel and power declined by (-)1.8% against 4.6% During the fi nancial year 2019–20, cumulative exports declined by (-)4.8% to and that for manufactured products decreased by 0.3% compared to 2.2% $314.3 bn and imports by (-)9.1% to $467.2 bn from $330.1 bn and $514.1 bn, a year ago. respectively.
Consumer Price Index Index of Industrial Production The CPI-infl ation rate increased to 5.9% in March 2020 from 2.9% registered a year The y-o-y growth rate of IIP increased to 4.5% in February 2020 from 0.2% ago, but was lower than 6.6% reported in February 2020. The consumer food registered a year ago with growth in manufacturing sector increasing to price index rose by 8.8% against 0.3% reported a year ago, but was lower than 10.8% 3.2% from -0.3%. Production in mining sector rose by 10.0% and electricity a month ago. The CPI-rural infl ation rate stood at 6.1% and the urban infl ation generation by 8.1% compared to 2.2% and 1.3%, respectively, a year ago. As per rate at 5.7% compared to 1.8% and 4.1%, recorded a year ago. As per Labour use-based classifi cation, capital goods production declined to -9.7%, consumer Bureau data, the CPI-infl ation rate of agricultural labourers (CPI–AL) increased to durables to -6.4% and infrastructure goods to 0.1% against their respective 9.0% in March 2020 from 4.2% registered a year ago and that of industrial workers growth rate of -9.3%, 0.9% and 1.9%. Production of consumer non-durables (CPI–IW) decreased to 6.8% in February 2020 from 7.0% reported a year ago. remained unchanged at 1.9%.
Movement of WPI Inflation April–March Merchandise Trade March 2020 March 2020 Over Month Over Year April–March Year-on-Year in % ($ bn) (%) (%) (2019–20 over 2018–19) (%)
WEEKLY 6 Exports 21.4 -22.6 -34.6 -4.8 Imports 31.2 -16.9 -28.7 -9.1 2018-19 4 3.1% Trade Deficit 9.8 -0.9 -11.3 -16.9 Data is provisional. Source: Ministry of Commerce and Industry. 2 2019-20 1.0% Components of Trade March 2019 and March 2020 0 $32.7 billion $31.9 billion Exports Non-oil Imports -2 32 Apr May June July DecNovOctSepAug Jan Feb* Mar*
$21.4 billion $21.2 billion * Data is provisional; Base: 2011–12 = 100. $11.8 billion Oil Imports $10.0 billion Trends in WPI and Its Components March 2020* (%)
Financial Year (Averages) Weights Over Month Over Year 2017–18 2018–19 2019–20 POLITICAL All commodities 100 -0.9 1.0 2.7 3.1 1.0 $9.8 billion Primary articles 22.6 -2.5 3.7 0.9 4.9 3.7 $11.0 billion -15 Trade Deficit Food articles 15.3 -2.1 4.9 -0.2 5.2 4.9 & 2019 MARCH 2020 MARCH Fuel and power 13.2 -3.1 -1.8 4.7 4.6 -1.8 Manufactured products 64.2 0.0 0.3 3.1 2.2 0.3 Oil refers to crude petroleum and petroleum products, while non-oil refers to all other commodities. * Data is provisional; Base: 2011–12=100; Source: Ministry of Commerce and Industry. Movement of IIP Growth April–February Movement of CPI Inflation January 2018–March 2020 Year-on-Year in % Year-on-Year in % 9 2018-19 6 15 4.5% 3
8.8% 0 10 2019-20 0.2% Miscellaneous -3 5.9% -6 5 4.4% -9 Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb* CPI * February 2020 are quick estimates; Base: 2011–12=100. 0 Consumer Food Industrial Growth: Sector-wise February 2020* (%) ECONOMIC Weights Over Over Financial Year (Avgs) -5 Jan DNOSAJJMAMF Jan DNOSAJJMAMF Jan Mar*F Month Year 2017–18 2018–19 2018 2019 2020 General index 100 -2.8 4.5 2.3 2.9 * Data is provisional.
Source: National Statistical Office (NSO), Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Base: 2012=100. Mining 14.4 -0.4 10.0 4.6 3.9 Manufacturing 77.6 -3.1 3.2 5.4 5.2 CPI: Rural and Urban March 2020* (%) Electricity 8.0 -4.2 8.1 4.4 3.8 Latest Over Over Financial Year (Avgs) Month Index Month Year 2018–19 2019–20 Industrial Growth: Use-based Primary goods 34.0 -2.4 7.4 3.7 3.5 CPI Combined 148.7 -0.3 5.9 3.4 4.3 Capital goods 8.2 -5.1 -9.7 4.0 2.7 Rural (2012=100) 149.8 -0.4 6.1 3.0 5.4 Intermediate goods 17.2 -1.4 22.4 2.3 0.9 Urban (2012=100) 147.4 -0.2 5.7 3.9 4.8 Infrastructure/Construction goods 12.3 -1.8 0.1 5.6 7.3 CPI: Occupation-wise Consumer durables 12.8 -5.4 -6.4 0.8 5.5 Industrial workers (2001=100)# 328.0 -0.6 6.8 3.1 5.4 Consumer non-durables 15.3 -3.0 0.0 10.6 4.0 Agricultural labourers (1986–87=100) 1007.0 -0.3 9.0 2.1 8.0 *February 2020 are quick estimates; Base: 2011-12=100; * Provisional; # February 2020 ; Source: NSO (rural & urban); Labour Bureau (IW and AL). Source: NSO, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation. Comprehensive current economic statistics with regular weekly updates are available at: http://www.epwrf.in/currentstat.aspx.
Economic & Political Weekly EPW may 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 53 CURRENT STATISTICS EPW Research Foundation
India’s Quarterly Estimates of Final Expenditures on GDP 2017–18 2018–19 2019–20 ` Crore | At 2011–12 Prices Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Private final consumption expenditure 1769688 (9.3) 1750056 (5.5) 1911901 (5.3) 1948174 (7.7) 1889008 (6.7) 1903853 (8.8) 2046415 (7.0) 2068781 (6.2) 1983491 (5.0) 2010993 (5.6) 2166235 (5.9) Government final consumption expenditure 362769 (21.6) 367882 (7.4) 319547 (10.5) 293024 (8.9) 393709 (8.5) 407780 (10.8) 341988 (7.0) 335088 (14.4) 428390 (8.8) 461585 (13.2) 382338 (11.8) Gross fixed capital formation 958859 (0.7) 967190 (5.9) 1014300 (8.8) 1120846 (13.7) 1082670 (12.9) 1077942 (11.5) 1130201 (11.4) 1170154 (4.4) 1129470 (4.3) 1033344 (-4.1) 1071887 (-5.2) Change in stocks 49996 (61.7) 54050 (75.8) 52497 (78.3) 59252 (79.6) 64131 (28.3) 66159 (22.4) 63999 (21.9) 70126 (18.4) 66411 (3.6) 66732 (0.9) 64668 (1.0) Valuables 62905 (80.1) 46317 (25.0) 39512 (11.2) 43927 (1.5) 41080 (-34.7) 44629 (-3.6) 39252 (-0.7) 44773 (1.9) 49519 (20.5) 49919 (11.9) 41824 (6.6) Net trade (Export–import) -137041 -85422 -128661 -125231 -122238 -141491 -104580 -51925 -117247 -76415 -50489 Exports 627176 (3.9) 639543 (4.5) 646620 (4.4) 688438 (5.0) 686695 (9.5) 719352 (12.5) 748505 (15.8) 767991 (11.6) 708771 (3.2) 703973 (-2.1) 707407 (-5.5) Less imports 764217 (21.8) 724965 (10.5) 775281 (14.1) 813669 (23.6) 808933 (5.9) 860843 (18.7) 853085 (10.0) 819916 (0.8) 826018 (2.1) 780388 (-9.3) 757896 (-11.2) Discrepancies 69397 132000 105705 151721 10803 73679 -17242 52683 7482 61000 -11460 Gross domestic product (GDP) 3136572 (5.1) 3232072 (7.3) 3314801 (8.7) 3491715 (7.4) 3359162 (7.1) 3432553 (6.2) 3500033 (5.6) 3689678 (5.7) 3547516 (5.6) 3607157 (5.1) 3665003 (4.7)
India’s Overall Balance of Payments (Net): Quarterly 2018–19 ($ mn) 2019–20 ($ mn) 2018–19 (` bn) 2019–20 (` bn) Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Current account -15803 -19054 -17752 -4647 -14417 -6512 -1417 -1059 [-2.3] -1337 [-2.9] -1279 [-2.7] -328 [-0.7] -1003 [-2.0] -459 [-0.9] -101 [-0.2] Merchandise -45751 -50037 -49281 -35214 -46182 -38085 -34625 -3065 -3510 -3552 -2482 -3212 -2682 -2466 Invisibles 29947 30984 31529 30567 31765 31573 33208 2006 2174 2272 2154 2209 2224 2365 Services 18676 20256 21678 21331 20076 20444 21880 1251 1421 1562 1503 1396 1440 1558 of which: Software services 18605 19286 19895 19868 20998 21064 21455 1246 1353 1434 1400 1460 1484 1528 Transfers 17031 19331 17424 16160 17964 19952 18693 1141 1356 1256 1139 1249 1405 1331 of which: Private 17216 19511 17558 16317 18224 20188 18932 1153 1369 1265 1150 1267 1422 1349 Income -5760 -8603 -7573 -6925 -6275 -8822 -7364 -386 -604 -546 -488 -436 -621 -525 Capital account 4787 16604 13770 19241 28208 12283 22355 321 [0.7] 1165 [2.5] 992 [12.1] 1356 [2.7] 1962 [4.0] 865 [1.7] 1592 [3.1] of which: Foreign investment 1427 7612 5199 15856 19041 10389 17802 96 534 375 1117 1324 732 1268 Overall balance -11338 -1868 -4296 14162 13984 5118 21601 -760 [-1.7] -131 [-0.3] -310 [-0.6] 998 [2.0] 973 [2.0] 360 [0.7] 1539 [3.0]
WEEKLY Figures in square brackets are percentage to GDP.
Foreign Exchange Reserves Variation 17 April 19 April 31 March Over Over Financial Year So Far Financial Year Excluding gold but including revaluation effects 2020 2019 2020 Month Year 2019–20 2020–21 2015–16 2016–17 2017–18 2018–19 2019–20 ` crore 3385740 2689900 3344616 91936 695840 14260 41124 218620 25300 353270 68050 668976 $ mn 443311 387489 443645 4800 55822 676 -334 16297 10160 53217 -14168 56831
Monetary Aggregates Variation Outstanding Over Month Over Year Financial Year So Far Financial Year ` Crore 2020 2019–20 2020–21 2017–18 2018–19 2019–20
Money supply (M3) as on 10 April 16991626 465060 (2.8) 1571050 (10.2) -11491 (-0.1) 191695 (1.1) 1170657 (9.2) 1469480 (10.5) 1367864 (8.9) Components Currency with public 2391299 82987 (3.6) 305694 (14.7) 33395 (1.6) 41583 (1.8) 495583 (39.2) 292497 (16.6) 297506 (14.5) Demand deposits 1601947 25912 (1.6) 118260 (8.0) -142825 (-8.8) -135745 (-7.8) 86962 (6.2) 142800 (9.6) 111180 (6.8) Time deposits 12958954 352909 (2.8) 1135509 (9.6) 101841 (0.9) 284938 (2.2) 585266 (5.8) 1026348 (9.6) 952412 (8.1) Other deposits with RBI 39426 3251 (9.0) 11586 (41.6) -3902 (-12.3) 919 (2.4) 2817 (13.4) 7835 (32.8) 6765 (21.3)
POLITICAL Sources Net bank credit to government 5331924 293126 (5.8) 801815 (17.7) 141620 (3.2) 425341 (8.7) 144799 (3.8) 387090 (9.7) 518094 (11.8) Bank credit to commercial sector 10991984 195498 (1.8) 741478 (7.2) -132213 (-1.3) -46660 (-0.4) 802225 (9.5) 1169004 (12.7) 655925 (6.3) Net foreign exchange assets 3839237 77772 (2.1) 752455 (24.4) 15941 (0.5) 40335 (1.1) 364065 (14.2) 148546 (5.1) 728061 (23.7) & Banking sector’s net non-monetary liabilities 3197835 101337 (3.3) 725125 (29.3) 36840 (1.5) 227321 (7.7) 140995 (6.8) 235395 (10.7) 534644 (21.9) Reserve money as on 17 April 3016027 -64329 (-2.1) 222779 (8.0) 22766 (0.8) -13647 (-0.5) 518300 (27.3) 351702 (14.5) 259192 (9.4) Components Currency in circulation 2506266 96673 (4.0) 318201 (14.5) 51294 (2.4) 58987 (2.4) 494078 (37.0) 307423 (16.8) 310508 (14.5) Bankers’ deposits with RBI 470869 -162470 (-25.7) -106145 (-18.4) -24955 (-4.1) -73019 (-13.4) 21405 (3.9) 36444 (6.4) -58081 (-9.6) Other deposits with RBI 38892 1468 (3.9) 10723 (38.1) -3573 (-11.3) 385 (1.0) 2817 (13.4) 7835 (32.8) 6765 (21.3) Sources Net RBI credit to Government 1211995 215980 (21.7) 343569 (39.6) 66475 (8.3) 219803 (22.2) -144836 (-23.3) 325987 (68.5) 190241 (23.7) of which: Centre 1211209 217491 (21.9) 347778 (40.3) 62958 (7.9) 221468 (22.4) -145304 (-23.5) 326187 (68.8) 189268 (23.6) RBI credit to banks & commercial sector -426925 -262282 (159.3) -532950 (-502.7) -46826 (-30.6) -226032 (112.5) 372643 (-120.5) 89478 (0.0) -353744 (0.0) Net foreign exchange assets of RBI 3658405 140190 (4.0) 793873 (27.7) 15945 (0.6) 68003 (1.9) 363571 (15.2) 87806 (3.2) 741815 (26.0) Govt’s currency liabilities to the public 26315 0 (0.0) 427 (1.6) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 572 (2.3) 236 (0.9) 427 (1.6) Net non-monetary liabilities of RBI 1453763 158217 (12.2) 382140 (35.7) 12828 (1.2) 75421 (5.5) 73650 (8.8) 151805 (16.7) 319547 (30.2)
Scheduled Commercial Banks’ Indicators (` Crore) Variation Outstanding Over Month Over Year Financial Year So Far Financial Year (As on 10 April) 2020 2019–20 2020–21 2017–18 2018–19 2019–20 Aggregate deposits 13714927 375838 (2.8) 1184764 (9.5) -43608 (-0.3) 147435 (1.1) 668390 (6.2) 1147721 (10.0) 993721 (7.9) ECONOMIC Demand 1481652 24145 (1.7) 113429 (8.3) -143064 (-9.5) -135351 (-8.4) 88843 (6.9) 141004 (10.3) 105716 (7.0) Time 12233275 351693 (3.0) 1071335 (9.6) 99456 (0.9) 282786 (2.4) 579547 (6.1) 1006717 (10.0) 888005 (8.0) Cash in hand 85170 3644 (4.5) 5695 (7.2) 4598 (6.1) -2090 (-2.4) -1295 (-2.1) 14812 (24.7) 12383 (16.5) Balance with RBI 401621 -149399 (-27.1) -103079 (-20.4) -61007 (-10.8) -103510 (-20.5) 16906 (3.3) 40021 (7.6) -60576 (-10.7) Investments 3925665 130652 (3.4) 484425 (14.1) 60184 (1.8) 232095 (6.3) 287494 (9.5) 62602 (1.9) 312514 (9.2) of which: Government securities 3924509 137493 (3.6) 484311 (14.1) 61197 (1.8) 239592 (6.5) 287657 (9.5) 61594 (1.9) 305916 (9.1) Bank credit 10339299 198806 (2.0) 694512 (7.2) -126936 (-1.3) -31562 (-0.3) 783965 (10.0) 1146298 (13.3) 599138 (6.1) of which: Non-food credit 10285226 205125 (2.0) 676369 (7.0) -121256 (-1.2) -33872 (-0.3) 795906 (10.2) 1146677 (13.4) 588985 (6.1)
Capital Markets 24 April Month Year Financial Year So Far 2019–20 End of Financial Year 2020 Ago Ago Trough Peak Trough Peak 2017–18 2018–19 2019–20 S&P BSE SENSEX (Base: 1978–79=100) 31327 (-19.8) 26674 39055 (12.8) 27591 31863 25981 41953 32969 (12.1) 39714.20 (12.4) 29816 (-21.8) S&P BSE-100 (Base: 1983–84=100) 9268 (-22.0) 7866 11883 (7.8) 8180 9431 7683 12456 10503 (11.5) 12044.07 (9.1) 8693 (-25.2) S&P BSE-200 (1989–90=100) 3862 (-21.6) 3280 4929 (5.7) 3416 3930 3209 5185 4433 (12.0) 4986.55 (7.1) 3614 (-25.1) CNX Nifty-50 (Base: 3 Nov 1995=1000) 9154 (-21.9) 7801 11726 (10.5) 8084 9314 7610 12362 10114 (11.1) 11922.80 (11.1) 8660 (-24.3) CNX Nifty-500 7493 (-22.6) 6365 9688 (3.2) 6638 7625 6243 10119 8912 (12.6) 9805.05 (5.3) 7003 (-26.3) Figures in brackets are percentage variations over the specified or over the comparable period of the previous year. | (-) = not relevant | - = not available | NS = new series | PE = provisional estimates Comprehensive current economic statistics with regular weekly updates are available at: http://www.epwrf.in/currentstat.aspx.
54 may 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 EPW Economic & Political Weekly POSTSCRIPT IDENTITY The Paan on My Plate From Bread to Identity
Brought to India from the tea estates of Sri Lanka, paan is a humble bread that tells the story of Indian Tamils who migrated to Ceylon as indentured labour.
Akshyah Krishnakumar
ur Thursday dinners were always the same: paan, a unlike cattle, they were all huddled into cramped compart- crudely made coarse bread with fl uffy insides, which ments on ships and taken to the exotic land called Ceylon Omakes a loud crunch with each bite. It is usually with its lush greenery and promise of unlimited toddy. paired with sambal, a spicy Ceylonese preparation made by However, life in the tea plantations was hardly a vision of the pounding freshly grated coconut with grated fi ery red promised land. The only redeeming quality, as my great-grand- chillies. My grandmother says that sambal tastes best when father jokingly narrated to his scandalised grandchildren, was
WEEKLY maasi (powdered dry fi sh) is sprinkled over it, adding a the slumberous toddy sweetened by coconut milk and karupatti tangy and earthy fl avour which cannot be replicated by any- or black jaggery infusion. But, my grandparents disagreed. For thing else. In fact, during her childhood in Sri Lanka, or them it was the food—the spicy and tangy Ceylonese food which Ceylon as it is still nostalgically referred to by most Indian made the chilly winters bearable, and the overwhelming use of Tamils from Ceylon, maasi was as ubiquitous as salt in their coconut milk which is soothing in even the hottest of summers. everyday cuisine. Today, we continue to use maasi in our Decades later, and after surviving years of confl ict and migration, household, but sparingly, almost like a guilty pleasure, to my family and others like mine continued to hold on to their add zing to an otherwise boring lunch of pumpkin In many ways, culinary traditions. However, today, I see these sambar, rice, and sautéed carrots and beans. perhaps, paan is traditions slowly, but surely, fading into oblivion. My grandparents were among the hundreds of synonymous with As a descendant of Indian Tamils from Sri Lanka, Indian Tamils (or Hill Country Tamils) who returned their identity as I have been privy to several such stories, recipes, to India from Ceylon in the 20th century during the and culinary cultures. My grandmother, having POLITICAL Indian Tamils from civil wars that ravaged the teardrop-shaped island. Ceylon. The been brought up as a playmate to the British tea My childhood memories are peppered with oral stories estate owner’s daughter, remembers breakfasts & recognition of its of ship voyages, telegrams to India, wartime ration- with paan, marmalade, jams and margarine. In history and ing of food and, more importantly, spicy Ceylonese fact, throughout the tea estate, the regular break- consumption is real, food and food habits. Today, as I try to trace my his- fast for the labourers consisted of either paan or but not as a form of tory, I see its linkages to Ceylon most prominently thick, fl attened roti made of wheat fl our and huge on my plate. Ironically, that phase of our history a shared sense of chunks of grated coconut, usually eaten with began due to the emptiness of my ancestors’ plates. solidarity or a proud spicy sambal, not unlike my Thursday dinners. During the disastrous famines in South India in badge of their Interestingly, variations of paan are found the late 19th century, hunger deaths became an collective migratory throughout the colonial empire, like Bunny Chow, ordinary, everyday occurrence. As a result, several survival the popular South African street food made by fi ll- farmers from the rice-growing belt along River Kaveri migrated ing spicy curry in hollowed-out bread. My ancestors in Ceylon as indentured labourers, to the newly created Ceylonese tea also fi lled their hollowed-out paan with sambal and took it along plantations—and among them were my emaciated ancestors. with them to the tea estate, but primarily because they did not ECONOMIC Today, there still exists a bus stop in Tiruchirappalli (also have enough utensils to use as lunchboxes. In those areas of known as Trichy), on the banks of the Kaveri, that is known Trichy that are home to Hill Country Tamils, paan is still availa- locally as the Ceylon Offi ce bus stop. A hundred years ago, ble—but not in shops or houses or even restaurants specialising several malnourished young men and women stood in long in Sri Lankan cuisine. Instead, an erstwhile tea estate labourer in queues to buy passes on ships sailing to Ceylon. They were the neighbourhood prepares this coarse bread in his house and swayed by stories—partly true—of days of hard labour being hand-delivers it to all the households every Thursday. rewarded by free toddy, regular food rations, and a cool To the uninformed, it would almost seem like a covert climate. After their enrolment, they were taken for a medical operation: paan is sold only to Hill Country Tamils settled in check-up to camps in Dhanushkodi at the southern-most tip Trichy; the demand depends solely on word-of-mouth pro- of the Indian peninsula, and were administered smallpox motions; it is not served or eaten in these households as a vaccination and several rounds of laxatives (to fl ush out any delicacy but rather as a secret comfort food; and almost no virus or toxins from the body) for over a week. Then, not one outside of the makers and the partakers are aware of the
Economic & Political Weekly EPW MAy 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 55 POSTSCRIPT IDENTITY | ANIMAL RIGHTS
existence of paan. In many ways, perhaps, paan is synonymous with their identity as Indian Tamils from Ceylon. The recog- Lending a Voice nition of its history and consumption is real, but not as a form of a shared sense of solidarity or a proud badge of their collective to Baahubali migratory survival. Rather, paan, like their identity, is practised in closed and individual spaces (in this case a household) Of Animal Rights and a and as a guilty necessity that cannot be shaken off. Replace paan with their other foods like maasi, sambal, and polaska Champion Goat curry (made with unripe jackfruit), and the way they consume it is the same—as nostalgia and a guilty pleasure. The film Chopsticks initiates a conversation on However, one would be wrong to assume that this commu- where our food comes from, drawing attention to nity was always reticent about their colonial pasts and jour- the commercial breeding and commodification of neys. My aunt recalls times when meat and fi sh were only animals for human consumption. sold in shops on the outskirts of Uraiyur in Trichy where she grew up. She remembers feeling shy and even ashamed P P Vijayalakshmi, Rajlakshmi Kanjilal whenever they visited these shops for it was in the “untouch-
WEEKLY ables” neighbourhood and she did not want her neighbours hrough his acceptance speech at the Oscars earlier this to know what her food was and where it came from. But, in the year, Joaquin Phoenix urged people to be compassionate latter part of the 20th century, these things changed. With the Tand mindful in our relationship with all living beings, coming back of the Indian Tamils, eating fi sh—an important particularly those that are systematically ignored and mar- part of their daily cuisine—was normalised and the shops ginalised, including animals. The essence of this message is selling them were brought into the towns. The taboo associated refl ected in Chopsticks (2019), a coming-of-age Netfl ix Original with eating non-vegetarian food was relatively less and even fi lm in Hindi that follows the misadventures of a young pro- unknown in parts of Ceylon due to their close interactions fessional whose new car gets stolen. Nirma Sahastrabuddhe’s with British colonisers and tea estate owners, and the low path crosses with Artist (a con man), Faiyaz bhai (a criminal), presence of Brahmins and vegetarians in the hill country. In It is here that, for and Baahubali (a champion goat). A fact, it wouldn’t be far from the truth to claim that their repa- the first time, Faiyaz central question that is masterfully triation and occupation of several parts of the towns of woven into the narrative is: Do we POLITICAL bhai makes the Trichy, Coimbatore, and Kodaikanal in Tamil Nadu diluted the connection between truly treat animals as our friends caste-based geographical divisions and contributed to the while we continue to eat them?
& Baahubali, a sentiments of the anti-Brahminical movements and politics sentient being, and Faiyaz bhai is the proud owner of of the region. But that’s a discussion for another article. Baahubali, the undefeated champion the goat slaughtered Two months ago when I visited my aunt in Trichy, I looked of 99 goat fi ghts, and preparations and presented forward to eating idiyappam (string-hoppers made out of are underway for Baahubali’s before him rice) with coconut sothi (a favourful stew). I was not disap- 100th fi ght. Baahubali adheres to a pointed. We fi nished off dinner with lavariya—a sweet dish strict regimen that includes a non-negotiable diet. Inadvert- made of steaming-hot string-hoppers stuffed with karupatti, ently, he eats a piece of chocolate offered by one of his care- grated coconut, cardamom and cinnamon. But instead of sa- takers—an indiscretion that invites the wrath of Faiyaz vouring the culinary paradise laid out in front of us, we talked bhai. At fi rst glance, Faiyaz bhai’s rather unusual and pos- about how the new Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) and the sessive relationship with Baahubali may come across as National Population Register (NPR) exercise were going to vain. He anthropomorphises Baahubali with a name that he affect the Indian Tamils from Ceylon. While their citizenship translates as “strong (bali) armed (bahu),” and pays homage to ECONOMIC is not in question, in times of unidimensional hyper-national- the hit fi lm Baahubali (2015). This ascribing of human charac- ism where any expression of diversity, including in the per- teristics to Baahubali indicates that he is more than just a pet. sonal spaces of homes and households, is “othered” and At the same time, we can be certain that the director is evok- therefore suspicious, it is but a matter of time before their ing the phrase bali ka bakra (the sacrifi cial lamb). foods, their histories and their culinary traditions die out. The carefully constructed relationship between Faiyaz bhai Three months ago, the paan seller in Trichy died, and, with and Baahubali resembles one between a father and a son, as him, the tradition of having paan every Thursday in Indian opposed to a man and his property, which is quite similar to Tamilian households. No one knows how to make it, and no the characters Mija (little girl) and Okja (super pig) in Bong one dare anymore. Joon-ho’s Okja (2017). Baahubali’s birthday is celebrated with grandeur—with Akshyah Krishnakumar ([email protected]) is an environmentalist based in Bengaluru, with an avid interest in exploring the histories of South Indian communities cake, live music, and a feast—and the entire community in and traditions. attendance. In a scene that is as comic as it is a wake-up call of
56 MAy 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 EPW Economic & Political Weekly POSTSCRIPT ANIMAL RIGHTS | STORYTELLING
sorts, Faiyaz bhai realises that mutton is being served at the The ethical and moral implications of the commodifi cation of party. Both appalled and disgusted by the insensitivity of animals are highlighted in Chopsticks. Nirma kidnaps Baahubali the caterers, he asks, “How is he [Baahubali] going to feel as a bargaining chip to get back her car. However, in due course, when he sees his brothers served on a plate?” It is here that, she realises that Baahubali is a sentient being and not an for the fi rst time, Faiyaz bhai makes the connection between object to be traded. This epiphany leads her to take Baahubali Baahubali, a sentient being, and the goat slaughtered and back to his home. A publicity still from the fi lm echoes this presented before him. Through absurdist comedy, the fi lm- message, with a justice balance on Nirma’s head where maker takes us back to the question of whether a person Baahubali is placed on the right as the balance tilts towards him who truly cares about non-human animals can slaughter and Nirma’s car is placed on the left. The message that sentient and consume their meat. beings are more than mere objects is aptly communicated. Faiyaz bhai does not differentiate between Baahubali and Chopsticks shies away from making bold statements and toes the slain goat while he acknowledges both as sentient—con- the line, steering away from controversy. Nevertheless, the fi lm scious, living beings who have the capacity to feel pain. Ac- succeeds in its attempts to draw the audiences’ attention to the cording to utilitarian philosopher Jeremy Bentham in An breeding, transport, and consumption of non-human beings like Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789), lifeless commodities. The fi lm thoughtfully initiates a conver- “The question is not, ‘Can they reason?’ nor ‘Can they talk?’ sation about where our “food” comes from and urges audiences
WEEKLY but, ‘Can they suffer?’” Peter Singer in Animal Liberation: A to refl ect on this point without being preachy and judgmental, New Ethics for Our Treatment of Animals? (2009) furthers or issuing ultimatums. The fi lm ends with a shot of Nirma and Bentham’s hypothesis, stating that it is imperative to include her clients enjoying a plate of biryani, without lingering on non-human animals inside the moral sphere of concern, or commenting on what is on her plate since food preferences urging people to abandon all practices that contribute to the are a deeply personal choice. At the same time, Chopsticks perpetual pain and suffering of non-humans. does give the audience some food for thought on the compli- The dark underbelly of the animal agriculture industry is cated, exploitative relationship that we share with animals. exposed in Okja, in which super pigs are raised and slaugh- P P Vijayalakshmi ([email protected]) teaches in the Department of English tered in a factory farm in a graphic manner, laying bare the and Rajlakshmi Kanjilal ([email protected]) is a research scholar in the ethics and gruesomeness of breeding non-human animals Department of Visual Media and Communication at Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Kochi. for human consumption. In The Case for Animal Rights (2004), Tom Regan draws attention to factory farms which perpetual- POLITICAL ly violate the individual rights of non-human beings as the system blatantly disregards the animals’ inherent value and The Art of Storytelling & moral right to life. The animal rights movement is often cen- sured and mischaracterised as it employs methods that and Listening evoke strong emotional responses to raise uncomfortable ques- tions. Consequently, the movement is often mistaken as a means Rescripting Inner Narratives of passing judgment and infringing on another individual’s freedom of choice. But, the core objective of the movement is It is important to listen to the stories we tell others to fi ght the oppressive industry that continues to exploit animals and ourselves as they have a deep bearing on for commercial gain, and to make consumers aware of the on- our identities. going horrors within the confi nes of slaughterhouses. Activists maintain that the only acceptable solution to end Indu Divya the continued enslavement of non-human beings is the dissolution of commercial animal agriculture altogether. On the couple of months ago, I was at a café, one of my regular ECONOMIC other hand, welfarists endorse the idea of humane slaughter hangouts. Once I had settled, a member of the very and wrangle with animal rights advocates, who reject this on A friendly staff came by. Smiling, she poured me a glass the principle that any form of exploitation is non-negotiable. of water and launched into a conversation. The novelist Jonathan Safran Foer, in Eating Animals (2009), “Are you ok?” she asked. writing about the increase in demand for factory farms “Absolutely! How have you been?” I smiled. across the world, particularly in India and China, had “Am good, but you seem exhausted,” she said in a well- warned that it could lead to an increase in pandemics, food- meaning tone, looking at me a little longer. borne illnesses, and antimicrobial resistance. Although there “Oh no, I am good, really, thanks,” I smiled a little broader isn’t enough evidence pointing to a connection between the hoping it would convince her. Without prodding, she deftly current COVID-19 pandemic and wet markets where animals manoeuvred the conversation away, took my order and left. are traded, we know that the previous bird fl u outbreak origi- Although I didn’t say so, she was right; and, most certainly, nated in a wet market. tuned in. Something was, indeed, bothering me.
Economic & Political Weekly EPW MAy 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 57 POSTSCRIPT STORYTELLING
Some people, regardless of whether or not they know you stories we tell ourselves, recognise why we tell them, and well, can effortlessly read your mind or gauge your feelings gauge if, indeed, they serve us well or not. even when no words are spoken. But can we read our own A couple of years after I got into professional storytelling, a minds as effortlessly? When you are engaged in a conversa- few of my peers and well-wishers suggested that I record videos tion or are alone by yourself, do you clearly hear what is of my storytelling and post them online. Much as I loved the being expressed? Most of us are hardly present. Often, in a suggestion and saw the benefi t in doing it, I found myself conversation with another person, we are already thinking stalling. One day, sometime last year, a memory popped up that of how or what to respond with, how to steer the conversation, contained the answer to why I was stalling: a video of mine, or perhaps, we have already slipped into our own thoughts. from years ago, that fetched unfl attering comments about And sometimes, when we think we are by ourselves, the how I looked on camera. Hurtful, the comments had left me truth is that we aren’t really. We are alone, yes, but we are scarred. I never wanted to be on video after that episode. preoccupied with our electronic devices—phone, television, I decided it was now time to change that notion I held about iPad, or something else. However, if we tried to listen more myself because it was holding me back from letting my work consciously, practising self-awareness, we would perhaps reach a wider audience. Being cognisant of the reason I was arrive at many realisations—for instance that we ourselves stalling, and the narrative I had woven around it, helped me don’t practise what we preach, or that we defi nitely crave break free and recreate a fresh, more uplifting narrative for
WEEKLY validation despite believing otherwise. We are all myself. Consciously and consistently feeding In one such moment of quiet refl ection, musing storytellers. Stories myself the new story helped. In a few weeks, I felt on my favourite stories as a professional storytell- and storytelling are inspired and ready to work on a mini video series er, I was pleasantly surprised. The common how we process and on storytelling, posting it online too. thread linking some of my favourites was my connect with the As a professional storyteller, one of my biggest childhood and the people these stories brought to world around and learnings has been that the act of listening is more mind, and not necessarily the story’s plot or char- within us signifi cant than the act of telling. It is only when acters. The Kakkamma Bokamma story (of the we truly listen that we can fully comprehend the crow and sparrow), for instance, brings to mind a vivid world around us and tell a better story. Conscious listening picture of Daddy telling my brother and me that story while requires that we be quiet and present so that we may com- we lay in bed. As a kid, I enjoyed that nightly ritual, and it is pletely absorb and experience a moment with all of our senses. one of the fondest memories I have of a man I loved dearly. Only then can we truly understand what is being experienced POLITICAL Growing up, I hoped to be able to tell stories to my children or communicated, including that which is not verbally just like he did. And, I did. expressed. Listening, then, becomes not just a skill but a gift that & Consider the stories you like. If you took the time to refl ect can help us demonstrate more compassion and empathy—like on why you like them, like me, you might have interesting the discerning woman at the café—and reframe our percep- revelations too. In all likelihood, it might be because the story tion of ourselves and those around us. So, what’s your story? reminds you of a time or person that is special, and/or the Indu Divya ([email protected]) is a Chennai-based storyteller, story coach, and characters in the stories and their responses to situations, or founder of The Narrative, a storytelling brand that helps people harness the power of the essence of the stories resonates with what you believe in. their own stories. Either you see yourself or a loved one in those characters, or you aspire to be like them. LAST LINES Stories help shape our identities. It is important for us to acknowledge and remember that even though we may not be doing it for a living, we are all storytellers. Stories and story- telling are how we process and connect with the world ECONOMIC around and within us. The stories we tell others and, more importantly, those that we silently tell ourselves have a deep bearing on our identities. And, as important as the telling of these stories is the act of listening to them. One of the most important stories we listen to is our inter- nal story. Deeply entrenched in our mind, it shapes the course of our lives, including how we perceive ourselves and our identities. This internal narrative is infl uenced by our immediate environment, beliefs, values, the media we consume, and our own experiences. Luckily, we have the power to rescript it at any point in time. But, for that, we need to be mindful and listen—quietly and consciously—so that we can identify the
58 MAy 2, 2020 vol lV no 18 EPW Economic & Political Weekly ECONOMIC & POLITICAL WEEKLY ,1',$1,167,787(62)38%/,&+($/7+ ,,3+V '(/+,1&5_*$1'+,1$*$5_+<'(5$%$'_%+8%$1(6:$5_6+,//21* ,,3+VKDYHEHHQHVWDEOLVKHGE\WKH3XEOLF+HDOWK)RXQGDWLRQRI ,QGLD 3+), DSXEOLFSULYDWHLQLWLDWLYHDQGDUHJLVWHUHGVRFL HW\ 3+),DQG,,3+VSURYLGHDYLEUDQWSODWIRUPIRUHGXFDWLRQWUDLQL QJUHVHDUFKDQGSUDFWLFHLQWKHILHOGRISXEOLFKHDOWKLQ,QGL D
BUILD A CAREER IN PUBLIC HEALTH AND WORK TOWARDS A HEALTHIER IN DIA ADMISSIONS OPEN FOR 2020 SESSION Master of Public Health (MPH) Offered at IIPH-Delhi NCR [1], IIPH-Gandhinagar [2], IIPH-Hyderabad [3], IIPH-Shillong [4], IIPH-Bhubaneswar [5] Master of Hospital Administration (MHA) 91% placements Multi-disciplinary pool of Offered at IIPH-Gandhinagar** since inception faculty, scholars and practitioners Integrated MSc & PhD Programs SCHOLARSHIPS (Jointly conducted by PHFI & AcSIR #) AVAILABLE ACROSS • Clinical Research (Offered at IIPH-Delhi NCR) IIPHs • Health Informatics (Offered at IIPH-Hyderabad) Emphasis on transformative (A two-year Master's program (MSc in Clinical Research or Healt h Informatics), with the option of pursuing a PhD, learning, competency driven if eligible, as an Integrated MSc-PhD in Clinical Research or Health Informatics.) curriculum, and health systems connect Post Graduate Diploma in Public Health Management (PGDPHM) ^ (Offered at IIPH-Delhi NCR, Ga ndhinagar, Hyderabad & Bhubaneswa r) Several certificate, distance learning and short-term training programs are available. [1] Affiliated to Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Science s and Technology (SCTIMST), Trivandrum [2] Indian Institute of Public Health Gandhinagar Gujarat, India (a university under State Government Act) LAST DATE FOR APPLICATIONS [3] Affiliated to Kaloji Naryana Rao University of Health Sciences, Warangal, Telangana st [4] In collaboration with Martin Luther Christian University, Shill ong 31 MAY 2020 [5] In collaboration with Utkal University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha (proposed) #Academy of Scientific & Innovative Research (AcSIR) has been es tablished as an 'Institution of National Importance, by an Act of Parliament www.phfi.org ^Supported under National Health Mission (NHM), MoHFW, Governme nt of India Indian Institutes of Public Health (IIPHs) Details on courses, eligibility criteria and scholarships Public Health Foundation of India (PHFI) Email: [email protected] | Phone: +91 7042073761 Plot No. 47, Sector 44, Institutional Area, Gurgaon – 122002 Phone: +91-124-4722900 / Fax: +91-124-4722901 /thePHFI @thePHFI /PHFICHANNEL Published on Saturday, May 2, 2020 Regd No MCW-238/2018-20 WPP Licence No MR/Tech/WPP-197/West/2018-20. Licensed to post without prepayment. Posted at Patrika Channel Sorting Office, Mumbai-1 on every Tuesday-Wednesday. Regd. with the RNI – No 14089/66 WEEKLY POLITICAL & ECONOMIC
60