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Acetonitrile Environmental Health Criteria 154 Acetonitrile lililiiil vile the joint spunsoiship of the United Nations Environment Programme, tl hiitaiiiahiO(Ial Lahoiii Organisation and the World Health Organization THE ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH CRITERIA SERIES Acetonitrile (No. 154, 1993) 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid - environmental Acrolein (No. 127, 1991) aspects (No. 84, 1989) Acrlamide (No. 49, 1985) 1 ,3-Dichtoropropene, 1 ,2-dichloropropane and Acrylonitrile (No. 28, 1983) mixtures (No. 146, 1993) Aged population, principles for evaluating the DDT and its derivatives (No. 9, 1979) effects of chemicals (No. 144, 1992) DDT and its derivatives - environmental aspects Aldicarb (No. 121, 1991) (No. 83, 1989) Aldrin and dieldrin (No. 91, 1989) Deltamethrin (No. 97, 1990) Allethrins (No. 87, 1989) Diaminotduenes (No. 74, 1987) Alphs-cypermethrin (No. 142, 1992) Dichloivos (No. 79, 1988) Ammonia (No. 54, 1986) Diethylhexyl phthalate (No. 131, 1992) Arsenic (No. 18, 1991) Dimethoate (No. 90, 1989) Asbestos and other natural mineral fibres Dimethylformamide (No. 114, 1991) (No. 53, 1986) Dimethyl sulfate (No. 48, 1985) Barium (No. 107, 1990) Diseases of suspected chemical etiology and Benomyl (No. 148, 1993) their prevention, principles of studies on Benzene (No. 150, 1993) (No. 72, 1987) Beryllium (No. 106, 1990) Dithiocarbamate pesticides, ethylenethiourea, and Blotoxins, aquatic (marine and freshwater) propylenethiourea: a general introduction (No. 37, 1984) (No. 78, 1988) Butanols - four isomers (No. 65, 1987) Electromagnetic Fields (No. 137, 1992) Cadmium (No. 134, 1992) Endosulfan (No. 40, 1984) Cadmium environmental aspects (No. 135, 1992) Endrin (No. 130, 1992) Camphechior (No. 45, 1984) Environmental epidemiology, guidelines on Carbamate pesticides: a general introduction studies in (No. 27, 1983) (No. 64, 1986) Epichlorohydrin (No. 33, 1984) Carbar1 (No. 153, 1993) Ethylene oxide (No. 55, 1985) Carbendazim (No. 149, 1993) Extremely low frequency (ELF) fields (No. 35, Carbon disulfide (No. 10, 1979) 1984) Carbon monoxide (No. 13, 1979) Fenitrothion (No. 133, 1992) Carcinogens, summary report on the evaluation Fenvalerate (No. 95, 1990) of short-term in vitro tests (No. 47, 1985) Fluorine and fluorides (No. 36, 1984) Carcinogens, summary report on the evaluation Food additives and contaminants in food, of short-term in vivo tests (No. 109, 1990) principles for the safety assessment of Chiordane (No. 34, 1984) (No. 70, 1987) Chlordecone (No. 43, 1984) Formaldehyde (No. 89, 1989) Chlorine and hydrogen chloride (No. 21, 1982) Genetic effects in human populations, Chlorobenzenes other than hexachlorobenzene guidelines for the study of (No. 46, 1985) (No. 128, 1991) Heptachlor (No 38, 1984) Chlorofluorocarbons, fully halogenated (No. 113, Alpha- and beta-hexachlorocyclohexanes 1990) (No. 123, 1991) Chiorofluorocarbons, partially halogenated Hexachlorocyclopentadiene (No. 120, 1991) (ethane derivatives) (No. 139, 1992) n-Hexane (No. 122, 1991) Chlorofluorocarbons, partially halogenated Hydrazine (No. 68, 1987) (methane derivatives) ( No. 126, 1991) Hydrogen sulfide (No. 19, 1981) Chiorophenols (No. 93, 1989) Infancy and early childhood, principles for Chromium (No. 61, 1988) evaluating health risks from chemicals Cyhalothrin (No. 99, 1990) during (No. 59, 1986) Cypermethrin (No. 82, 1989) lsobenzan (No. 129, 1991) Cypermethrin, alpha- (No. 142, 1992) Kelevan (No. 66, 1986) 1,2-Dichloroethane (No. 62, 1987) Lasers and optical radiation (No. 23, 1982) 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) (No. 29, Lead (No. 3, 1977) 1984) Lead - environmental aspects (No. 85, 1989) Out of print continued inside back cover 111k lepolt colllliw, the Ull?Lt\L Cv of dfl 111- niiational raup 01 e\pCrl. and (l0C 1101 iiereari]v i-ciciii Illu cojoali' or tlic aatcd l)aIiL\ at 1110 1_Jiiji(1 Nation [iii lronmoiil f-rarmniin', tho ltiteiiia- tiaiial Lahaii ()r:ii1ioiiO1. or tic \\. arid Ficalili (Itrrtaniiit jilt. Environmental Health Criteria 154 ACETON ITRILE Firi dril prcparcd hi 1.)i K. E-1aliiinata 1Kainiiaia tJiicrsiR. JIuiatn. or K Moiiiiiato tNiRiuiUI IlitltLilc of Higinic Scieiiae.i:ilniii aid 1)r S. Doh'in 1jitjiutc al Tcrictriii F bay. Niuiiki Wood F\bicriiiiLrIltaI Sition, i iiit,_d KilO 11111 Publi Iied under the joint sponsor'h ip of the U nited Naton Env onillent Proranullc. the 1 nternational Labour Oi'zan kation. and the World Health Oran izati011 • Vv 011(1 Health Orui I at ion (3eneva. I99 i4s The International Programme on Chemical Safety (JPCS) is a joint venture of the United Nations Environment Programme, the International Labour Organisation, and the World Health Organization. The main objective of the !PCS is to carry out and disseminate evaluations of the effects of chemicals on human health and the quality of the environment. Supporting activities include the de.velopmentof epidemiological,experimental laboratory, and risk-assessment methods that could produce internationally comparable results, and the develop- ment of manpower in the field of toxicology. Other activities carried out by the IPCS include the development of know-how for coping with chemical accidents, coordination of laboratory testing and epidemiological studies, and pronlotion of research on the mechanisms of the biological action of chemicals, WHO Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Acetonitrile. (Environmental health criteria 54) I .Acetonitriles - adverse effects 2.Acetonitriles - toxicity 3.Environmerital exposure l.Series ISBN 92 4 157154 3 (NLM Classification; QV 633) ISSN 0250-863X The World Health Organization welcomes requests for permission to repro- duce or translate its publications, in part or in full. Applications and enquiries should be addressed to the Office of Publications, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, which will be glad to provide the latest information on any changes made to the text, plans for new editions, and reprints and translations already available. ©World Health Organization 1993 Publications of the World Health Organization enjoy copyright protection in accordance with the provisions of Protocol 2 of the Universal Copyright Conven- tion. All rights reserved. The designations employed and the presentation of the niaterial in this publi- cation do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the World Health Organization concerning the legal status of any country, territory , city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or of certain manufacturers' products does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by the World Health Organiz- ation in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. Errors and omissions excepted, the names of proprietary products are distinguished by initial capital letters. I'IsI\ I El) ]"• I-I\1. \"I) \•\\I\1 \I \ - CONTENTS ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH CRITERIA FOR ACETONITRILE 1. SUMMARY 13 1.1 Properties, uses and analytical methods 13 1.2 Environmental levels and sources of human exposure 13 1.3 Environmental distribution and transformation 13 1.4 Environmental effects 14 1.5 Absorption, distribution, biotransformation and elimination 14 1.6 Effects on laboratory mammals 15 1.7 Effects on humans 15 2, IDENTITY, PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES, AND ANALYTICAL METHODS 17 2.1 Identity 17 2.2 Physical and chemical properties 17 2.2.1 Physical properties 17 2.2.2 Chemical properties 18 2.3 Conversion factors 18 2.4 Analytical methods 20 2.4.1 Determination of acetonitrile in ambient air 20 2.4.1.1 Sampling methods 20 2.4.1.2 Measurement of acetonitrile in collected air samples 20 2.4.2 Monitoring methods for the determination of acetonitrile and its metabolites in biological materials 2 2.4,11 Acetonitrile in urine 21 2.4.2.2 Acetonitrile in serum 24 2.4.2.3 Acetonitrile metabolijes in tissues and biological fluids 24 3. SOURCES OF HUMAN AND ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE 19 3.1 Natural occurrence 29 3.2 Anthropogenic sources 29 3.2.1 Production levels and processes 29 3,2.2 Uses 30 3 EHC 154: Acetonitrile ENVIRONMENTAL TRANSPORT, DISTRIBUTION AND TRANSFORMATION 32 4.1 Transport and distribution between media 32 4.1.1 Water 32 4.2 Transformation 32 4.2.1 Biodegradation 32 4.2.1.1 Water and sewage sludge 32 4.2.1.2 Soil 33 4.2.2 Abiotic degradation 34 4.2.2.1 Water 34 4.2.2.2 Air 34 ENVIRONMENTAL. LEVELS AND HUMAN EXPOSURE 37 5.1 Environmental levels 37 5,1.1 Air 37 37 5.1.2 Water and bottom sediment 5.1.3 Food 37 5.1.4 Tobacco smoke 38 Other sources of exposure 38 5.1.5 5.2 Occupational exposure 38 5.3 Acetonitrile in various solvent products 39 KINETICS AND METABOLISM IN LABORATORY ANIMALS AND HUMANS 40 6.1 Absorption 40 6.1.1 Human studies 40 6.1.2 Experimental animal studies 40 6.1.2.1 Intake through inhalation 40 6.1.2.2 Dermal absorption 40 6.1.2.3 Intake via the gastrointestinal tract 41 6.2 Distribution 41 6.2.1 Human studies 41 6.2.2 Experimental animal studies 41 6.3 Biotransformation and elimination 41 6.3.1 Human studies 41 6.3.2 Experimental animal studies and in vitro studies 42 6.3.2.1 Cyanide liberation from acetonitrile 42 6.3.2.2 The oxidative pathway of acetonitrile mbolism 46 6.4 Biological monitoring of acetonitrile uptake 50 4 7. EFFECTS ON LABORATORY MAMMALS, IN VITRO TEST SYSTEMS 51 7.1 Acute toxicity 51 7.1.1 Single exposure 51 7. 1.2 Clinical observations 51 7.1.2.1 Effect on skin 56 7.1.2.2 Effect on the eyes 56 7.1.2.3 Effect on respiration 56 7.1.2.4 Effect on adrenals 56 7.1.2.5 Effect on the gastrointestinal tract 57 7.1.3 Biochemical
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