CHAPTER V
THE USE OF THE ARABIC DURING THE MARATHA PERIOD
Introduction The use of Arabic during: a) The Pre-Muslim Rule b) The Muslim Rule c) The Maratha Rule
Writings of Sufis and Mystics of Maharashtra during the Maratha Period.
Linguistic and Cultural Synthesis. 216
Introduction It is a historical fact that the Arabs and the Indians have been acquainted with each other form the time immemorial and have lived on the opposite shores of the Arabian Sea. This naturally led to a considerable amount of cultural and commercial exchanges. From the end of the seventh century onwards these relations became more intimate when Arab traders started settling down along the coast of western regions of India. Accoridng to Al-Masudi (d.956 A.D.) large communities of Arabs were found settled in Chaul and other towns of the Konkan region of Bombay.
Nama„ . r 2 has referred to Thana, Dabul (Dhabol) and
Mandan (Malwan) which were known to the Arab merchants who landed on the western coast. They came in close contacts with the local population. The obvius impact of this contact among other things was the transmission of Arabic words in the Indian languages spoken in the maritime regions of western and southern India. This is evident from the first stone inscription in Marathi (1367-68 A.D.). found at the foot-step of the Bhimeshwar temple at Nagaon, Dist. Colaba (south Bombay), wherein few Arabic and Persian words are found viz. Hijri, Jamia't, Masjid, 3 Mahru, Muhammad, Dawar, Haji etc.
There is also another inscription of the year 1398
A.D. on the back wall of the Maruti temple at Tuljapur, 21 B
Dist. Osmanabad in the Karnataka State. S.G. Tulpule, in his historical work 'Yadav Kalin Marathi Bhasha' has given a list of such Arabic/Persian words used in various inscriptions viz. Masjid, Poshida, Parvarish, Malik, Qutbuddin, Qamruddin, Ba-hadur, Mast, Dam etc. Tulpule further states that the use of such words may be due to the influence of Arab travellers and merchants visiting these places.
1. The use of Arabic during the Pre-Muslim Period It is a general belief that the advent of the Muslim rule in the Deccan in the year 1296 A.D. and its dominance for almost three and a half centuries has contributed to the enrichment of Marathi language with the vocables of Arabic-Persian words on a large scale in all spheres. However, when we examine the growth and development of Marathi literature during the rule of the Yadavas of Devegiri in the closing years of the 13th century, we find that the poet-saint of Maharashtra Jnyaneshwar, who in fact laid the foundation of the Marathi literature, has used some Arabic and Persian words in his philosophical works Jnaneshwari and Amritanubhav. 4 Tulpule has given a list of such Arabic-Persian words. He states that it is generally believed that there are no
words of Arabic and Persian origin in Jnaneshwari and
other literature of the Yadav period. Rajwade, Abdul Huq 22(1 and Patwardhan were of the opinion that during Yadav period, pure Marathi was in use and that there was no
influence of any foreign language on Marathi during 12th g and 13th centuries. Devare had also expressed the same 9 view. However, Tulpule has confirmed the fact that Arabic
and Persian words have been used in the Marathi literature
of the 12th and 13th centuries. A list of such words is
tabulated below:
Marathi English Arabic/Persian Potadi Nisan •Hltlcj) Maleka Peroz Ta ji Rukha Rushwat Sultan Turuk Jahri Bida' Niyat Sar Sad SFTR" Angar 3ratT Anchal Kand Yaksar Khai Dar anrm Aaram Nav Aksar 221
After Jnaneshwar, a number of poet-saints of Maharashtra wrote mystic poetry in Marathi, the popular language of the people. In the poetic compositions of the Maharashtra saints Namdev, Eknath, Tukaram and Ramdas are also found the influence of Arabic and Persian words. This aspect has already been discussed in Chapter IV. Thus it will be seen that the gradual assimilation of the Arabic/Persian words into Marathi language had already started before the invasion of the Deccan by the Khaljis.
2. The use of Arabic during the Muslim Rule After the establishment of the Bahmani dynasty in the Deccan in 1347 A.D., there was a continuous influx of scholars, eminent Poets and Sufis from Persia and Iraq. Similarly a large number of savants, scholars and men of letters and Sufi Saints had come to the south during the forced migration imposed by Muhammad b. Tughluq. The founder of the Bahmani Kingdom himself belonged to the royal family of Iran. It was therefore natural that a favourable atmosphere for the study and promotion of Persian language and literature was created. Diplomatic contacts were established between Iran and the Bahmani State. These diplomatic relationships were further
strengthened during the period of the succeeding dynasties after the fall of the Bahmani Kingdom. The Bahmanis ruled 2 2 2 over the Deccan for nearly two centuries. Persian became the court language and soon it came to be cultivated both by the elites of the Brahmins and Muslims. Its natural consequence was that the influence of Arabic-Persian on the regional language Marathi was soon felt.
Though Persian was the court language of the Bahmanis, Marathi continued to be used in other spheres viz. keeping of accounts. 12 It was the only link between the rulers and the ruled. As such so many of the Persian words became current and were used by the people. Even the elite knowing Arabic/Persian also started using Marathi words in their daily usage. This consolidated the impact of the Persian and Arabic phrases and words in Marathi language. From 1294 to 1687 A.D., Deccan was under the rule of local dynasties. During this long period new arts and crafts, science, trade and professions were introduced into the varioius parts of the Kingdom. The words and terminology of all these had to be learnt by all those people who took up these professions or trade from the
rulers. In the course of time, these factors played an important role in promoting the use of Arabic and, Persian words in Marathi language. Secondly, the impact of the Muslim culture for nearly three and half centuries also played an important part in the gradual growth of the use of Arabic and Persian words spread on a large scale in all spheres. 22;^
It is an accepted fact that political conquests and dominance alone cannot affect the basic structure of a language. However, the language always evolves and assimilates the inlfuences it goes through because of a different political and administrative language. The language of the people also naturally influences greatly the dominant language of the rulers. Mutual influece of one over the other will have to be contented with. This leads to the process of borrowing words from each other. This "give and take" continued in Maharashtra for a long time and it not only enriched the Marathi language with Arabic and Persian words but it also brought in some grammatical constructs and the stylistic expressions of Arabic/Persian into the Marathi language. The long rule of the Muslim dynasties extending to quite a few centuries affected the language of the people to a great extent. The people came into close contact with Muslim bureaucracy in royal courts, judiciary, army and many other spheres of every day life. Besides the language, close relations had affected their dress, social customs, culture and even to some extent their religion.
3. The use of Arabic during the Maratha Rule
To assess the influence and impact of Arabic and
Persian on Marathi language and literature, we will
discuss the important factors responsible for the same. 2-M
Firstly, we will consider the historical writings which consists of (i) the Maratha chronicles known as 'The Bhakhars' and (ii) the Government correspondence. (i) The Maratha chronicles or the Bakhar; 13 Though the Muslims ruled over Deccan from 1294 to 1686 A.D. the impact of their rule survived long after. The political and administrative correspondence both at the local as well as internatioal level even after the termination of the rule of the Muslim dynasties continued to be in Persian. The territory which Shivaji occupied from 1650 A.D. onwards in the region called 'Deccan', came slowly to be known as Maharashtra. The Maratha historians imitating the Muslims started writing the chronicles of Maratha history (Bakhars) for the period 1707-1818 A.D. The political and administrative correspondence of this period mainly uses Marathi and this constitutes the bulk of prose literature in Marathi. The term 'Bakhar' itself is the corruption of
the Arabic word 'Khabar' which means news or information. (ii) Government Correspondence 14 (The Patraveohar); The literary prose sources of Marathi of this period are mainly in the form of contemporary records
like: Sanad (grants), Mahazar (decrees), Yadi
(memorandas), Haqiqat (narration of proceedings), Kaifiyat
(statements), Carina (written representations), Kuligata'
(family stories), Gavzada (rolls of village lands),
Sakavali (family chronologies) and Akhba$rs (news
letters). 225
These are Arabic/Persian words used in combination with Marathi words e.g. Kulqata^ 'Kul' is Marathi whereas
'Oat^a' is Arabic. Words of three languages viz. Arabic,
Persian and Marathi are used.
Many Bakhras have been written between the period A.D. 1600 and 1900 A.D. Various Bakhras of the histories belonging to this period are examined here from the view of the usage of Arabic and Persian vocabulary in Marathi. Only the important Bakhars (chronicles) of different Maratha periods i.e. (a) pre-Shivaji period, (b) Shivaji period and (c) Peshwa period are examined here to show the influence of Arabic and Persian on Marathi language.
(a) Bakhar of the pre-Shivaji period (D (Shriman Maharaj Sambhaji Raje Yanche Charitra)
While examining the passage (given below) taken from the Bakhar of pre-Shivaji period, it is seen that about 25 Arabic/Persian words are used in the passage of
95 Marathi words: urnr Tnmg Ridufldfc)«!ltjci "rflrpq iinTR TwrflTT^ irf?J ^ft>r". 3f. m rmfrfem IRT (J-TT. IT. ff.4. yrr)
wn^ iwu\n\ arrets frmTT wu^ 3f^ ^ rnpi^t 1m^ TT^ trMrffntw YT|^ "qr^rrr^ tpt=r TWlSTgrr tFnr Pit-llrfl |- (JiaJrlN ^ ^TTS-TlYt Wri'sltl^qT TnFl^tTT ^ci\^M W^^. tprnrr t^Tn^FT^wt ^^n^ w^^ PIMIH ^ rqifwf t^^Fqw?^ trrernr^ ^ ct^FT ?T^ 2 2 G
Arabic/Persian Marathi form
1) Saheb Saheb * 2) Maslehat Maslat 3) Fau j Fau j 4) Padshahat Padshahat
5) Padshahi Padshahi 6) Ravana Ravana 7) Morcha Morcha 8) Hukum Hukum 9) Vazir Vazir 10) Qil'a Kila
11) Habshi Habsi 12) Bandobast Bandobast 13) Mo'tebar Matbar
(b) Bakhar of the Shivaji period
(ii) (Shri Shiv Chhatrapatiche Charitra"''^ 1697 A.D.)
This bakhar contains authoratative account of Shivaji's life and his character. The historian was a contemporary of Shivaji. The Arabic and Persian words used in the Bakhar are listed below: Istaqbal 'Iwad Padshahi Mirathdar Dast Haq Gins Masjid
Shahar Mazkur 2HV
Mulk Isharat Waqai-Navis Firangi Gardish Shitab Darmiyan Vazir
Umara Be-tafsil Ha jib Fuzul Mulazemat Bakhsh Namzad Khuda-Khuda Mutabiq Kamar • Khasta Haramzada Hunarmand Qubul Taviz Qaid 'Am-khas Kajdili Salam Bandoq Qubul Zabt Gusalkhana *^Ambar Mut^lliq Nazarguzar Rabeta Fatwa Sawar Hazari 'Ilaqa Hak Baudah Sirfaraz Khwazin Daulat Mutasaddi Qabid Tope-khana Jauhar Waqi'a Khavind Ganem Mehnat • Khabardar Sultan ft Hukum Dehshat Shai'sta 2';8
Izafa Shaista Kuch Na-mehram Qarar Manzil dar Manzil Maf Beiman Mustai'd Takid Namosh (p6^n»(»4S) Namosh (famous) Kafir Fiqr Daga Mu-t:alliq Himmat Ahelkar Khushhal Fatwa Arabi Ra*fyat Khwaja Davia Sara Jahaz
Jam'a-Kharch Gaib Mardane Dakhil Na'lband 'Am Tai'nat Sitab(haste^ Bad-amal 'Am-wa-khas Rai'yat Taslim
Mazmon Khilab Qasba Barq-andaz Amanat 'Ambar Taraddud . Tahqiq Pir Hoshiyar Harif A'tebar • Shaitan Awaz Maslehat ''Uhada Izafa J5sus 2:i^i
Tirandaz Haramzada Mublagh Salah Jumla Mazboti Allah-Allah Hoshiyar Dilgir Fehmanda(understanding) Hasham Namzad Arzdasht Dawa
Beiman Haft-Hazari
Tafsil Waqi'a Mustai'd Talab Nazar Taslem Nikhalis(Impure) Tankhwa Turk Naqd Galla Fana Kull Taked Majlis Malo-mata' Sir-anjam Mush'ar-aleh
Thus it will be seen that pure Arabic words are used in the text. We are going to select a few representative words and see how they are interpolated into Marathi:
1) ^—o "^ Hag; It is a pure Arabic word meaning 'to be true or right'. In the above text it is being used in the same sense. ^3{
2. ^ '• (>^^ Mehnat; It is an Arabic word derived from the root 'Mahana' meaning to try. 'Mehnat' is adjective. It is used in the same sense in Marathi.
3. C>-t-.^ cJL» Ma 1-wa-Mat's; It is pure Arabic word meanig 'possession', 'enjoyment'. In Marathi also it is being used in the same sence. 4. 054JL3 Fatwa; It is an Arabic word meaning 'formal legal opinion of Islamic law'. In Marathi also it is being used in the same sense.
The above Arabic words have become a part and parcel of the Marathi language and are being used freely even today.
We will now discuss such Arabic words which are used entirely in opposite sense in Marathi i.e.
1. i^ Kafir; It is pure Arabic word derived from the root- 'Kafara' meaning to become an infidel. In Marathi it is used in different sense meaning tyrant. 2* ^ -TL Shahar; It is an Arabic word meaning 'a month' but in Marathi it is used in the meaning of city or town.
3. \T^_^ V"t5 Waqai-Nawees; It is a compound word wherein 'Waqai' is Arabic and 'Nawees' is Persian meanig a writer of the reports and proceedings.
Another Bakhar entitled 'Shivaji Maharajachi Bakhr 17 of 1761 A.D. gives an elaborate account of events
and life history of Shivaji. The Bakhar contains the 231 following categories of Arabic/Persian words viz, political, social, cultural and administrative terms: Political
Qabid Farar Shikast Tai'nat Majmu'adar Jah Ghanim Tahqiq Hajib Takht Mirathdar Na-kam Sir-lashkar Mustfaid
Wakil Isharat Nest-va-Nabud Gazi Mansaf Shamsher-Bahadur
Hikmat Sarfarazi » Tarikh Poshida Umra"" Barzor Fateh Qabu Zulum 'Alam Panah Amad-va-raft Mastoid Rasad Gafil Tuhfa Zabeta Khazana Barqandaz Shahzada Natawan Amir Sultan 2 3 y.
Social and Cultural Qarina Gila Aiteraz Mazaq
Qadeem Maqol Natawan Hashan « Farar Aram Dastan Shitab Amanat Talab
Khamosh Be-Nawa Ausan Jawab Himmat Asmani
Mulaqat Salam
Qissa Izzat Dilgir Raushan Khami Adab Kamkhwabi
Religious Allah Hudur
Pairvi Khairat Fana Bad-rah Paigambar Tauba
Deedar Be-iman
Parwardigar Subhan
Ghazi Talab
Faqir Nek-zat
Karamat Qkdah ''*'') 'I
•"Abeer Nikah Jamia't Behisht Rahman-va-Rahim Vilayat Hadrat Insaf Dua' Pir-Paigambar Insha-Allah Tama' Meher Bad-'amal Makhdum
Administrative Farar Amad-va-raft Tafsil Darmiyan Qaim Aftab Taqsir Khawas Mirath-dar Ziyadati Khami Be-tafsil dawedar 'Arddast Saf-navees Sawal Haramkhor Jaw^b Baksh 'Eterad Jumla Mansaf Hawaldar Bewaquf Tai'nat Pesh-andesh Tahqiq Insaf Nakam Junubi Muddat Hal-khod Mardana Poshida Shart Qabo Zulum 23a
(iii) In another Bakhar of Shivaji's reign, we find a treaty signed between Shivaji and Portuguese in the year 1670 A,D. One of the documents is in Portuguese and the other IS in modi script.
The following Arabic/Persian vocabulary is used in the modi script document: Sharatnama Azar Halroz Qadim Zakat Tashwish Suleh Qabul • * Dosti *• Azam Khilaf ^^heda Itefaq Dosti Tafsil RaViat Zahir Disti A'itebar Ein Janib Aik Ruqqa' Musharun 'Hay Qasur Mabain IT Zahir Watan Jama' Ravish Bab Lashkar Sabab Hukum Tafsil • Sar-anjam Mazkur Niyat Fara'yb Muluk Farman Sal-Jab Daryek-Bab MuaVieda Rad-badal Hukum Lawazimkhesh Suleh Bur-hukum • « Sar-anjam Ain Rouz Hadrat Sikka Padasha Nishan Qabul Qarar ""Amal Faraq Jamadil Akhar BeqasuHameshra <"Adal 'd 6.)
19 c) Peshwanchi Bakhar A.D. 1783 This Bakhar gives an historical account of the regime of the Peshwas beginning from the first Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath to the end of the Maratha power in the year 1818 A.D. The following Arabic and Persian words are used in this Bakhar of the Peshwa regime:
Madhur Dakhil Watan Mansuba Rozgar Salba'd Maslehat Mutasaddi Mea'ta Khatir-jama' Marham Nizam Madmun Dhom Saranjam Malik Hisab •"Ajeb Nawab Muhim Tajwez Gussa Raf'at Mu'taiber
Kuch-dar-Kuch Jurra't Zahir Jahaz "Arad Ganem Madad Ina 'm Khazana Zakhmi Zanankhana Fatah piyafat Futur
Peshwai Fardnavis
Karobar Mazumdar 238
•"Etirad Daftardar •"Ashara Hashim(writer) Alif . Sheherpanah Dastan Sahi Daftar Isharat
Matlab Berozgari Tagayyar Lashkar
Kumak Daulat
Sikka Sabab
Koch Rupia Jasos Mua'f Be-siranjam Rome-sham Gair-mardi Sikka Taradud Shart Mazbbt Chakar Surat-pak Khwas-khana Sawar Zakhmi Mohra Darbar Dagha Daryaft Ha jam Sila Herdam Khalal Pairwi Sir-lashkar Shaitan Swal-Jawab • Isharat Mardi Bakhsh-giri Madhkbr Dilgir Bardasht 23 V
Qabid Khangi Sardar Fauj-bakhshi
•Amal Shagird
Parwarish Mublag Kamdar Qabila Daulat Muratib Dewan Sultin
We will now deal with the historical Government correspondence written in Marathi in different periods of Maratha Rule i.e. during (1) pre-Shivaji period (2) Shivaji's period and (3) Peshwa's period and see how much Arabic/Persian vocabulary have gone into them. Firstly, we will examine the document of the pre-Shivaji period i.e. Pre-Shivaji Period
(i) Shahaji's letter to'"Ali 'Adil Shah of Bijapur dated 6.7.1657. We quote below some sentences from the original letter to show the actual usage of Arabic/Persian words:
"^oJi^oTl anTTRT 9iM 5r^ w^w^ ^—snr^ ^ 3rra^ rrgTmr ^rri]
Besides, the followng Arabic/Persian vocabulary is used in the above mentioned letter: Salam Jagir Mubadila Meherbani
Had Na-haq
Muluk Tazi-khabar c 36
Muamla Sawar Fai'da Manzil-dar-Manzil Wakil ^Ewad Dakhal Rawangi Ma'rifat Pergana Madhkur Darbar Naqal Nazdek Hadrat Be-abro
Sahib UmiTiid
Qaul Rah Qarar Darkar Nuqsan Khushi • Na-haq Sabar 'Araz-dasht Sabab Badnami Darurat Taza Hisab Radi-Khushi Rada Bag-bagicha Dua' Muqarrar Mushar-elahi Hukum Mehnat Zabardasti Madad Maslehat Maktub Shawwal Hudur Kagadh Sawal-Jawab Madbot Lashkar Ghair Tanbih Ghard Daftar Sarkari Farman 23i^
(ii) Shivaji's Period (a) Sh'ivaji's letter to Baji Prabhu,""21^ a Maratha
General written on 13th May 1659 A.D. The letter is reproduced below:
JTi I 3RTJT WR ;^^ y?ft JJM\ rftgri^ra^ gi i Irmr %TgH mgrra^t 3iTt. rit ^fT5 "371 tlStTr itrTT mt ^im ^iTte^Fl^ ^^ %^ slfldrdl tRTT f[? 3nf>T 0>r1|T^UI ^cllrlclKltN ER 5 d)*!^ m^ JRf? gr?^ ^. UlT g- 3((Wr ^T^ mcT rUT •Err3?TT^ 3RTT ^ TTT^ ^ cF?T^ ^. ^^TTS^ frft TRqrjf ^T?^ cnw 3n1^ Ric^N^ ?lt^ TTgTrfttT rqr 3fF5nT ^ TTT^ tr?r ^cJHciUltH CR g cfhnTT 3frPlT q" t^r J-TRsT® JTffr^ gr^S^ ^^- 5^ ^^^^ W^ ^^ t^^raiT rfTS^ OTrT J-^uijj ffltWRT 3-lTgm STTt. ITT^^ (jj^m frUrr 3f?r rrft ?T?Tf lerUrr tmT4 tor JR^ F?^ $^ w] gr^ Riruifeiiri C^TTM TR JTirm Ihe following ArabicA'ersian words are used irfam Qil'a Madhkur Qira Mustai 'd Tees^ khamseena Alaf Ramdhan Moratab Shud Madhkur Mazbut Hawala Hawaldar « « /Ma s ^er - a 1 - An am Saheb 2^^\ 22 (b) Shivaji's letter to Shahaji wrxtten m 1664 A.D. This letter is of special interest because it is a personal letter from Shivaji to his father Shahaji. The text of the letter is reproduced here: ?ft dl^cii'ti tt^. trar^ Tiuf uFff tTFTmft v^^ ^ B^iimi M^. m^ MTdMs! jnta^iT qpfT "J^'rf frrtprnr ?fff^ ^i^^ 5^ g^^ ^^rt ffHTff ag^rr gt3T^ ^rfjffT 3^T g^ cRvT feNirtfeiH t^urrjTT^ trff^fgsT Ygprr ^[^. Tm^ grloft ^T^ 3iTtrr. sjj-^m ^kf^ g 3raT ^rr S^TTT •j^f ant. tr jmiff Tqi^ ^ cqr^ arf&r, "arrut I^HTC^II iitcidiH Vnr gT=^ g^ •PrirfnT arr^f," ^^UIIH amn Mf. Tmn GIT^ MI^M^ ;q$ jctsTJT ciYT fM ^sfiifFTTff arr^ f *c4fiN i^^HffT anrg^ frcr ^-FfT frnft ^. rufgr tnrr w ?fpTrr, fr Icjuiiijart MNIC]?). qT%T ffidVNi Pimtj girmr J-^UITH fqi "cnrrffr tiTcrf. rT^ tnjT^ "TT^. gWigr riobijc; $1% cJiPlolT. 5T°ff g ftrrr fWTJT ctffrT. flTgrT 5'JT^T ^. •'iWci*<:i'^r arr^ PIMIH 4iT^iiNi l^rcm 3-Tff (TRCTT. r^m gf^ (TICR f^v3T ^^CR ^m^A CtfTrlT. iJ|L|H|u1 W^T rt (Hd^lM ctfiri-. iTRffT ftrM JJFfWT n? ^^FT T=qfgT irffT TTTftcT Cftr ^ tft. riJHcj(SH TftrTrar fM^ WfS-Tlft g#T MT6|cl^. "aTTFT FTTgrT 3-TlBrr 5^, arn?r pr airrf. ^^i\^ w^ ^TPTrflnrr grHFft ?rgT E^SH, tiffrrtn" STT^ M ^^^ g" t^ $g^ ^R^nrffT gm Emm." ^ gr?^ ctnot. ruiLiniuT -raiifttr gmrciriT? ¥^=r^ arrfiyiTFT (RjjoJij><|r1 rtl4c1cir^ ^. ] 241 The following Arabic/Persian words are used in the letter: Hunar Tamam Daghabazi Surung Guzar Bur j Havana Sheh Salam Teh Zairdasti Tuhfa Bazi Nazrana Savari Dam Khas Vakil Mubadala Sarfaraz Mata' Watan Buhat 'Aivad Muluk Vasul Thana Mortab Qila' Neem-^ivad Sarkar Fau j Thus it will be seen that the Arabo-Persian vocabulary has left such a lasting imprint on Marathi that even the Maratha Sardars could not avoid using it in both their official as well as personal correspondence. One such letter is described below: c) * Letter of Shivaji Maharaj to Eshwant Rao Shahaji Kadam, 23 a General of his Maratha army dated 26th July 1677. The letter is significant because it was written 2 4 -i just two and half years before the death of Shivaji, who had issued orders to restrict the use of Arabic/Persian words in official correspondence. In this letter comprising of seventy words there are 17 words of Arabic and Persian origin. Another important point to be noticed is that the letter is written on the pattern of Persian letters and it contains literally translation of Persian sentences and idioms. The Arabic/Persian words are: Isam Wada' Madhkur Kagadh Namzad Bab Gins Baqi Salk Ada Jama' Muwafiq Tai'nat Dar-Mah Mah-dar-mah Mujra Ras 3. Government correspondence during the Peshwa period Under this head we will deal with selections from the Peshwa Daftar consisting of four compaigns of Janjira from 1733-36 A.D. The compaigns are described in the letters addressed to army officers and the officers of the different forts under the Peshwas. We will select here a few letters at random from Volum III of the selections and see how many Arabic/Persian words interpolate the Marathi text: 24a Qil'a Madhkur Dawa Tahqeq Rai'at Bisalat Panah Tada'-wada' Jawab Mana' Mohibb Bur j Nishan Qarardad Qila Teh-nama Fateh Tarah Maslehat Mua'mala « « •"Amal Pukhta Nazar Mansuba Kumak Morcha Pewast Nazdek Khwa-makhaw Manzil-dar-Manzil Qubul Jama' 'Ayed Rawana Namzad Shaitiil e _ Hudur Tamirat Lashkar Qabila Tafsil Wasul Peshgi ^Aitarad Zakhmi Khabar Ghanem Mazbut Namzad Sarfaraz Tafsilwar Mushkil • Ikhtiarat Muta'laq Ai'tebar Takid 244 Hazar Ghan"em Dakhil Dagha Be-jins Zakhmi Hukum Be-'^Ai ' tebar m Wasul Pewasta Mo'tabar Musta'id Natlja Mahe Safar Ghalat Fauj Mo'tabar Mazbuti Jasus Yelghar Itella' Taked Qai'd Tamam Saheb Ray'iat '^Aradh Mulaqat Nisbat Sar-anjam Lashkar Mulk '"Aivadh Qaul Taslemat Zakat Rozmarrah Musharun Ilaih Mujarid Mahina Du'tarfa Jama' Hal Madhi Namud Barq-andaz Rawana Nek '^Amal Khud Qabila Yelghar 24i3 25 Qaul Nama dated August 1781 Qaul-Nama is a composite word wherein 'Qaul' is Arabic word whereas 'Nama' is Persian. It is a form of treaty between two parties either Government or private. This Qawl-nama is signed between the Peshwas and Nawab Najab Khan Bahadur. The Arabic/Persian words used in this document are: Saheb Pargana Dosti Saheb Irtebat Muluk Qadem Hissa Qaul Darur Qarar Kumak Dain Fauj iman Kharaja (Kharch) Muluk Padsha Qabda Khuda wa Rasul • Dosti Khalish Rauz be rouz Mua'khadha Padshahi Fauj Jamadil Akhir Jagir We will select a few words and see how they are interpolated in Marathi: i)-iinP Darur - The Arabic root is _r-y> meaning 'to harm' but in the text of the letter and in modern sense it is being used in the meaning of "necessary". 24b ii) Mu' a-khadha 7; It is pure Arabic word from the root-Li- meaning to take away. Here it is used in the sense of 'loss of faith'. It is a political word. iii) Kharaja (Kharch) - The word used in the text is 'Kharch'. It is derived from the Arabic word Kharaja /^_j—^ meaning expenses. Though retaining the meaning, the alphabet (j) is replaced by ' ch' with the result that the original Arabic word virtually becomes a Marathi word. Diplomatic correspondence The Peshwas had two sets of agents posted at the court of the Delhi Emperor. The first was the regular Ambassador (Wakil) whose despatches were sent to the Peshwas in Marathi. The second category was of professional news reporters, ' Waqi'^-Navis or Akhbar-navis' who wrote only in Persian. For the post of Ambassadors, only able men from trusted families were selected. Members of one such family known as 'Hingne' from Satara (Maharashtra State) had the honour of being posted as Peshwa's Amabassadors at Delhi. We will discuss one such diplomatic despatch from r . . 71 Hingne Wakil to Raja Shri Nana Saheb Fadnavis. The despatch is dated April 1789. It is surpirising that 73 words out of 95 total words in the despatch are interpolated in Marathi, which does not appear to be a different language than Persian. The copy of the original letter is reproduced here: 1^4fr M^. tncTiR- ?nt^ g^ ^nr ftr^ft tF^wrar^f^ 5TW Icjrrfl^H u URf?T msT?r ^. 5 UTI" JH^iff •qifmrrftft nciMnrr $cfl". ?TT?T #7rft WT^R" ^^nrr ^ >0 VO NO ^ mws \iho(] qf?r "qftT "m% tnTt g j^i^ffff rfh' cft^ •qRir %?T(T f^nwr ^. jmr^ff •qpRT ?ntwM iwnpft $fft. 3rgra W^ •qfrrRfi g- FEIT ^gr l^sTcft g^^s- t^Rffi g ^t^ rrrrnsfttft JitwFft $?ft. -fum rqf=fl¥t ^pn TqiyrrH^ ^ru. e^ YM &. rrmstfr *r1*rriJliH ^iPTR" T^^U|H g^ anf. "qfg SfT^ ^TR" ^m "TR^ MllciciEjidfcfl iTPfifrftgfrT ¥7^ w] ^3nTfh, $?rr iW^ ant. M?ff ffr it^. ;5^ "Pr^rfRTFT trfcr if Mfrr ^. W|TT Ihe Arabic and Persian words used in the letter are: 248 Saheb Saheb Mazkur Firangi Firangi Darkhush Bibiyan Kashti Nazar Mulazemat Hudur Padshah Saheb Madhkur Madhkuri Pistar Sanduq Sarbasta Eik Goshwara Jins Al-Khalaq Banat Parcha Mushjer Khil'at Guzrana Firangi Hudur Munshi Minhus Parche khil'at Dakhal 'Inayat Mahe Mezbani Madhkuri Kishti Padsha Poshak Vialyati Kishti Pistaul Mahe Mazkuri Mohra Kuch Thus it will be seen that pure Arabic words like Saheb, Al-khalaq, Jins, Hudur, Dakhal are used. We will analyse a few selected words and see how they were used in Marathi text. ''• /j ( i) CjJ^L^Saheb; It is a pure Arabic word derived from the Arabic root ^7*-^*""^^ meaning "companion". In the text of the letter it is used in the meaning of 'chief' or 'officer'. i -j ) fqi 1,'i^Khalaq! It is an Arabic word meaning 'Creation'. It is used in the same sense in the text. iii bjIi^Hudur; It is derived from the root _^jr4a_>. meaning 'presence'. But in Marathi it is used in the sense of addressing a dignitary e.g. King, Vazier, Chief of the Army, Judge etc. iv) ,^^j Dakhal; It is an Arabic word derived from the root meaning 'to enter'. In Marathi it is used in various meanings e.g. 'to enter', 'to submit' and 'certificate'. Words like Firangi, Saheb, Mohra, Kishti, Padsha, Saheb Madhkur and Hudur have been repeated many times in the letter. The following Arabic/Persian words are also noticed 2 8 in other despatches: iman ^^aratib Ai'tebar • Rasul Zarab Suluk Naf a ' 'Amal Mamrion Qaul Qarar Muqam 250 Saltanat Maslehat Nayab Wajebul "Ard Neem-Asteen Radamandi Qarar Qasid Naqd Radi Kharif Qabu Tara j Kafir Rabi' Qaim Qila' Saheb Mausuf Jami'at Badastur Khulasa 'Ahad-Painian Khilaf Tanbih Jama^ 2) Writings of Sufis and Mystics of Maharashtra during the Maratha Period: Long before the conquest of the Deccan, many Sufi Saints and mystics had migrated to south India. They preached the doctrine of 'Unity of God' and 'Universal Brotherhood'. They did not believe in the distinction of caste and creed. Because of their simplicity and tolerance towards all, people used to gather around them in quite a large number both as adherants and supplicants. Hence they were quite popular among the local masses. They, of course, were well versed in Arabic and Persian languages, but they had also acquired good knowledge of the local 251 languages viz. Marathi and Kannada to maintain their relations with the local masses. In their daily discourses which were probably given in their local languages, they must have used Arabic and Persian words liberaty and hence the audience too would be naturally affected. Besides these Muslim Saints there existed a number of Hindu mystics and saints in Maharashtra who can be said to belong to the Bhakti movement. They too preached the glory of the personal god and were against the distinction of caste and creed among their devotees. They, through their devotional songs replete with divine love and love of the fellow beings, attracted the masses and even today their bhajans and other compositions are sung and appreciated in the whole of Maharashtra. During the Maratha period and especially during the reign of Shivaji there have been several mystic saints and poets, e.g. Ramdas, Tukaram and Shaykh Muhammad. Marathi was the main vehicle they used for their Bhakti hymns and preachings. Even here we find numerous words of Arabic/Persian and Turkish origin in their poetic compositions. . . 29 Sanskrit was by this time confined .only to Pandits and men of religious learnings. The folowing Arabic/Persian words have been used in their devotional songs called Abhangas. This topic has been dealt thoroughly in Chapter IV. 2b2 Zakat Khiyal Talab Angusht Ghanem ''Ardasht Qaul Awaz Allah Khat Dhikr Khabar Darwaish Tez Qarar Dar ''Aber Qasba Khabar Talab Qiyas Bandagi Tafsel Banda Nawaz Salam Madhkur Mustashfi ^Ajab Tadhkira Sale Gudhashta Zulum Be-Iman Dagha Tamasha Khavind 'Ard Nadan Asman Besharam Kab Miras Qasab Qasab Khasam Guman Dhat Madar Dam Gaflat Yar Taqada Zabardast 253 Jins Dast Gird Band Mulamma' Roshan Kartar Darmiyan Sartaj Khabardar ygri Shekhdar Khiyal Jama'-kharch Darwesh There are numerous such Arabic/Persian words 1 some representative words are enumerated here: 1) ek!>' Zakat: It is a pure Arabic word derived from t root 'Zaki' meaning 'Charity'. In Marathi text is used in the same sense. 2 )6<^.-.^Mustashf a: It is a Arabic word derived from 'Shif meaning 'to cure'. It is used here in the s< meaning. 3) it,^ Jama' Kharch (kharaj); 'Jama' is derived from t ^ Arabic root 'Jama'a' meaning 'to collect, assemble' whereas 'kharch' is derived from the re 'Kharaja' or 'Kharuj' meaning 'to go out, separate'. In Marathi text it is used in the sa meaning but the alphabet (j) is replaced by (c meaning the incoming items and outgoing items i. 'income and expenditure'. 254 4) _y-i> Dhikr; It is an Arabic word derived from the root 'dhakara' meaning 'to remember'. Here also it is used in the same meaning. 5) ycwa-a. Khasam; It is a Arabic word from 'Khasama'. It is used in various sense but mostly it is used in the meaning of 'letigant' or 'opponent'. In the text under review it is used in the sense of 'opponent'. Shaykh Miihcunmad 30 Naturally there wer quite a few Muslims who were a part of the same Bhakti movement. Shaykh Muhammad of Ahmadnagar was a contemporary of Saint Tukaram. He has been regarded as an 'incarnation of Kabir' (Kabira cha Autar) in the Maratha country. He was initiated into Bhakti cult by a Hindu Guru. He had established his hermitage (matha) at Shrigonda, Ahmadnagar with the help of a grant from Malogi Raje Bhosle, the grand-father of Shivaji, who accepted him as his Guru. Shaykh Muhammad wrote mostly in Marathi. The tenure of his directional poetry is more or less the same as other Bhakti compositions. We will quote a few of the Arabic/Persian words one comes across in his poetry: 255 Faqir Natija Fikr Nazdeek Nabi Dad Tawakkul Khajil Plr Sachcha Zalim Qasba Mehman Bur j Duniya Bandargah Nasihat Jahaz Bur j Laluch Ne'mat Musalman Hadarat Wall Writings of devotional songs like dhikr, dharis & mantras The dhikr are devotional and religious songs handed over from Pir to his Murid from generation to generation. The dhikr consisted of phrases, verses or simply names of God which the murid was instructed to repeat loudly. These dhikrs were in praise of God whereas dharis were in priase of saints, in whom the composer had a great faith. The dhikr were composed besides, Arabic and Persian in Marathi also. The composition of Hindu mystics in priase of God were termed 'Mantras'. The fascinating part of these devotional songs is the fine blending of vocables of Perso-Arabic words in it. 23G One such Marathi devotional hymn by Sant Tukaram (freely 31 translated into English) is given below: "First among the great names is Allah Never forget to repeat it Allah is verily one, the Prophet(Nabi) is verily one There thou art one, there thou art one, there Thou art one, O Friend There is neither I nor thou" Folk Lores, Chakki Namas and Shadi Ncunas The efforts of Sufis and Mystics to communicate their teachigs and feelings to general illiterate masses of Maharashtra became the part of folk literature and 32 folklores. Short poems in the vernacular medium both in Dakhni and Marathi became very popular in the masses. These were the folk-lores and they consisted of indegenous themes and imageries in simple and popular language for the propagation of Sufi and Bhakti concepts. These were even sung by the village women while doing their various household chores. The most common of them are known as 'Chakkinamas'. So called because they are sung while turning the gindstone or chakki and also sung during any domestic work e.g. 'Charkha nama', sung while spinning the thread at the spinning wheel. There are also 'Shadinamas'. These are the songs sung at the occasion of marriages. 33 25V The Marathi devotional songs that village women of Maharashtra sing today while grinding are more or less identical to the Chakkinamas of the Sufis. The object of devotion being the diety of Vithoba at Pandharpur. 34 Some of the Bhakti songs were composed as far back as seventeenth century. Here too we find Arabic and Persian words interpersed within them inspite of them being very short viz. Allah Khalifa Dhikr Chakki Sahib Murld Darwish Kalima Dost dhikr-i-^aini Pir We shall now consider other materials like Farmans, Sanads and inscriptions and see how far the Arabic/Persian vocabulary has gone into them. Since it is not possible to go into details, we will confine ourselves here to give one instance of each. During the Maratha period the influence of the Arabic/Persian style of writing in the opening or the ceremonial part of the letter, the Salutations (AdSb) and Alqabs, court seals, the ceremonial closing of letter was very pre-dominent. Some of the ceremonial forms of address are given beloww 1 : 35 258 1) Mahbt wa majmua ''ibadat malj Dostan istejadar mukhlis'an Had az dua' salam khairiyat anjam mahulwaram anki yethil kahir Salah Janun apli khair khushi Kalme Karit asele pahije " 2) "Az diwane rakhat khana khas ba janib karkunan wa Desmukhan Pargana Poona magasaiyan wa ''auhdedaran az hati hal wa istaqbal wa muqadaman mauze Devalgaon nazdik Alegaon qaryati palti patil madhkur tSadand " 3) The letters usually ended with Marathi translation of "Ziyada che Navisqui he kitabati". 4) Inscriptions on some of the tombs and other historical places During the reign of Sultan Mohammad 'Adil Shah, ten inscriptions on stone slabs were found on the walls of the 36 Sholapur Fort at Sholapur. Six inscriptions are in Persian language calligraphed in nustaliq style and four are in Marathi language. The Marathi inscriptions are found to contain many Arabic and Persian usages with a local tint. In one of the Marathi inscriptions dated Saka 1466 (1544 A.D. ) we find that Arabic and Persian words like Burj, Karkirde, Karkard (regime), Mudati (Mudat), Mahe, Tarikh, Safar, Rabiul-akhar, Ahad Khamseen, Moratubu (Moratab) are freely used. It appears that even in medieval period Arabic/Persian words have entered into Marathi to a good extent. c5y As for the usage of Persian with local tint. Dr. P.M. Joshi is of the view that no attempt was made by the 'Adil Shahi Rulers to superimpose their Muslim culture on the Hindu society of their kingdom. The influence of the Arabic/Persian language on Marathi and of the choice of the Muslim dress were due to the own choice of the local population. 37 Similarly during the Nizam Shahi period,two inscriptions are found on the outer walls of the monument 38 known as 'Arha-i-Gumbad' at Ahmadnagar. One in Persian and the other is in Marathi language. The Marathi inscription quoted below is of three to four lines: ^fW^T "FUT ^ 5^ GfltHIrl W^ ^^rfirr ^^TTR w^ ^im ^Tfft mt^ g— I^TfT cObMT trnf pit ^ilTrST JRT Wtt^ "qr Tsq" "Nizam Shah's Old(?) .... Bisat has given the garden land in inam for lighting the mosque and the dome. Whosoever forbids donkey" . Thus it will be seen that the following Arabic/Persian words are used viz. Qadeem, Bagh, Inam, Masjid, Gumbad and Mana'. Marathi Literature of the 18th century According to Tarachand the influence of Muslim culture was so immense that in some of the literary works written in Marathi during the 18th century, nearly 3 0 percent of the words used were of Arabic and Persian origin. . . 39 2G0 By the end of the 18th century the British had already in possession of bit of a territory in Madras and Deccan and had their relations established in the ruling houses in the area inlcuding the Peshwas. The pfocess of A assimilation of Arabic and Persian words in Marathi was going on for centuries by now and even the British kept on using the Persian as a vehicle of the correspondence with the native States for a century before Lord Macaulay introduced English as the administrative language of British India in the year 1835. Linguistic and Cultural Synthesis Since Maharashtra was under the dominance of Muslim rule for nearly three hundred and fifty years, it was natural that the people of Maharashtra were affected in social, cultural and religious domains. But the more lasting impact was to be noticed in the field of language and literature. According to Shushtri even the Hindu outlook on life has been largely modified. 40 The impact of Arabo-Persian vocabulary was so great that numerous new terms, related to land tenure, administration, law and military matters, were introduced into Marathi language. Numerous Arabic and Persian words, idioms and even phrases were intorduced into Marathi literature. However, the assimilation of terms of one language on another language is no criteria for judging 2G1 the influence of one language over the other. When one language accepts the grammatical constructs of the another for example verbal nouns and gerunds, prepositions (suffixes and prefixes) the influence seems to be quite profound. Juxtapositions of nouns and compound word formations will also show the extent of Arabic/Persian influece on Marathi. The following illustration given below would show the introduction of Arabic/Persian terminology with the grammatical construct of the original language, especially the broken plurals are liberally used in Marathi. A few examples of the plurals of the Arabic words will explain e.g. Arabic Singular Arabic plural Marathi shape Jauhar Jawahar Jawahar Lagab Alqab Alkab Valad Aulad -» f3 Aulad Majlis Majalis m Majalis Wali Awliya Awlia Amir Umra"" Umrao •I Ism Asma' Isami Khabar Akhbar Ul Akhbar Khas C«*Ui. Khwas iy\ Khwas b) To express the Arabic plurals at times the Indian method of using singular and plural together to give greater emphasis is also used for example "Amir-Umrao" 2G:^ where 'Amir' is singular and 'Umrao' is plural. The writer intends to emphasise the plurality. Some of the other examples are: Khair Khairat ^_JV^ Gharib Ghurba ^ L_yt. Faqir Fuqra etc. i\ c) At times it happens that use of Arabic plural signify only the singular e.g. ^Amal Ahwal Adab C->1>c^^JX T Makatib d) The words taken from Arabic and Persian are also treated with rules of the Marathi grammar. Arabic and Persian infinitives are employed in Marathi sentences as infinitives but with the Marathi suffix "ne" e.g. Arabic/Persian Meaning Arabic/Persian infinitives inifinitives with Marathi suffixes ''Ardh O^Lr-^ Petition Ardhane Kharch Expenses Kharachne Jama' Addition Jamaune Darab To hit Darabvane Dag• h f^ To fire Daghne Dagha Uo Deciet Daghavane Nawaz ~^]^ Honour Nawazne Badle '•<4A_i in exchange Badalene Fitna "a • -1 Intrique Fitne Futur 0m • to abate Futurne e) The Arabic and Persian words are also turned into infinitives by additing Marathi auxiliary words for 2()3 i) Even compound words are formed using a Marathi and Arabic/Persian words viz. 'Aqaldar Qai'de Pandit Nakdi-mal Nazar Chuk Bajar bhau Ang Mehnat Chovghast Rang mahal Jag-Zahir j) The Indian way of expressing two words of more or less of same meaning to lay the emphasis on the sense are also used. Many a times both the words are Arabic or Persian e.g. 'Aqal Hoshiary Abroo Izzat 'iman *^Ai ' tebar *Ilm Duniya 'Aish Aram Banda Ghulam Zulum Zabardasti Fand Fatoor Fasal Hangama k) Many compound words of either Arabic-Persian combination or Marathi and Arabic/Persian are found which convey opposite meaning viz. Naf^-nuqsan Jama"" Kharch Jab sal Nafa'' tota Behali bartarfi Naram-gram Nar madi Zanana Mardana Kum Jast Here the Arabic word 'Sawal-Jawab' meaning question and answer has been reduced to Jabsal in Marathi, though it is being used in the same sense. Similary, the word 'Kum-Ziyadah' has been changed to 'Kam-Jast'. Here 'Ziyadah' has been used in the sense 'Jast' meaning 'more'. 204 example 'Zakat' means 'alms' to give alms' is expressed as 'Zakat-dene' meaning to give 'Zakat'. Some of the other examples of the type are given below: Zakat-dene Salah dene Hukum karne Rad-karne Baju ghene Dharab dene Dakhal karne Jahir karne Tahkub karne Hajar karne Sahi karne Muaf karne Qual dene Kuch karne Kharch karne etc. f) Many prepositions/ conjunctions and interjections have been assimilated from Arabic/persian language e.g. Be rai' Bila Tarfe Be Me Be-tariq * Bawajud Beghair Bad-az Agar Magar Lekin Chunanche Balke Khair Shabas etc. g) Many Arabic and Persian proverbs are also introduced either in their original form or with slight modification or in transliteration viz. i) Himmate Mardan Madat Khuda ii) Fateh Shikasht Ikhtiar Khudach Ahe « iii) Adhi Anan Hag Tanan (Awal Ta'm B^adhu Kalam) h) Many Arabic words referring to the vocation of God are used viz. "Allah Allah, Khuda Khuda, Ya Rahman, Ya Rahim". These are also found in the Bakhars. 2G5 1) Many Arabic/Persian words have entered into Marathi without having the original Arabic/Persian meaning. Sometimes the meaning undergoes a sea change. For example the word 'Ibrat' means admonition. In Marathi the word is change to 'Ibhrat' and the meaning is entirely different. It means 'influence or prestige'. Similarly, the word 'Hadir' means 'to be present' but in Marathi it is being used in entirely different sense. It means 'admonition'. Some of the other examples are: Arabic/Persian words Marathi use Marathi meaning 'Ibrat Ibhrat Influence Kifayat Kifayat Profit Katba Dastavez Document Ta'lem Talim Place of wrestling Hadir Hajeri To warn • 'Amla Amla Building r • Mansuba Conspiracy Mansuba ^>-'(g* • Chan Fine Shan (^ *—- Yenda Current year Ayenda Yadi List Yad Khalbat Secret Khal'at Khashi Enough Khas OJO