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Research Methods

Psychology and Science Why You Should Care Science in Your Life Practice: What is Science to Society? Research Skills in Your Life Uses of Research Skills in the Workplace Mastering the Content: Using Research Skills The Scientific Method The Process of The Scientific Method Practice: What Are the Steps of the Scientific Method? Mastering the Content: The Process of the Scientific Method How Research Is Used Practice: Classifying the Types of Research Mastering the Content: Research Uses How Does Science Progress? Characteristics of Science Practice: Characteristics of Science Mastering the Content: Characteristics of Science Characteristics of Pseudoscience Practice: Science or Pseudoscience? Mastering the Content: Comparing Science and Pseudoscience

Getting Started The Good Research Question Variables and Relationships Association Does Not Necessarily Imply Causation Types of Variables: Predictor, Outcome, Independent, and Dependent

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Practice: Types of Variables Practice: Conveying Associative Relationships Practice: Conveying Causal Relationships Mastering the Content: Types of Research Questions and Variables What Makes a Good Research Question? Practice: Identifying Good Research Questions Mastering the Content: Good Research Questions How Are Theories Developed? Mastering the Content: Developing Theories The Quest for Good Research Questions Cumulative Practice: Types of Relationships and Variables, Good Research Question, and How Theories Are Developed?

Ethical Practices The Essentials of Ethics Why Research Ethics Is Important Ethical Guidelines: The Belmont Report Practice: The Belmont Report Mastering the Content: Ethical Guidelines APA Ethical Principles APA Ethical Standards Mastering the Content: Ethical Principles and Standards Informed Consent Right to Withdraw Deception and Debriefing Mastering the Content: Ethical Applications Institutional Review Boards Privacy and Confidentiality Mastering the Content: Ethical Review and Practice Research with Nonhuman Animals

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Mastering the Content: Ethics and Nonhuman Animals Plagiarism and Fraud Penalties for Plagiarism or Fraud Mastering the Content: Applying Ethical Standards Practice: Ethics in Research The Milgram Obedience Studies Adoption Research Gene Editing Mastering the Content: Ethical Decision Making Examples Timeline of Ethics in Research

Reviewing the Literature Reviewing the Research Starting your Literature Review Scholarly Sources Mastering the Content: Scholarly Sources Types of Journal Articles Practice: Journal Article Terminology Practice: Determine the Type of Journal Article Mastering the Content: Types of Journal Articles Government Research Reports Mastering the Content: Government Research Reports Nonscholarly Sources Nongovernmental Organization Reports: Scholarly or Nonscholarly? Mastering the Content: Nonscholarly Information Practice: Scholarly or Nonscholarly? How Do You Find Scholarly Sources of Information? Practice: Five Ways to Find Scholarly Sources Practice: Identify the Method for Finding Scholarly Sources Accessing Sources of Information

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Managing Sources of Information Mastering the Content: Finding Scholarly Sources Reading and Extracting Information from Empirical Articles Worked Example: Extracting Information From an Empirical Article Practice: Extracting Information From an Empirical Article Analyzing and Comparing Research Articles Mastering the Content: Reading and Analyzing Empirical Articles

Research Questions and Designs Exploring Research Designs The Research Question Indicates the Type of Design Descriptive Research Mastering the Content: Descriptive Research Correlational Research Mastering the Content: Correlational Research Experimental Research Mastering the Content: Experimental Research Quasi-Experimental Research Mastering the Content: Quasi-Experimental Research Practice: Identify the Research Design Research Designs and Claims Mastering the Content: Research Designs Mill’s Criteria: Covariance, Temporal Precedence, and Alternative Explanations Practice: What Type of Research Claim Can We Make? Mastering the Content: Research Claims and Mill’s Criteria Forms of Validity Practice: Identify the Form of Validity Mastering the Content: Forms of Validity Shouldn’t All Published Research Be Valid? Practice: Identify the Validity Issues Acknowledged as Limitations

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Evaluating Validity Mastering the Content: Validity

Sampling and External Validity Proper Sampling Assures External Validity Choosing a Sampling Method Probability and Nonprobability Sampling Probability Sampling Techniques Practice: Probability Sampling Techniques Mastering the Content: Probability Sampling Nonprobability Sampling Techniques Practice: Nonprobability Sampling Techniques Mastering the Content: Nonprobability Sampling Ensuring External Validity External Validity and Claim Type Mastering the Content: External Validity and Claim Type Population Validity Population Validity Versus Internal Validity Mastering the Content: Population Validity External Validity and Authenticity Mastering the Content: Authenticity

Correlational Design and Construct Validity Measuring Variables What Variables Do Researchers Measure? Correlational Research Mastering the Content: Correlational Designs Constructs: Variables That Cannot Be Directly Measured Mastering the Content: Constructs Aspects of Construct Validity

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Mastering the Content: Aspects of Construct Validity Determining Validity Mastering the Content: Determining Validity Practice: Aspects of Construct Validity Valid Measures Are Reliable Mastering the Content: Reliability Gathering Observational Data Construct Validity and Observational Measures Mastering the Content: Observational Data Interrater Reliability The Observer-Expectancy Effect The Hawthorne Effect Practice: Validity and Reliability Practice: Construct Validity in Observational Research Mastering the Content: Observational Measures

Measuring and Reliability Measuring Reliable Data Gathering Self-Report Data Mastering the Content: Self-Report Data Types of Closed-Ended Questions Practice: Self-Report Questions Mastering the Content: Closed-Ended Questions Mistakes to Avoid in Gathering Self-Report Data Practice: Mistakes to Avoid in Gathering Self-Report Data Mastering the Content: Mistakes to Avoid Response Sets Practice: Response Sets Mastering the Content: Response Sets Determining Reliability

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Practice: Determining Reliability Mastering the Content: Determining Reliability Gathering Self-Observation Data Gathering Participant Observation Data Mastering the Content: Gathering Observational Data Gathering Physiological Data Gathering Archival Data Mastering the Content: Other Methods of Gathering Data

Between Groups and Within Group Research Design Designing Experiments Experimental Manipulation Mastering the Content: Experimental Manipulation Between-Groups Research Designs Practice: Types of Between-Groups Designs Practice: Identify the Between-Groups Research Design Mastering the Content: Between-Groups Designs Within-Group Research Designs Mastering the Content: Within-Group Research Designs Counterbalancing Practice: Interpreting Counterbalanced Results Partial Counterbalancing Practice: Partial Counterbalancing Mastering the Content: Counterbalancing Single Factor Designs Multiple Factor Designs Mastering the Content: Factorial Designs Regression Designs Mastering the Content: Regression Designs

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Manipulating Variables Recognizing Threats to Internal Validity Confounds and Internal Validity Practice: Recognizing Confounds Mastering the Content: Confounds Participant Variables Controlling for Participant Variables Practice: Controlling for Participant Variables Mastering the Content: Participant Variables Controlling Other Variables Between Groups Mastering the Content: Controlling Other Variables Between Groups Controlling for Outside Experiences Mastering the Content: Controlling for Outside Experiences Controlling for Change Over Time Mastering the Content: Controlling for Change Over Time Additional Threats to Internal Validity Mastering the Content: Additional Threats to Internal Validity Practice: Internal Validity Within-Groups Research and Internal Validity Mastering the Content: Within-Groups Research and Internal Validity

Analyzing and Interpreting Data Making Sense of Statistics Descriptive Statistics and Inferential Statistics Mastering the Content: Descriptive Statistics Levels of Data Measurement Practice: Levels of Data Measurement Mastering the Content: Levels of Data Measurement Central Tendency: Mean, Median, and Mode Central Tendency and Levels of Measurement

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Practice: Central Tendency and Levels of Measurement Mastering the Content: Central Tendency Measures of Dispersion (Spread) Practice: Measures of Dispersion (Spread) Practice: Descriptive Statistics Mastering the Content: Measures of Dispersion Correlation Coefficient Practice: Correlation Coefficient Mastering the Content: Correlation Coefficient Inferential Statistics: Tests, Effect Size, and Confidence Interval Practice: Statistical Tests, Effect Size, and Confidence Interval Mastering the Content: Inferential Statistics Inferential Statistics: Parametric Versus Nonparametric Tests Practice: Parametric Versus Nonparametric Tests Mastering the Content: Parametric Versus Nonparametric Tests Choosing a Statistical Test Practice: Inferential Statistics Null Hypothesis and Alternative Hypothesis Mastering the Content: Null Hypothesis and Alternative Hypothesis Type I and Type II Errors Mastering the Content: Type I and Type II Errors The Power of a Statistical Test Mastering the Content: Power Why Don’t Scientists Accept the Null Hypothesis? Practice: Testing Hypotheses

Reporting Results Sharing Scientific Findings Reporting Research Scientific Writing: APA Style

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Mastering the Content: Reporting Research and Scientific Writing Reducing Bias in Language Mastering the Content: Reducing Bias in Language Avoiding Plagiarism Mastering the Content: Avoiding Plagiarism Use of Citations and References Mastering the Content: Use of Citations and References Scientific Writing Practice: Scientific Writing Written Research Papers Formatting Research Papers Formatting Tables and Figures Practice: Formatting Research Papers Mastering the Content: Written Research Papers and Formatting Sections of Research Papers Practice: Sections of a Research Paper Mastering the Content: Written Research Papers Poster Presentations Mastering the Content: Poster Presentations Oral Presentations Practice: Presentations Mastering the Content: Oral Presentations

Getting More Research Experience Becoming a Citizen Scientist The Many Roads to Research Practice: Why Real-World Research Experience Matters What Tasks Might You Do If You Get Involved With Research? Practice: Ways to Contribute to a Research Project Kinds of Research Opportunities How to Find Research Opportunities

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Gathering Your Research-Related Campus Resources Developing Your Personal Research Plan Writing Your Résumé and Cover Letter

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