ÒVisions of the Divine Council in Pre-exilic WritingsÓ

Chapter 3 of:

VISIONS OF THE DIVINE COUNCIL IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

A Thesis

Presented to

the Faculty of the Religion Division

Pepperdine University

Malibu, California

by

Paul B. Sumner

April 1991

(corrected February 2013)

© 1991, 2013 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

hebrew-streams.org Paul Sumner Visions of the Divine Council in Pre-exilic Writings 2

ABSTRACT

The divine council in the Hebrew Bible is a symbolic ruling body consisting of God as the supreme monarch and various supernatural attendants. According to Patrick Miller, the divine council is one of the central cosmological symbols in the Hebrew Bible. That is, it is one of the BibleÕs ways of describing how God maintains order in the the Creation. Working through innumerable hosts of angelic servants, God creates and rules the physical universe, as well as the world of men. In his position as head of the council, God holds three primary offices: King, Judge, and Warrior. He is absolute ruler over all. He makes judicial decisions about the activities of its occupants. And he initiates punitive actions against those forces (divine or human) which cause chaos and disorder (i.e. sin), in order to restore tsedaqah (righteousness) and shalom (wholeness, peace). His obedient angels serve him in each of his corresponding offices. In his royal throne-room, they praise their King and act as his official counsellors, courtiers, and messengers. As members of the court, they act as witnesses, investigating detectives, bailiffs, and perhaps fellow judges. As members of the WarriorÕs vast army, they wage war on evil beings. The existence of the divine council is witnessed to by various literary genres of the Hebrew Bible. It is mentioned in historical, narrative and poetic passages, prophetic visions, Temple liturgy, apocalyptic visions. It also transcends the historical time-line, from the earliest primeval history to the final eschatological frontier. The concept and imagery of the divine council is thus woven throughout the pages of the Hebrew Bible. In the Hebrew Bible, a few select men gain access to the divine council. These visitors are the prophets. During their visionary entry into working sessions of the royal throneroom, they overhear what the King and his counsellors decide to do regarding specific human situations. Such visits or Òthrone visionsÓ are for the purpose of giving the prophet a message to announce to his people. The visions also authenticate the messenger, because he alone Òhas stood in the council of YHVHÓ (Jer 23:18). The throne visions became a kind of Òtheological genreÓ through which the visionaries/writers conveyed their convictions about the status of a particular agent of divine redemption. These agents, when once seen in the heavenly throneroom (if not Paul Sumner Visions of the Divine Council in Pre-exilic Writings 3

seated on the throne by God himself), demand attention from the community of believing Israel. In the canonical throne visions, we read descriptions of specific agents at the center of council sessions. The high priest Joshua is inaugurated as authority over the post-Exilic Restoration Community. He is opposed by a prosecuting attorney named Òthe adversaryÓ (ïËèËrÌä) and defended by YHVHÕs personal angel or representative (_ËàÙìÌnÌä). And in the last throne vision, a mysterious being with human form (ÖËðÛà øÌa) receives authority from God to rule the world. Does this important cosmological symbolic concept and imagery continue to be important among post-biblical Jews? The central concern of this paper is to show that divine councils were common in the ANE prior to IsraelÕs historical emergence; to sketch out the basic elements and evidences of the divine council in the Hebrew Bible and show the unique features in the relation to foreign pantheons; to analyze the use of those elements with the throne visions or working sessions of the council; and to suggest that the concept imagery and concept continued into post-biblical (Early) Judaism, including the New Testament.

Ñ Paul B. Sumner Paul Sumner Visions of the Divine Council in Pre-exilic Writings 4

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Abstract ...... 2 Table of Contents ...... 4

Chapter 3 Ñ Visions of the Divine Council in Pre-exilic Writings ...... 11 Exodus 24:9Ð11 ...... 12 1 Kings 22:19Ð23 ...... 19 Isaiah 6:1Ð8 ...... 25

Abbreviations ...... 33

Thesis chapters are available as PDFs at Hebrew Streams website:

Chapter 1ÑAncient Near Eastern Backgrounds http://www.hebrew-streams.org/works/hebrew/divinecouncil-ch1.pdf

Chapter 2ÑThe Divine Council in the Hebrew Bible http://www.hebrew-streams.org/works/hebrew/divinecouncil-ch2.pdf

Chapter 3ÑVisions of the Divine Council in Pre-exilic Writings http://www.hebrew-streams.org/works/hebrew/divinecouncil-ch3.pdf

Chapter 4ÑVisions of the Divine Council in Exilic and Post-exilic Writings http://www.hebrew-streams.org/works/hebrew/divinecouncil-ch4.pdf

Chapter 5ÑThe Divine Council in Second Temple Judaism and the New Testament http://www.hebrew-streams.org/works/hebrew/divinecouncil-ch5.pdf Paul Sumner Visions of the Divine Council in Pre-exilic Writings 5

Chapter 3 Visions of the Divine Council in Pre-exilic Writings

ÒThrone visionsÓ report the experiences of prophets who were admitted into the council chamber of YHVH. The visions provide specific glimpses into contemporary historical situations, and provide a theological viewpoint in relation to those human circumstances. Six passages in the Hebrew Bible are classified as throne visions: Exodus 24:9-11, 1 Kings 22:19-23, Isaiah 6:1-8, Ezekiel 1:26-28 and 10:1-5 (chap. 10 is considered as part of the one larger visionary experience), Zechariah 3, and Daniel 7:9-14. The term Òthrone visionÓ1 is defined in this paper as: a vision of God sitting on a throne accompanied by heavenly beings. Each vision is introduced by a verb of seeing, most often äàø.2 This and the following chapter will analyze the passages to determine how the visions correspond theologically to the historical realities. This analysis will include brief literary and historical summaries, and discussions of specific throne-vision terminology and imagery, such as the meaning and

1 The term is used in Form-Critical discussions. E. g. W. Zimmerli, Ezekiel I (Hermeneia; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1979), 100; J. J. Collins, Daniel (With an Introduction to Apocalyptic Literature) (FOTL 20; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1984) 18; R. M. Hals, Ezekiel (FOTL 19; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1989), 11.

2 For selected works on visions see D. E. Aune, ÒVisions,Ó ISBE 4.993-994; J. Eaton, Vision in Worship (The Relation of Prophecy and Liturgy in the Old Testament) (London: SPCK, 1981); J. D. Levenson, ÒThe Jerusalem Temple in Devotional and Visionary Experience,Ó in Jewish Spirituality I: From the Bible Through the Middle Ages (ed. A. Green; New York: Crossroad, 1987), 32-61, esp. 46-51; B. O. Long, ÒProphetic Call Traditions and Reports of Visions,Ó ZAW 84 (1972): 494-500; idem, ÒReports of Visions Among the Prophets,Ó JBL 95 (1976): 353-65; S. Niditch, The Symbolic Vision in Biblical Tradition (HSM 30; Chico: Scholars Press, 1983); M. S. Smith, ÒÔSeeing GodÕ in the Psalms: The Background of the Beatific Vision in the Hebrew Bible,ÕÓ CBQ 50 (1988): 171-83. For works on theophanies see J. Barr, ÒTheophany and Anthropomorphism in the Old Testament,Ó in Congress Volume Oxford 1959 (VT Sup; Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1960), 31- 38; F. M. Cross, ÒThe Storm Theophany in the Bible,Ó in Canaanite Myth, 156-77; G. H. Davies, ÒPillar of Fire and of Cloud,Ó IDB 3.817; idem, ÒTheophany,Ó IDB 4.619-20; W. R. Herman, ÒThe Kingship of Yahweh in the Hymnic Theophanies of the Old Testament,Ó SBT 16 (1988): 169-211; J. Jeremias, ÒTheophanies in the Old Testament,Ó IDBSup 896-98; G. A. F. Knight, ÒTheophany,Ó ISBE 4.827-31. For works on dreams see R. Gnuse, The Dream Theophany of Samuel (Its Structure in Relation to Ancient Near Eastern Dreams and Its Significance) (Lanham: Univ. Press of America, 1984); I. Mendelsohn, ÒDreams,Ó IDB 1.868-89; J. H. Stek, ÒDreams,Ó ISBE (1979), 1.991-92. Paul Sumner Visions of the Divine Council in Pre-exilic Writings 6

significance of the divine names and council members, the identity of the vision witnesses, the purposes of the visions, and any related details. Each vision will be discussed separately, then a summary analysis of all six will be provided at the end of Chapter 4. This summary will compare and contrast the visions to determine if a unified purpose or function transcends them as a group. Chapters 3 and 4 are divided at the Babylonian Exile in the 6th century. Chapter 3 contains studies on Exodus 24, 1 Kings 22, and Isaiah 6. Chapter 4 contains studies on Ezekiel 1 and 10, Zechariah 3, and Daniel 7. This division is chronological according to the events reported in the various books, except that the positions of Zechariah and Daniel are reversed, following their canonical placement in the Hebrew Bible. I am aware, that the compositional chronology of all these passages is different. Whereas the events of Exodus 24 come before Isaiah 6, the recording of the events may have occurred later (if Exodus 24 is assigned to the ÒPÓ or Priestly editor of the 6th century). Most scholars, however, assign Exodus 24 to either the Yahwist or the Elohist, in the 10th and 9th centuries, respectively. First Kings 11 is a part of the Deuteronomic History composed during the Exile in the mid-6th century, although its events are from the 9th century. As for the Exilic and post-Exilic passages, most scholars think that the portions of Ezekiel and Zechariah discussed here were composed shortly after the reported visions. For Ezekiel 1 and 10 the approximate date would be 593-92 BCE; for Zechariah 520 BCE. The stated historical marker for Daniel 7 is 554 BCE, mid-way through the Exile. However, most scholars place its actual composition to around 167 BCE, assuming its author wrote pseudonymously under the name ÒDaniel.Ó

Exodus 24:9-11 Literary The visionary experience recorded here appears in the context of the Sinai revelation (chaps. 19-24). It follows the giving of the Covenant Code (20:22- 23:33) and concludes the covenant ratification ceremony (chap. 24). In this latter chapter, Moses builds an altar, orders sacrifices, reads the book of the covenant, elicits the peoplesÕ reaffirmation of loyalty to YHVH, and dashes Paul Sumner Visions of the Divine Council in Pre-exilic Writings 7 them with the covenant blood (vv. 4-8). The covenant is then sealed with a vision of God and communal meal, with the elders eating before God (v. 11). Though the events of Exodus apparently took place in the 13th century, scholars believe their history was composed much later, although they do not agree on the age of this particular passage, because of the divergent opinions about its author.3 Regarding the throne vision in 24:9-11, some see the Òstrong probability that it is a tradition of great antiquity,Ó4 especially because the blunt statementsÑÓthey saw the God of IsraelÓ (v. 10) and Òthey beheld GodÓ (v. 11)Ñwere never modified by later editors for reverential reasons.5 Typically, the Hebrews believed that seeing God face to face was a dangerous matter: ÒYou cannot see my face; for no one shall see me and liveÓ (Exod 33:20; cf. Jud 6:22, 13:22). Thus the statements in vv. 10-11 are extraordinary. The fact that they were not changed indicates the esteem with which this vision report was held and attests to its authenticity within the tradition.

Historical/Theological This passage is the only recorded covenant ratification ceremony with YHVH in attendance. Many scholars see the Sinai Covenant as a standard Near Eastern suzerainty treaty in which an all-powerful monarch enters unilaterally into a pact with a weaker, subordinate party.6 By defeating the

3 No consensus exists on the source of this pericope; e.g. ÒJÓ (10th cent.) - Wright; ÒEÓ (9th cent.) - Noth; ÒLÓ (10-9th cent.) - Eissfeldt; ÒNÓ (ca. 800) - Fohrer; ÒPÓ (6th cent.) -several.

4 E. W. Nicholson, ÒThe Antiquity of the Tradition in Exodus xxiv 9-11,Ó VT 25 (1975): 70. See also his ÒThe Origin of the Tradition in Exodus xxiv 9-11,Ó VT 26 (1976): 148-60, in which he quotes G. Henton Davies as saying these Òare some of the most astonishing and inexplicable verses in the Old TestamentÓ (p. 160). Cf. W. Beyerlin, The Origins and History of the Oldest Sinaitic Traditions (tr. S. Rudman; Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1965) and Th. Vriezen, ÒThe Exegesis of Exod 24:9-11,Ó OTS 17 (1972): 100-33.

5 Indeed, the LXX avoids the anthropomorphism of the MT: ÒThey saw the place where the God of Israel stood.Ó Similarly, the later Targums of Palestine and Onqelos display reticence: ÒThey saw the Glory of the God of Israel.Ó

6 For discussions of suzerainty treaties and the Sinai Covenant see J. Bright, A History of Israel (3d ed., Philadelphia: Westminster, 1981), 147-55; D. R. Hillers, Covenant: The History of a Biblical Idea (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ., 1969); G. E. Mendenhall, ÒCovenant,Ó IDB 2.714-15; J. A. Thompson, ÒCovenant,Ó ISBE 1.790-93. An example of a suzerainty treaty is seen in ANET, 203-5, ÒTreaty Between Mursilis and Duppi-Tessub of Amurru.Ó Paul Sumner Visions of the Divine Council in Pre-exilic Writings 8

pharaoh, EgyptÕs divine suzerain (Exod 1:8, 14:8), God became IsraelÕs new suzerain and protector.7 The Red Sea victory song, celebrating the fall of the alien overlord, alludes to an exchange of kings: ÒYHVH will reign [_ÝìÙîÏé] for ever and everÓ (Exod 15:18). Soon after this, a new Òsuzerainty treatyÓ was ratified on Mount Sinai with blood (Exod 24:4-8). The throne vision (24:9-11) reports how the treaty was then consummated with a ceremonial meal.8 The phrase Òate and drankÓ (v. 11) is used several times in the HB during auspicious occasions (Gen 24:54, 26:30; 2 Kgs 7:8, 9:34). Significantly, the Chronicler used it when retelling the coronation of Solomon: ÒThey ate and drank before YHVH on that day with great gladnessÓ (1 Chr 29:22a). Similarly, Ugaritic materials often refer to a deity or king sharing a meal with advisors prior to their consultations.9 Related to this ratification meal on Sinai, Isaiah 24-25 mention an eschatological banquet following a great battle in which YHVH Òwill punish the host of heaven, in heaven, and the kings of the earth, on the earthÓ (24:21). Afterwards, YHVH SebaÕot will reign in Jerusalem, and Òbefore his elders he will manifest his gloryÓ (v. 23). R. E. Clements believes that Exodus 24:9-11 has influenced Isaiah here.10 In both passages, the ÒeldersÓ of Israel or of God11 are present, and seeing God (Exod) is synonymous with seeing his Glory (Isa 6). Isaiah 25:6 says, ÒOn this mountain [Zion] YHVH SebaÕot will make for all peoples a feast.Ó God will also remove the veil of darkness over the nations and swallow up death. IsaiahÕs apocalyptic vision portrays a celebration of YHVHÕs kingship and his victory over ancient foes. Thus, if Isaiah is indeed drawing upon the imagery and theology of the Sinai theo-

7 P. Craigie, The Book of Deuteronomy (NICOT; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987), 83.

8 Meals were a traditional way to seal and validate human covenants. E.g., Exod 18:12: ÒAaron came with all the elders of Israel to eat bread with MosesÕ father-in-law in the presence of God.Ó Cf. Gen 31:54.

9 R. J. Clifford, The Cosmic Mountain in Canaan and the Old Testament (HSM 4; Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1972), 42-47.

10 Isaiah 1-39 (NCB; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1982), 206.

11 Some scholars think the elders in Isa 24:21 are heavenly beings. See J. D. Watts, Isaiah 1-33 (WBC 24, Waco: Word, 1985), 330; H. Wildberger, Jesaja [BKAT X/11.12; Neukrichen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 1978), 949-50; T. M. Willis, ÒYahwehÕs Elders (Isa 24, 23): Senior Officials of the Divine Court,Ó ZAW 103 (1991): 375-85. Paul Sumner Visions of the Divine Council in Pre-exilic Writings 9

phany, it is legitimate to suggest that Exodus 24:9-11 records, in attenuated form, a similar event in which the elders of Israel worshiped their heavenly King in the presence of heavenly elders.12 Under GodÕs feet was a pavement or platform made of øéÏtÌñ, ÒsapphireÓ (v. 10, some read lapis lazuli ). Sapphire (the term is Sanskrit) was an imported gem often used in palace or temple constructions (Exod 28:18, 39:11; cf. Ezek 9:2 LXX; 28:13). EzekielÕs throne vision mentions Òsomething like a throne, in appearance like sapphireÓ (1:26), and thus associates the gem with the royal seat of YHVH. The ÒpavementÓ made of this sapphire is úÌðÙáÏì (Exod 24:10), a flagstone, tile or sun-baked brick surface, suggesting a resting place for a throne.13 Thrones in the ANE were typically on raised daises. Thus the entire theological ÒatmosphereÓ around this vision strongly suggests that YHVH is here thought of as King, even though he is not so designated and no throne is mentioned. This truncated depiction of the enthroned God might be labelled a Òprototypic throne vision.Ó14

Divine Names The use of the more general term íéÏäÝìÛà, instead of äåäé, may be due to the authorÕs or later editorsÕ reticence about describing a human seeing YHVH. However, whether the elders saw ÒGodÓ or ÒYHVHÓ is almost a moot point since the text says they saw GodÕs ÒfeetÓ (v. 10). Such anthropomorphic visions, though displeasing to later generations, are rather typical of the HB.15

12 Doubts expressed about the Isaianic authorship of chap. 24 (e.g. Clements, Isaiah 1-39, 196-200; O. Eissfeldt, The Old Testament: An Introduction [tr. P. R. Ackroyd; New York: Harper, 1976], 323-27) do not alter the theological message of the passage.

13 BDB 527; KB 472. This construction may have similarities to Canaanite temples. See M. S. Smith, ÒBiblical and Canaanite Notes to the Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice from Qumran,Ó RevQ 12 (1987): 585-88.

14 I am indebted to Prof. J. J. M. Roberts of Princeton Theological Seminary who expressed this opinion to me in a private conversation (April 1989). See also K. Baltzer, The Covenant Formulary in Old Testament, Jewish, and Early Christian Writings (tr. D. E. Green; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1971), 30 n. 54.

15 ÒThere is adequate evidence for a strong tradition in early Israel that Yahweh let himself be seen at times in the form of man. . . . Anthropomorphism in the OT has often drawn attention to itself because of the difficulty and offence it presents to modern thought.Ó J. Barr, ÒTheophany and Anthropomorphism in the Old Testament,Ó in Congress Volume Oxford 1959 (VT Sup; ed. G. W. Anderson; Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1960), 32, 38. Paul Sumner Visions of the Divine Council in Pre-exilic Writings 10

This bolsters the view that the passage antedates later Hebrew conservatism and was regarded as a prized memory.

Council Members YHVHÕs revelation as the Lawgiver at Sinai followed his powerful demonstration as the ÒMan of WarÓ at the Red Sea (Exod 15:3). Upon Mount Sinai, God descended in fire and storm in the manner of a warrior (Exod 19:16-19).16 In another portion of Sinai traditions, the textual memory indicates that YHVH was not alone in glory; his theophany included angels:

GodÕs chariots are myriads upon myriads, thousands upon thousands; the Lord is among them as in Sinai in holiness. (Ps 68:17 [Eng 17] NJV)

The Deuteronomic tradition contains similar imagery:

The LORD came from Sinai, and dawned from Seir upon us; he shone forth from Mount Paran, with him were myriads of holy ones; at his right hand, a host of his own. (Deut 33:2) 17

Thus there is tradition outside of the book of Exodus connecting heavenly beings with Sinai. Nevertheless, Exodus 24:9-11 is silent about them. Nor does the vision refer to God as ÒKingÓ or describe his throne. Was there reason to exclude such references during the era when this text was composed? One possible era may have been the early Monarchy, when many scholars date this passage (ÒJÓ). Prophetic critics of the Judean throne may have believed that any detailed reference to YHVHÕs kingship could be misused by unscrupulous kings to bolster their seat of power by claiming that their court

16 On YHVH as the Divine Warrior, see P. D. Miller, The Divine Warrior in Early Israel (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1973) and P. C. Craigie, ÒGod the WarriorÓ (chap. 3) in his The Problem of War in the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1978), 33-43.

17 The LXX reads at v. 2b: Òat his right hand were his angels.Ó Paul Sumner Visions of the Divine Council in Pre-exilic Writings 11

mirrored GodÕs.18 Indeed, YHVH is actually seldom referred to as king in the HB.19 On the other hand, the reality of GodÕs sovereignty was well known, especially during the Monarchy.20 So there is no clear reason why any pictorial representation of GodÕs seat of power or attribution of the title ÒkingÓ should be censored here in this ÒthroneÓ vision. In the other throne visions God is called ÒkingÓ only in Isaiah 6:5; his authority being expressed in the others by mention of his throne.

Witnesses Moses and seventy-three others ascended the mountain and saw God. Moses is nowhere called a àéÏáËð (prophet) in the book of Exodus, but he is in Deuteronomy 18:15 and 34:10. Even if the term was applied to him by a later generation, it is clear that every feature which characterized the later classical Yahwistic prophets can first be found in Moses. If not in name, he was a prophet-spokesman-mediator-interpreter de facto, one who experienced visions of YHVH and who spoke with God face to face (Exod 33:11; Num 12:8). MosesÕ tribal origin was Levi (Exod 2:1-10). His brother Aaron was his mouth(piece) (Exod 4:16) or prophet: ÒSee, I make you as God to Pharaoh, and Aaron your brother shall be your nabiÕ (Exod 7:1).Ó Aaron, however, is nowhere referred to as a prophet of YHVH. Nadab and Abihu, who accompanied Moses and Aaron, were sons of Aaron and thus operated in priestly circles (Exod 28:1). The seventy elders who witnessed the vision are not called prophets. On the other hand, there may have been ÒpropheticÓ individuals among them. Although Exodus 24 does not explicitly say that Eldad and Medad were part of this specific gathering on Sinai, on another

18 Although throne visions were not granted to any kings, ÒoraclesÓ were given to assure them of GodÕs pleasure and support. E.g. ÒThen you spoke in a vision to your faithful one, and said, ÔI have set the crown on one who is mighty . . . I have found my servant DavidÕÓ (Ps 89:19-20; cf. Pss 2:7-9; 132:11-12). However, these visions may have been given to the court prophet (e.g., Nathan), not to the monarch himself.

19 See M. Tsevat, ÒKing, God as,Ó IDBSup 515-16.

20 ÒThe worship of Yahweh as _ÎìÎî or ÔKingÕ was certainly no late development in the religious history of Israel but dates from at least the early years of the monarchy and, so far as the House of David was concerned, served as a constant reminder to the earthly king that there was a heavenly King to whom he was ultimately responsible,Ó A. R. Johnson, Sacral Kingship in Ancient Israel (Cardiff: Univ. of Wales Press, 1955), 34-35. Paul Sumner Visions of the Divine Council in Pre-exilic Writings 12

occasion they became Òspirit-filledÓ and ÒprophesiedÓ (Num 11:26-30). The least we can say is that the group which saw God and ate before him contained one nabiÕ (if not others) and at least four were from priestly circles.

Special Terminology Two verbs for seeing God are used in this passage.

They saw [ÈàÙøÏiÌå] the God of Israel (v. 10) They beheld [ÈæÛçÎiÌå ] God (v. 11)

The verb äàø is the usual one for physical sight. The verb äæç, on the other hand, suggests perceiving through a vision (Num 24:4). The verbal noun äÎæÝç means a seer (Amos 1:1). Another noun form (ïÇæËç) means Òvision.Ó B. S. Childs notes: ÒThe shift from the verb rÕh to hzh, the latter word being the technical term for prophetic clairvoyance, again appears to be an attempt to characterize this viewing as a special category of perception.Ó21 But Childs does not explain why the shift occurs; and, in fact, the majority of the other throne visions use äàø, suggesting literal seeing.22 Only Daniel 7 uses äæç (Aramaic).

Actions of the Council Although this vision contains no court imagery, what clearly goes on is a celebration of the kingship of YHVH by his people. They banquet at his feet, as subjects before a holy sovereign. This emphasis on YHVH as king is present in every other throne vision.

Purposes of the Throne Vision At the birth of the nation, Israel had a legitimate interest in knowing more about her heavenly and earthly leaders. Her old taskmaster pharaoh lay

21 B. S. Childs, The Book of Exodus (OTL; Philadelphia, Westminster Press, 1974), 507. 22 A. R. Johnson says äæç is used more for visions with auditory content, while har concerns mostly visual phenomena (The Cultic Prophet in Ancient Israel [2d ed.; Cardiff: Univ. of Wales Press, 1962] 9-11, esp. 12). A. Jepsen says hazah is used for Ònocturnal perception of a divine voiceÓ (TDOT 4.290). Paul Sumner Visions of the Divine Council in Pre-exilic Writings 13

dead on the shore of the Red Sea, defeated by YHVH the Man of War. But could the God of Moses, ÒYHVHÓ of MosesÕ Midian vision, show himself to be a capable guide from here on? To answer such concerns, YHVH is presented as descending on Sinai and giving them Torah for their present life and for their future in the land. As their heavenly shepherd, he thus provided divine instruction. He also gave them Moses and his staff of elders as shepherds of the nation. God verified their status as leaders by admitting them to a fellowship meal around his throne on top of the mountain. The vision, therefore, functions to exalt both YHVH and his human counterparts, and to set the course for the nation.

1 Kings 22:19-23 Literary This throne vision appears in the section known as the ÒHistory of the Kings of Israel and JudahÓ (1 Kgs 12 Ð 2 Kgs 17). Chapter 22 concludes 1 Kings and the final section dealing with the House of Omri (1 Kgs 16Ð22).23 The chapter focuses on the final errors and resulting death of OmriÕs son, King Ahab. First Kings 22:13-23 specifically contains vision reports from prophet Micaiah ben Imlah in response to a summons to give a prophetic opinion on the outcome of the royal war-plans being discussed in the council chambers of Kings Ahab and Jehoshaphat. The two kings already have assurance of success from 400 court prophets. But upon being pressured for his opinion, Micaiah tells them what they do not want to hear. In the first report, he succinctly foretells the outcome of the battle: ÒI saw all Israel scattered on the mountains, like sheep that have no shepherd; and the LORD said, ÔThese have no master; let each one go home in peaceÕÓ (v. 17). Verses 19-23 then allude to MicaiahÕs experience in the divine council. His report begins: ÒI saw the LORD sitting on his throne with all the host of heaven standing beside him to the right and to the left of himÓ (v. 19). He then explains the true origin of the false (optimistic) prophecy uttered by the 400 prophets (vv. 20-23) (it was inspired by an angel of YHVH). Micaiah utters a final warning to Ahab about the

23 1 Kgs 22:14-28 = 2 Chr 18:13-27. On this passage, see W. Roth, ÒThe Story of the Prophet Micaiah (1 Kings 22) in Historical-Critical Interpretation 1876-1976,Ó in The Biblical Mosaic ÑChanging Perspectives (ed. R. Polzin and E. Rothman; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1982), 105-37. Paul Sumner Visions of the Divine Council in Pre-exilic Writings 14

campaign in words characteristic of a YahwistÕs critique of bad kings: ÒIf you return in peace, the LORD has not spoken by meÓ (v. 28). Embedded in the Deuteronomistic History,24 the whole episode predictably shows the consequences of rebellion against YHVHÕs law and the counsel of his prophets.

Historical/Theological Omri and Ahab belonged Òto the most gifted and energetic rulers who ever occupied IsraelÕs throne.Ó25 Omri formed alliances with various foreign states to guarantee military strength and to develop economic advantage. His son Ahab in turn had engaged in a successful coalition campaign against a declining Assyria at the Battle of Qarqar in 853 BCE. This joint Israelite- Syrian venture was impressive to every strategist and patriot in the Northern KingdomÑexcept the prophets of YHVH. These religious purists ignored AhabÕs material successes because he was poisoning the nation spiritually. ÒThe latent Canaanization of Israelite religion, which had been at work since the conquest of the land, entered into its acute phase during the days of the Omrides.Ó26 Omride policies were promulgating the Canaanite world-view and endangering the spiritual heritage of Israel. YHVH was being presented not as ÒOneÓ (Deut. 6:4), but as one among many other gods (i. e. Canaanite/Phoenician), and Baal was his chief competitor. Several events occurred during the 9th century which were aimed at the destruction of the Omride Dynasty and the vindication of YHVHÕs name. While the humiliation of Baal on Carmel is the most notable (1 Kgs 18), the throne vision in 1 Kings 22:19-23 is also significant in this connection. In chapter 22, Ahab seeks JehoshaphatÕs help in recapturing Ramoth-Gilead, stolen, ironically, by the once-friendly king of Syria (Aram) (vv. 1-4). In their war council, they obtain support from 400 Baal prophets (vv. 5-6), but Ahab does not seek a word from YHVH, especially from Micaiah (vv. 7-8). Of great

24 Although scholars assign 1 Kgs to the Deuteronomic Historian, H. W. Robinson observes that Òthe peculiarities of the story are the best guarantee of its early date and genuinenessÓ (ÒThe Council of Yahweh,Ó JTS 45 [1944] 153).

25 H. Donner, ÒThe Separate States of Israel and Judah,Ó in Israelite and Judaean History (ed. J. H. Hayes & J. M. Miller; OTL; Philadelphia: Westminster, 1977), 399.

26 Ibid., 405. Paul Sumner Visions of the Divine Council in Pre-exilic Writings 15 importance to that era was the question of how to distinguish true from false prophets. The throne vision of Micaiah confirmed him as a ÒtrueÓ Yahwist prophet over against AhabÕs cadre of syncretistic, Baalistic seers. In the end, only MicaiahÕs counsel (not theirs) came to pass: Ahab was killed in battle.27 Also pertinent to the era, this throne vision reasserted the kingship of YHVH. It was YHVH the Divine Warrior and his councilÑnot Baal and his council, or Ahab and hisÑwho determined the outcome of the war with Ben Hadad. YHVH was king even over pagan Syria, and he could easily award the gentiles military victory over his own people Israel. This he did: he brought down the Israelite king for his faithlessness and evil. Thus the vision taught that real power over the affairs of men resides only with the God of Israel.

Divine Names Micaiah says he saw äåäé. According to Tryggve Mettinger, the Tetragrammaton expresses the idea of ÒGodÕs active and helpful presence.Ó28 As his covenant name, it conveyed GodÕs unending loyalty to his people. When Micaiah announced whom he had seen and heard in the vision, the prophet left no doubts in the minds of his opponents who really was deciding the fate of Ahab and the coalition army. Micaiah did not speak merely of ÒGod,Ó an ambiguous term that might refer to Baal. Ahab was rejecting Yahweh, the powerfully-present, covenant God of the Hebrew fathers.29

27 On the struggles between true and false prophets see S. J. de Vries, Prophet Against Prophet (The Role of the Micaiah Narrative [1 Kings 22] in the Development of Early Prophetic Tradition) (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1978); J. L. Crenshaw, Prophetic Conflict: Its Effect Upon Israelite Religion (Berlin/NY: W. de Gruyter, 1971); idem, ÒProphecy, false,Ó IDBSup 701-02. B. S. Childs notes three distinctions of a true prophet: (1) he has stood in the Council and received divine revelation; (2) his messages have a unified theme: repentance from evil; (3) he is morally unimpeachable (Old Testament Theology in a Canonical Context [Philadelphia: Fortress, 1986] 141).

28 T. D. N. Mettinger, In Search of God (The Meaning and Message of the Everlasting Names) (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1988), 41. During the Josianic reforms of the 7th century, the name also bore the idea ÒHe is the one who exists [and no other god does]Ó (p. 49). For a more technical discussion of the Name, see D. N. Freedman and M. OÕConnor, Òäåäé,Ó TDOT 5.500-21 and R. de Vaux, ÒThe Revelation of the Divine Name,Ó in The Early History of Israel (tr. D. Smith; Philadelphia: Westminster, 1978), 338-57. De Vaux says the Name conveys the idea that Yahweh alone is the ÒExisting OneÓ (p. 357).

29 T. Fretheim thinks that the Deuteronomic HistorianÕs central concern is the First Commandment: ÒI am Yahweh your God . . . you shall have no other gods before meÓ (Deut. 5:6) (Deuteronomic History [Interpreting Biblical Texts; Nashville: Abingdon, 1983] 21). By Paul Sumner Visions of the Divine Council in Pre-exilic Writings 16

Terminology First Kings 22 is the first of the throne visions to actually mention a throne (v. 19).30 Elsewhere in the HB, the wings of the cherubim serve as GodÕs earthly throne, and the ark of the covenant as his footstool.31 None of that temple detail appears here, nor are physical qualities ascribed to God. Perhaps MicaiahÕs attenuated description is meant to emphasize the underlying theological symbolism more than literal features. The verb ÒsittingÓ (áÖé) by itself can imply ruling as a king,32 and thus indirectly allude to YHVHÕs role as monarch. The vaguely described ÒhostÓ or assembly is ÒstandingÓ (ãÍîÝò) around YHVH, ready to serve. That may be enough to know. Though the vision is visually non-descript, it still powerfully conveys an image of the sovereign Monarch.

Council Members Micaiah sees Òall the host of heavenÓ (íÏéÌîËgÌä àËáËöÐìËk) standing on either side of YHVH (v. 19). The àËáËö was GodÕs army of angels (Pss 103:21, 148:2). These are contrasted to the hosts filling AhabÕs court, military camps, and coalition. Individual members of the army are called çÈø (Òspirit,Ó vv. 21-23). This is one of only a few places in the HB where ruah is used for angelic beings. (The term is predominantly used for God himself: he is and has ruah.) The spiritsÕ responsibilities are not specified in this vision. They observe GodÕs review of the human battle plans, and choose to participate in his counter plan. One of them volunteers to mislead AhabÕs prophets with false inspiration (vv. 20-23). Though the spirits have supernatural ability to communicate to humans, they are not individualized or named. This is Òindicative of the monotheistic implications of primitive Yahwism.Ó33

being first disloyal to YHVH, Ahab became second disobedient to his Torah and led the nation into apostasy.

30 For an early study on this and other visions of the throne, see E. C. Kinsbury, ÒThe Prophets and the Council of Yahweh,Ó JBL 83 (1964): 279-86.

31 Cf. ÒGive ear, O Shepherd of Israel . . . you who are enthroned [áÍÖé] upon the cherubimÓ (Ps 80:1b); Ò. . . the ark of the covenant. . .the footstool of GodÓ (1 Chr 28:2).

32 ÒBut you, O LORD, reign [áÍÖÍz] forever; your throne endures to all generationsÓ (Lam 5:19; cf. Exod 18:14; Mal 3:3; Ps 2:4). Paul Sumner Visions of the Divine Council in Pre-exilic Writings 17

Witness Micaiah ben Imlah is implicitly designated a prophet. During their war plans, Judean King Jehoshaphat asked Israelite King Ahab, ÒIs there not here another àéÏáËð of YHVH of whom we may inquire?Ó (v. 7). In response, the king of Israel told an officer, ÒBring quickly Micaiah the son of ImlahÓ (v. 9). In addition, MicaiahÕs prophetic abilities are confirmed when false-prophet Zedekiah taunts him, ÒHow did the spirit of the LORD go from me to speak to you?Ó (v. 24, RSV). Possessing YHVHÕs spirit was a sign of prophetic status. Finally, Micaiah predicted AhabÕs death in battle: ÒIf you return in peace, YHVH has not spoken by meÓ (v. 28), and his word came true (cf. Deut 18:21- 22). Some scholars suggest that the whole episode is MicaiahÕs Òcall narrative.Ó But he was already active as prophet prior to this event, as v. 8 shows: ÒHe never prophesies anything favorable about me.Ó After this chapter, Micaiah is never mentioned again among the schools of prophets. MicaiahÕs tribal origin is not given, but the provenance of this story is the Northern Kingdom Israel where Ahab ruled from the city of Samaria. Since the king seems to have had previous contact with the prophet (ÒI hate him, for he never prophesies anything favorable about me,Ó v. 8), it is possible that Micaiah came from one of the northern tribes. Samaria sat within the original inheritance of Manasseh. Joseph Blenkinsopp points out that Òduring the two centuries from the death of Solomon (ca. 925) to the fall of Samaria (722 B.C.E.) references in the history to prophets and prophecy are restricted entirely to the Northern Kingdom.Ó34

Actions of Council In this meeting, YHVH has already decided that Ahab will fall, and he asks for volunteers to orchestrate events to this end: ÒWho will entice Ahab, that he may go up and fall at Ramoth-Gilead?Ó (v. 20). God asks for no opinions.

33 IDB 3.372.

34 J. Blenkinsopp, A History of Prophecy in Israel(From the Settlement in the Land to the Hellenistic Period) (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1983), 69. The names ÒMicaiahÓ and Òben ImlahÓ are symbolic of the 9th cent. struggle with Baalism: ÈäÙéËëéÏî means Òwho is like YHVH,Ó and äËìÙîÏé [or àËìÙîÏé, many mss] means Òhe [God?] will fulfill or accomplishÓ [his counsel]. Paul Sumner Visions of the Divine Council in Pre-exilic Writings 18

His hosts offer no advice or rebuttals; they simply obey. One of their number volunteers to implement the divine counsel, and God publicly asks him just how the spirit will work (thus giving the human audience an opportunity to hear MicaiahÕs report). The spirit replies: ÒI will go out and be a lying spirit in the mouth of all his [AhabÕs] prophetsÓ (v. 22). Satisfied with this plan, YHVH assures his servantÕs success. The King-Judge has issued his ruling; the deed will be done. And lest Ahab be in doubt, Micaiah adds an unambiguous clarification: ÒYHVH has spoken evil concerning youÓ (v. 23).

Purposes of the Throne Vision This throne vision has several functions within its 9th century historical and theological setting. On the wider front, the vision affirms that YHVH is King of kings. He rules all human armies, Israelite or pagan. His chief rival Baal has no power in the real world. Secondly, it also teaches a strong Òmonistic outlookÓ in which YHVH is Òthe source of all happenings, including the evil ones.Ó35 Thirdly, the vision Òdemonstrates that the destiny of a people can be separated from that of their ruler.Ó36 Ahab perished, Israel did not. Fourthly, the vision affirms the supernatural origin of prophecy. YHVHÕs prophets do not speak from themselves, they deliver the message they heard in the council chambers. Fifthly, it provides a glimpse into what Bernhard Anderson calls Òa transitional moment in the history of prophecy.Ó37

With Micaiah, prophecy was no longer the echo of nationalism or the servant of the political establishment. Here we have a break with the professional prophet. . . . But in a deeper sense, prophets of MicaiahÕs type did not break with IsraelÕs true prophetic tradition; they were indeed more sensitive to that tradition than the ecstatic prophets themselves. In prophets like Micaiah the ancient Mosaic faith came alive in the present with new meaning and power.38

35 IDB 3.372.

36 R. D. Nelson, First and Second Kings (Interpretation; Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1987), 152. This theme was later expanded by Ezekiel (e.g. 3:17-21; 18:2) and Jeremiah (e.g. 31:29-30) during the Exile.

37 B. W. Anderson, Understanding the Old Testament (4th ed.; Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1986), 270.

38 Ibid., 271. Paul Sumner Visions of the Divine Council in Pre-exilic Writings 19

Isaiah 6:1-8 Literary The first major division of Isaiah 1-39 is chapters 1-12, a section that concerns the sins of Judah/Jerusalem and contains warnings of her descent into exile. More specifically: chapters 1-5 contain the details of the lawsuit God brings against Judah; chapter 6 tells of GodÕs appearance to Isaiah and his commission to announce judgment; and chapters 7-12 show Isaiah confronting unbelieving leaders and prophesying what the future holds, both bad and good. Structurally, chapter 6 is an Òapologetic hingeÓ explaining why Isaiah had authority to bring the lawsuit just announced against Zion (he had entered GodÕs holy presence), and why he is about to announce their expulsion from GodÕs presence.39 Many scholars believe the throne vision records IsaiahÕs call to be a prophet, but this is doubtful.40 He had already been prophesying Òin the days of UzziahÓ prior to the kingÕs death (1:1).41 In fact, this chapter closes the ÒUzziah sectionÓ with the warning that IsaiahÕs previously announced demand for holiness will continue into the future.42 The vision has two parts: (a) the exalted worship by seraphim in the temple and IsaiahÕs repentant response (vv. 1-5), and (b) IsaiahÕs purification and commission to announce JudahÕs exile (vv. 6-13).43

39 Isaiah must prophesy Òuntil the LORD sends everyone far away, and vast is the emptiness in the midst of the landÓ (v. 12).

40 For discussions about the Òcall narrativeÓ in Isaiah 6, see I. Engnell, The Call of Isaiah: An Exegetical and Comparative Study (Uppsala: Lundquistska, 1949); N. Habel, ÒThe Form and Significance of the Call Narratives,Ó ZAW 77 (1965): 297-323, and W. Zimmerli, Ezekiel 1 (Hermeneia; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1979), 97-100. J. H. Hayes and S. A. Irvine list six reasons why they believe Isa 6 is not a call report (Isaiah: The Eighth- century Prophet: His Times & His Preaching [Nashville: Abingdon, 1987], 108-10. See also M. Kaplan, ÒIsaiah 6, 1-11,Ó JBL 45 (1926): 251-59; J. D. W. Watts, Isaiah 1-33 (WBC 24; Waco: Word, 1985), 66, 70-72.

41 Hayes and Irvine say Isa 1:1 is a colophon added by a later editor, but they still believe Isaiah was active during the reigns of the four Judean kings (Uzziah to Hezekiah). See discussion in Isaiah, 67-69. All other 8th cent. prophets have such colophons (Hosea, Amos, Micah).

42 Watts, Isaiah 1-33, 70.

43 J. Eaton says the unit Isa 1-6 describes how perverted Zion is restored to fellowship with YHVH. After the lawsuit in chaps. 1-4, chap. 5 is a love song to the Òfestal brideÓ Zion delivered by Isaiah as the friend of the bridegroom, YHVH himself. Chap. 6 then Paul Sumner Visions of the Divine Council in Pre-exilic Writings 20

Historical/Theological In the mid-8th century, the Northern Kingdom Israel paradoxically was externally strong, prosperous and confident of the future, while internally in death throes from moral rot.44 During an especially anarchic period of ten years (746-737), the palace in Samaria had known five kings. Israel was out of control. In the South, the Judeans were enjoying the fruits of economic and political revival under Uzziah (Azariah). Though they too were Òa people laden with iniquityÓ (Isa 1:4a), their corruption had not yet ripened to the extent present in their sister. Yet both nations would soon face an ominous visage from the north. Following a period of great weakness, the kingdom of Assyria under Tiglath-Pileser III (745-727 BCE) began sweeping through the Fertile Crescent like a giant storm, annexing conquered territories and exiling their ruling classes. Such a world threat had never been known to the tribes of Jacob, and it seemed to many that there was no human hope of resisting such an inexorable foe. Shortly after Tiglath-Pileser began his western campaigns in Syria in 745, the leprosy-ridden King Uzziah of Judah died (1 Chr 26:19- 21).45 His death created an enormous crisis for Judah, and presumably for Isaiah himself. Who was competent to replace the able Uzziah? In the midst of the internal turmoil (in both the North and South) and the external Assyrian hurricane, YHVH appeared to the prophet as {_ÎìÎnÌäÑthe King (v. 5). Was this GodÕs answer? Would he step in to rescue Judah? Witnessing such a vision assured Isaiah himself a privileged place among the great men of Israel. But the focus of the throne vision was on the King, not Isaiah.46 The

records the liturgical arrival of ZionÕs loved one, Òthe manifestation of YHVHÕs kingship, acclaimed simultaneously in heaven and in ZionÓ (ÒThe Isaiah Tradition,Ó in IsraelÕs Prophetic Tradition [FS: P. Ackroyd; ed. R. Coggins, A. Phillips, M. Knibb; Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1984] 71-73).

44 Bright, History of Israel, 266.

45 Scholars variously place UzziahÕs death between 742 (Bright) and 736 (Clements) BCE.

46 J. T. Willis notes: ÒThe emphasis is not so much that he saw the Lord, but that he saw the Lord sitting upon a throne, that is, as King. The people of Judah were inclined to put complete confidence in earthly kings like Uzziah (v. 1) and Ahaz (7:1). . . . Yahweh is the only real kingÓ (Isaiah [Austin: Sweet, 1980] 140). Paul Sumner Visions of the Divine Council in Pre-exilic Writings 21

grandeur of God was the subject. The Temple itself could not contain his enormous presence: Òthe hem of his robe filled the templeÓ (v. 1).47 This imagery recalls MardukÕs description in Enuma Elish: ÒHe was loftiest of the gods, surpassing was his stature; his members were enormous, he was exceedingly tall.Ó48 Symbolically, when compared to the rival deity of the approaching Assyrians, YHVH was Òlarger.Ó WhatÕs more, his majestic presence (ãÇáËk) radiated so brightly beyond the confines of Jerusalem that it Òfilled the whole earthÓ (v. 3). YHVH was no mere tribal deity residing on a hill in Salem. The ÒHoly One of IsraelÓ (a favorite expression of Isaiah)49 ruled everything. Before his glory, no human monarch or power could hope to stand. Even the awesomeness of Tiglath-Pileser paled in the terrible light of the Òcosmic King and Sovereign over the nations.Ó50 Nor could the powers of Egypt offer Judah any hope of protection and deliverance from Assyria. Quite clearly, JudahÕs vulnerability at the death of Uzziah was in marked contrast to the capability of her God. To her shock, however, he did not lift her up to glory where he was seated: some twenty years later, Israel was no more, and Jerusalemites heard pagan soldiers taunting below her walls. Assyria was given control.

Divine Names Isaiah says he saw éËðÝãÚà (Òmy LordÓ) sitting on a throne.51 The name appears to express the close relationship between prophet and God, servant and

47 The ÒhemÓ may be the portion from the knees down. The lower extremities (ÒfeetÓ) was all the elders saw of God on Sinai (Exod 24:10). Isaiah chooses not to describe God more than this. Sitting on the 15 ft. high wings of the cherubim, GodÕs appearance was enormous. Cf. G. R. Driver, ÒIsaiah 6:1 Ôhis train filled the templeÕ,Ó in Near Eastern Studies in Honor of William F. Albright (ed. H. Goedicke; Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1971), 87- 96.

48 ANET, 62, l. 99. In the Baal Cycle, by contrast, it says of AsherahÕs son, Ashtar, that Òhis feet reach not down to the footstool, nor his head reaches up to the topÓ (ANET, 140, ll.59-60). Cf. J. C. Greenfield, ÒBaÕalÕs Throne and Isa. 6:1,Ó MŽlanges bibliques et orientaux en lÕhonneur de M. Mathias Delcor (ed. A. Caquot, S. Legasse, M. Tardieu; Neukirchener-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1985), 193-98.

49 E.g., Isa 1:4; 5:19, 24; 10:17, 20; 12:6; 17:7; 29:19, 23; 30:11, 12, 15; 31:1; 37:23.

50 B. W. Anderson, The Eighth Century Prophets (Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, Micah) (Proclamation; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1985), 60. Cf. Ps 47:8: ÒGod is king over the nations; God sits on his holy throne.Ó Paul Sumner Visions of the Divine Council in Pre-exilic Writings 22

Master, for it originated Òas an address in private prayerÓ and meant Òmy Dominion.Ó52 It is significant that several other prophets who record their inaugural calls all have Òa special preferenceÓ for the name éËðÝãÚà (e.g. Isaiah, Amos, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Second Isaiah).53 This is the only throne vision in which God is designated _ÎìÎî: ÒMy eyes have seen the King, the LORD of hostsÓ (v. 5b). The kingship of YHVH was by this time (8th cent.) an ÒoldÓ element of Judean theology. As J. J. M. Roberts has shown, the concept antedates the founding of Zion, the Temple, and the Davidic Monarchy .54 In addition to these names, Isaiah adds another Jerusalem signature by calling God úÇàËáÙö äåäé (Òthe LORD of hostsÓ), the special term used for his militant loyalty to the Jerusalem Temple.55 The ÒZion theologyÓ taught that Jerusalem was impregnable as long as YHVH sat on the cherubim-throne surrounded by his army. But in this case, contrary to expectations, the Divine Warrior was about to wage war on his own people. Though fiercely loyal to them, he was more loyal to his Name and would countenance no one taking it up in vain. This passage, of all the throne visions, best summarizes IsaiahÕs conception of what it meant for the holy God to dwell among his people. The universal King sat in the Temple on Mount Zion as the Holy One of Israel.56

51 éÍðÝãÚà is literally Òmy LordsÓ (BDB: Òplural of majestyÓ). Individual men in authority were often called adonim : (1) kings (Gen 40:1; Jud 3:25; 1 Kgs 22:17); (2) princes (Gen 42:10, 30, 33; 1 Sam 29:10); (3) master (Exod 21:4, 6, 8; Deut 23:16 [Eng 15]); and (4) owner (1 Kgs 16:16, 24). Occasionally, the HB says God is µynidfa}h; ynedfa} , ÒLords of the lordsÓ (Deut 10:17 = Ps 136:3). Cf. the plural use in Isa 51:22; Hos 12:15; Pss 8:2, 10; 135:5; 147:5; Neh 8:10, 10:30. According to Biblia Hebraica (3d ed.), over 100 Hebrew mss read äåäé, instead of éÍðÝãÚà. For specific mss, see C. D. Ginsburg, The Later Prophets (London: British & Foreign Bible Society, 1926), 8, and the Bomberg Rabbinic Bible, Neviim Aharonim (Mikra`ot Gedolot, vol. 8; New York: Pardes Pub. House, 1951) at Isa 6:1, 8. Cf. also IDB 2. 414. In AmosÕ 8th cent. temple vision he says, ÒI saw éËðÝãÚà standing beside the altarÓ (9:1), but several Heb mss also read YHVH. Amos uses Adonai in other vision texts (7:1, 2, 4, 5; 8:1, 3, 11; 9:5, 8).

52 O. Eissfeldt, ÒïÇãËà,Ó TDOT 1.63.

53 Ibid., 64-65.

54 ÒIn Defense of the Monarchy: The Contribution of Israelite Kingship to Biblical Theology,Ó in Ancient Israelite Religion (ed. P. D. Miller, P. D. Hanson, S. D. McBride; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1987), 377-96.

55 On this name, see above chap. 2 pp. 40-42. Paul Sumner Visions of the Divine Council in Pre-exilic Writings 23

Council Members

In the vision, Isaiah sees at least two six-winged creatures called íéÏôËøÙ× (ÒseraphimÓ or Òburning onesÓ) standing near GodÕs throne (vv. 2-3, 6). One of them says in a temple-shaking voice: ÒHoly, holy, holy is YHVH of hosts; the whole earth is full of his gloryÓ (v. 3).57 Another seraph brings an altar-coal and with it purifies IsaiahÕs mouth (vv. 6-7). In the temple setting, these servants are not soldiers from YHVHÕs army, but worshippers and Òpriests.Ó In appearance, these beings seemed to be Òa supercharged varietyÓ of the winged cobra or uraeus which stood behind the throne and adorned headdresses of Egyptian royalty, protecting the pharaohs.58 Similarly, IsaiahÕs seraphs stand ÒaboveÓ YHVH (v. 2), but not as guardian protectors. They protect themselves from God: four of their wings cover their faces and body parts (they fly with the other two), as if to say: ÒYHVH needs no protection; his attendants rather should shield themselves from his burning glory.Ó Winged serpents were common to Egyptian iconography. Significantly, they have also been found on inscriptions and seals from 8th century Judah, indicating close, perhaps syncretistic, ties with Egyptian culture.59 Looking

56 For a lengthy study on the kingship of YHVH in the HB as it is portrayed in prophetic theophanies and throne visions, see J. Gray, The Biblical Doctrine of the Reign of God (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1979), esp. 117-224.

57 For an valuable study on the Òholiness of God,Ó see N. H. Snaith, The Distinctive Ideas of the Old Testament (New York: Schocken Books, 1964), 21-50. Cf. also N. Walker, ÒThe Origin of the ÔThrice HolyÕ,Ó NTS 5 (1958): 132-33.

58 J. J. M. Roberts, ÒIsaiah in Old Testament Theology,Ó in Interpreting the Prophets (ed. J. L. Mays and P. J. Achtemeier; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1987), 64. Isa 14:28-29 says a Òflying fiery serpentÓ [óø×] attacks the enemy Philistines.

59 For discussions and backgrounds on the seraphim, see R. D. Barnett, ÒLayardÕs Bronzes and their Inscriptions,Ó Eretz-Israel 8 (1967): 1-6; K. R. Joines, ÒWinged Serpents in IsaiahÕs Inaugural Vision,Ó JBL 86 (1967): 410-15; idem, ÒThe Bronze Serpent in the Israelite Cult.Ó JBL 87 (1968): 245-56; idem, Serpent Symbolism in the Old Testament: A Linguistic, Archeological and Literary Study (Haddonfield: Haddonfield House, 1974). For iconographic evidence of winged serpents in the ANE and in Judah/Israel, see O. Keel, Jahwe-Visionen und Siegelkunst (Stuttgart: Verlag Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1977), 74-110; idem, Symbolism of the Biblical World, 21-24, 260-62; M. Metzger, Kšnigsthron und Gottesthron (AOAT 15/2; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1985); Y. Yadin, ÒA Note on the Nimrud Bronze Bowls,Ó Eretz-Israel 8 (1967): 6-7. In Egypt, the falcon god Horus also frequently hovers over or surrounds the pharaoh in an aggressive, protective posture. Royal headdresses often have both cobra and falcon emblems (e.g. Tut-Ankh-Amon). In Judean theology, the human kings enjoyed YHVHÕs Paul Sumner Visions of the Divine Council in Pre-exilic Writings 24 at this scene theologically, the seraphs may symbolize the inferior, powerless divinities of Egypt in humbled service to YHVH.60 During this period of AssyriaÕs threat, it would be tempting to go down to Egypt for help. But by visualizing EgyptÕs heavenly powers (the awesome cobras) made subservient to IsraelÕs God the vision (and prophet) would make plain just who held real power.61 As noted before, ÒdepotentizingÓ of alien spiritual beings is characteristic of monotheistic Yahwism. This is not to say the seraphs are merely theological cardboard figurines. But their description has definite connections with the religious milieu of contemporary Judah. What these visionary beings are in reality is uncertain, but the theological point is clear. ÒOne could hardly express any more vividly the sole lordship and matchless majesty of Yahweh. Yahweh alone is Lord. He brooks no rival.Ó 62

Witness Isaiah ben Amoz is called a àéÏáËð in Isa 37:2, 38:1, and 39:3. Chapter 1 opens the book with the title ïÇæÚç (Òa visionÓ, v. 1), and 2:1 says he ÒsawÓ [äËæËç] a Òword.Ó Both terms indicate prophetic functions.63 Nothing is given of IsaiahÕs tribal descent. Because of his apparently free access to the king in Jerusalem (7:1-3) and his presence in the Temple during the throne vision, many scholars assume he was a Jerusalemite of either priestly or royal descent. Von Rad guardian wings or shadow (Pss 17:8; 36:7; 57:1; 61:4; 63:7; 91:1, 4; cf. Exod 19:4 [which says God bore Israel on his wings]). For further material on the rapport between king and God, see J. H. Eaton, Kingship and the Psalms (2d ed.; JSOT Biblical Seminar; Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1986), 142-49. For related ANE iconography, see Keel, Symbolism of the Biblical World, 190-92.

60 Mullen sees in the imagery possible Ugaritic parallels in ElÕs winged allies and YammÕs fiery messengers (Assembly of the Gods, 207).

61 When the Assyrians finally lay siege to Jerusalem, Hezekiah apparently did plan to seek military help from Egypt: a temptation vehemently opposed by Isaiah who considered such action as a denial of YHVH and his covenant power (see Isa 19; 30:1-3; 31:1; 36:6). Whether Ahaz was so tempted is uncertain. If he was, the symbolism of the throne vision in chap. 6 would also be quite appropriate.

62 Roberts, ÒIsaiah in O. T. Theology,Ó 64. On different theological interpretations of Isa 6, see D. E. GowanÕs recent article, ÒIsaiah 6:1-8,Ó Int (1991): 172-76.

63 On the transition from pre-classical court prophets to popular writing prophets during this era, see J. S. Holladay, ÒAssyrian Statecraft and the Prophets of Israel,Ó in Prophecy in Israel: Search for Identity (ed. D. L. Petersen; London: SPCK; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1987), 122-43. Paul Sumner Visions of the Divine Council in Pre-exilic Writings 25

says Isaiah Òwas a townsman, brought up in the traditions of the royal city and a sharp-eyed observer of world politics.Ó64 Tradition says he was a cousin to Judean King Uzziah.65

Actions of Council The vision opens with worship of God by the seraphim, who stand ÒaboveÓ YHVH in the throneroom. One seraph praises YHVH with what may be a temple choral antiphon (v. 3), while another Òblots outÓ (lit. Òatones,Ó øÍtÏk) IsaiahÕs sin with a coal from the altar (v. 7). Next, the Lord asks the council for a volunteer, ÒWho will go for us?Ó (v. 8).66 Instead of a spirit stepping forward, as we saw in 1 Kings 22, the human visitor speaks up to accept GodÕs commission. This act sets an important new precedent. Spirits are not now the only agents of God allowed to enter a council session, participate, and receive orders: the threshold of the temple is open to humans.67 Zechariah is the only other throne vision witness to speak during a session (Zech 3:5).68

Purposes of the Throne Vision This vision occurred ostensibly in the earthly Temple. But the Temple is a meeting place of earth and heaven; it is the divine Dwelling Place among people. By entering the earthly doors, Isaiah crossed the threshold into the heavenly court where YHVH sits. His throne vision accomplishes at least five things: (1) It magnifies, in a time of great historical upheaval, the Kingship and Lordship of YHVH: not only over his sinful people, but also over the

64 G. von Rad, Old Testament Theology (2 vols.; tr. D. M. G. Stalker; Edinburgh/London: Oliver & Boyd, 1965), 2.176.

65 ISBE 2.885. On prophets operating in the temple, see Johnson, The Cultic Prophet in Ancient Israel.

66 Clements, Isaiah 1-39, 76.

67 Even so, prophets are never called Òsons of GodÓ in the HB. They have access to the divine councilÕs deliberations and act as messengers and bearers of the divine counsel, but they do not retain membership there.

68 ÒOne of the most unique aspects of Hebrew religion is the unparalleled phenomenon of the classical prophets. These men, called by Yahweh, served as the couriers of the decree of the assembly/Yahweh. They pronounced the judgment of Yahweh with the formula koh Õamar YHVH, thus asserting that their message and authority was equal in power to that of the council itself,Ó Mullen (Assembly of the Gods, 283). Paul Sumner Visions of the Divine Council in Pre-exilic Writings 26 kingdom of Assyria (and implicitly Egypt). (2) It conveys assurance of divine intervention in the affairs of humans. (3) It predicts imminent catastrophe for Judah. (4) It authenticates the person and message of Isaiah. And (5) it reveals that humans can participate in the work of the divine council by volunteering to serve it.

Summaries of Throne Visions As we saw in Chapter 1, gaining an audience with a deity was possible in many ANE culturesÑgranted that the person had proper credentials and that the appropriate divining procedures were observed. Usually only a priest or king could see the supreme gods, although some prophets experienced visions of lesser deities. Visions typically took place at a cult site. What the deities most frequently revealed was divine assurance for the earthly kings. In contrast, the Hebrew kings did not have throne visions; only the prophets did. Frequently the divine word actually opposed the human monarch. Many prophets were also priests in the Jerusalem temple. Divination procedures of any kind were outlawed by the Torah. Simple worship and prayer appear to be the only avenues of establishing communion with God. But apparently, God decided how and when to appear to the human witnesses; he could not be conjured. The throne visions were specifically appropriate for the people and the circumstances.

Ñ Paul B. Sumner Paul Sumner Visions of the Divine Council in Pre-exilic Writings 27

ABBREVIATIONS

AB Anchor Bible AEL Ancient Egyptian Literature (3 vols., ed. M. Lichtheim) ANE Ancient Near East ANEP The Ancient Near East: An Anthology of Texts and Pictures ANET Ancient Near Eastern Texts (3d ed., 1969) ANRW Aufstieg und Niedergang der Ršmischen Welt BASOR Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research BCE Before the Common Era BDB Brown-Driver-Briggs, A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament BHS Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia Bib Biblica BKAT Biblischer Kommentar: Altes Testament BZAW Beihefte zur Zeitschrift fŸr die altestamentliche Wissenschaft CBQ Catholic Biblical Quarterly CE Common Era CRINT Compendia Rerum Iudaicarum ad Novum Testamentum EncJud Encyclopaedia Judaica (1971) ExpTim Expository Times FOTL Forms of Old Testament Literature FS Festschrift GKC Gesenius-Kautzsch-Cowley, GeseniusÕ Hebrew Grammar (2d ed.) HB Hebrew Bible Hor Horizons in Biblical Theology HSM Harvard Semitic Monographs HSS Harvard Semitic Studies HUCA Hebrew Union College Annual IB Interpreters Bible ICC International Critical Commentary IDB Interpreters Dictionary of the Bible IDBSup Interpreters Dictionary of the Bible, Supplementary Volume Int Interpretation ISBE International Standard Bible Encyclopedia (rev. ed. 1979Ñ1988) ITC International Theological Commentary JAOS Journal of the American Oriental Society JBL Journal of Biblical Literature JCS Journal of Cuneiform Studies JETS Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society JJS Journal of Jewish Studies JNES Journal of Near Eastern Studies JRS Journal of Religious Studies Paul Sumner Visions of the Divine Council in Pre-exilic Writings 28

JSNT Journal for the Study of the New Testament JSOT Journal for the Study of the Old Testament JSP Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha JSS Journal of Semitic Studies JTS Journal of Theological Studies KB Koehler-Baumgartner, Lexicon in Veteris Testamenti Libros (1958) LXX Septuagint MT Masoretic Text NERT Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament NCB New Century Bible NEB New English Bible NICNT New International Commentary on the New Testament NICOT New International Commentary on the Old Testament NIV New International Version NJV New Jewish Version [Tanakh, Jewish Publication Society, 1985] NRSV New Revised Standard Version NTS New Testament Studies OTL Old Testament Library OTP Old Testament Pseudepigrapha (2 vols., ed. J. Charlesworth) OTS Oudtestamentische Studi‘n ResQ Restoration Quarterly RevQ Revue de Qumran RSV Revised Standard Version SBT Studia Biblica et Theologica SJT Scottish Journal of Theology SNTS Society for New Testament Studies TDNT Theological Dictionary of the New Testament TDOT Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament VT Vetus Testamentum VTSup Vetus Testamentum, Supplements WBC Word Biblical Commentary ZAW Zeitschrift fŸr die altestamentliche Wissenschaft

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