I n dex

Abbott, Greg, 459 AFL, 244 famil y life, 354–55 Abernath y, Francis, 369 AFL-CIO, 2 1 7 , 346 as farm laborers, 1 6 1 , 251 A bilene, Kansas, 171 African Americans fi ght for integration of A bilene, Texas, 1 2 1 , 183, 364, accommo dation and schools, 3 5 7 392 resistance of, 2 5 0 , 251, Free dmen ’s Bureau’ s aid to, Abilene Christian University, 252–53 149–50 , 155–56, 162–63 4 21 in agriculture, 247 d uring Great Depression, ab initio , 1 5 4 , 155, 156 in antebellum era, 1 1 2 , 116, 30 4–6 a bolitionists, 8 5 , 104, 124, 118–19 income, 3 4 9 125–30 banks of, 2 5 1 , 252, 350 Jim Crow laws, 218, 233 a bortion, 2 8 2 , 390, 412–13, 450, black codes, 1 4 8 Ku Klux Klan’ s oppression of, 451, 464 businesses of, 2 5 2 , 350 281 –84 acequias, 3 4 i n cities, 251–52 in labor force, 148–49 , 150, act ivism, 256–57 . See also civil rights movement, 161 League of United Latin 358–61, 376, 385–87 in labor unions, 1 9 6 , 252 American Citizens civi l rights of, 142, 144, 145, in late 1800s, 199 (LULAC); NAACP; 146, 148, 151–52, 155, 213, l eisure activities, 2 1 8 , 306–8 women ’ s club movement 306, 332, 383–84 in lumber industry, 216, 217 Adams, Andy, 320 in Civil War, 1 3 7 , 138 mental institution for, 2 6 7 Adams, K. S. “Bud,” 396, 418 as delegates to constitutional in Mexican Texas, 69 A dams, Todd, 3 4 4 conventions, 1 7 5 mi gration North, 251, 315, A delsverein Society, 90, 91, 112 demographics of, 118 329, 385 Adobe Walls, Battle of, 1 6 6 , disfranchisement of, 2 3 3 , mi gration to cities, 251–52, 168–69 237, 249–50, 260 306 Adventures of Big FootCOPYRIGHTED Wallace in early 1900s, 249–54 MATERIALin military, 161–62, 167, 273, (Crittenden), 320 econom ic status, 4 0 7 330 Adventures with a Texas education of, 1 4 2 , 150, 155, music of, 3 0 7 , 322, 367 Naturalistt (Bedicheck), 321 157, 163, 176, 202, 203, New Deal programs, 301, A dvisory Committee on 205, 231, 253–54, 356, 302, 303–6, 315 Segregation and the Public 358–61, 430 per capita income, 350 Schools, 3 4 4 effects of Great Depression, political strength of, 426 aerospace industry, 348, 375 291 in politics, 153–54, 157–58, a ffi rmative action, 389–90 , 430 emancipation of, 142 160, 163, 207, 231, 252, A fghanistan war, 441, 452 equa l pay for teachers, 356 382, 385, 424, 427

The History of Texas, Fifth Edition. Robert A. Calvert, Arnoldo De León, and Gregg Cantrell. © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Index 475 population of, 116, 118, 142, A gua Dulce, Texas, 78 All the Pretty Horses 143, 148, 251, 306, 328, Aguayo, Marqués de, 23, 31 (McCarthy), 415 329, 407 Aid to Families and Dependent all-white primaries, 233, as president of the United Children (AFDC), 387, 249–50, 306, 334, 335, 359 States, 4 5 2 461 A lpine Riot, 185 professionals, 252 Ai kin, A.M., 355 a lternative energy sources, in ranching, 161, 162, 172 air conditioning, 354 461 during Reconstruction, Air Control Board, 435 Amarillo, Texas, 183, 243, 366 1 48–49, 157–58 aircra ft industry, 331 Amari llo College, 359 religion of, 163, 218, 252, 363 air passenger traffi c, 348 amen dments to Texas in Republic of Texas, 94 air pollution, 435 . See also constitution segregation of, 161, 176, 203, environmental protection a pproval of, 177–78 218, 249, 250, 301, 312, airports, 348, 385, 447, 449, ban on same-sex marriage, 332, 350, 358–59, 365, 396 453, 461 4 51 self-help organizations, 153, air quality, 459 for chartering state banks, 163, 251, 252 A labama, 1 7 7 , 181 2 60 social organizations, 252–53 A labama-Coushattas, 72 equa l rights, 390 in sports, 396 Alabama Indians, 123 establishin g Railroad state institutions for, 202 A lamo, 77–79 , 83, 95, 98, 133 Commission, 2 2 9 suffrage for, 231 Alamo, Thee (fi lm), 364 on land grants, 160 Sweatt ’ s court case, 335 A lamodome, 4 1 8 man dating centennial as tenant farmers/ A larcón, Martín de, 23 celebration, 3 1 5 sharecroppers, 161, 201, A lbee, Edward, 399 on penal restructuring, 214, 248, 251, 304–5 alcaldee, 33, 86 266 unions of, 196 alcohol prohibition, 210, 277, 281 violence against, 119, 148, consumption by Indians, 46, on regulation of railroads, 149, 154, 164, 181, 184–85, 71, 96, 169, 170 259 , 262 218, 237, 250, 251, 332, 427 consumption by Texians, 95 for relief funds, 2 9 7 voter drives, 3 3 5 correlation with crime, 457 repeal of poll tax, 339 voter turnout, 4 2 6 ethnic groups identifi ed with, on schools, 2 0 3 , 264, 431 women’ s club movement, 2 7 6 2 77–78 tax on gas/motor vehicles, in workforce, 1 6 1 , 252 legalization of liquor by the 3 48 during World War II, 330, drink, 3 9 1 on Texas Water Plan, 4 3 3 332, 334 l egalization of 3.2 percent on water transfer, 4 3 3 writers, 3 6 9 , 370 beer, 2 9 7 f or woman’ s suffrage, 275 See also enslaved people; free production of, 214, 277 American Airlines Center, blacks; slavery Pro gressives’ view of, 277 419 a grarian organizations, 224–34 . state laws regulating, 209, American Athletic Conference, See also Farmers’ A lliance; 258, 260, 274, 277, 278, 4 21 Grange 281, 314 Am erican Basketball a grarian reform, 206 . See also tax on, 2 6 2 , 314, 315, 346, Association, 3 9 7 Grange; Greenback Party; 436 American Football League, 396 Populist Party See also prohibition American Idoll, 4 1 4 Ág reda, Madre María de (“Lady A l ger, Bruce, 342 American Liberty League, 316 in Blue”), 19 A lice, Texas, 3 9 4 American party, 381 a gribusiness, 265–66, 352–53. Alien Contract Labor Law, 1 9 7 American Revolution, 5 8 See also farming; ranching A lien Land Law, 229 American Socialist Party, 279 A gricultural Adjustment Act A llen, Augustus C., 91 Ames, Jessie Daniel, 275 (AAA), 303–4, 332 Allen, John K., 91 amnest y (after Civil War), 144, A gricultural and Mechanical A llen, Richard, 1 5 8 , 163 145 College of Texas. Seee Texas Alley Theater, 365, 398–99 Anahuac, Texas, 6 2 , 63–64 A&M University A lliance Exchange, 227 . S ee also Ana huac incident, 72–73 A gricultural Experiment Station, Farmers ’ A lliance An derson, Dillon, 3 4 2 2 04 All My Friends Are Going to Be Anderson, Gary Clayton, 417 A gricultural Marketing Act, 295 Strangers (McMurtry), 404 And the Earth Did Not Devour a griculture. Se e farming; A llred, James V., 299, 313–15, Him (Rivera), 403 ranching 320, 339 An gelo State University, 421 476 Index Anglo settlers Batt le of Rattlesnake Springs, colony of, 67, 68, 71 in antebellum era, 117 161 as commander of Texas dominance of, 210 evan gelization of, 24 volunteers, 73–74, 77 in Mexican Texas, 55–69, life style of, 71 as commissioner to U.S., 74 75–76 l iving space of, 39 cotton industry, 62 in Republic of Texas, 98–99 mi gration of, 7–8, 9–10 election of 1836 and, 8 4 See also specifi c empresario or Spanis h policy toward, 44, mission to Mexico City, 64, 65 settler 45, 46 peace party petition, 63–64 Anheuser-Busch, 277 survival techniques, 41–42 as secretary of state, 84, 85 animism, 4 U.S. Army offensive, 167–68 suppression of Fredonian annexation, 8 4 , 85, 100, 103–4, App omattox, 139 Rebellion, 6 1 111, 127 a quifers, 432–35, 458 Aust in, Texas antebellum Texas Ara b oil embargo, 375 air base in, 331 agriculture in, 112–13 A ragón, 11 air pollution in, 435 boundaries of, 1 2 1 , 127 Aransas National Wildlife in antebellum era, 114 cities in, 113–14 Refuge, 460 as capital, 88, 91, 92 economy of, 112–15 Arc her, Branch T., 74 capitol building, 183, 197, education in, 124–25 Architecture in Motion 206, 417 ethnic settlements, 111–12 , (Coleman), 401 cattle drives through, 170 116, 117 Ar kansas, 1 7 7 , 181 civil rights demonstrations in, land forms, 115 Ar kansas Wheel, 227 38 6 land policy, 112–13 Ar lington, Texas, 265, 418, 419 constitutional conventions in, origin of name, 20 Arma dillo World Headquarters, 145–4 6, 154, 155, 175–76 population of, 123 399 cultural life in, 3 6 6 secession, 1 0 9 Arme y, Dick, 426 dispute with Robertson, 66 slavery in, 116 Armstrong, Lance, 420 education in, 1 2 6 , 204, 336, society of, 116–26 Armstron g, Louis, 307 421 Spanish legacy, 50–52 Arnsp iger, Herman, 323 endangered species near, 461 transportation in, 114–15 Arre dondo, José Joaquín, 49–50 founding of, 92 anticommunism, 2 7 9 , 335, 342, arrieros, 11 4–15, 120 Germans in, 2 5 7 343, 361–62, 380 Art hur Andersen (accounting growth of, 447–48 Antietam, Battle of, 1 3 6 fi rm), 441 Know-Nothing party in, 128 anti-evolution crusaders, 2 8 0 , arts Ku Klux Klan in, 282 284, 412, 451 in 1960–1986, 398–402 mass transit defeated, 448 anti-groping bill, 453 o f African Americans, 307–8, museums in, 322, 417 anti-labor laws, 336, 341, 351 311 music in, 399–400, 415 anti-lynching laws, 218–19, 316, o f Indians, 3 , 8 newspapers/magazines in, 337, 339 portrayal of cowboys, 183 100, 370, 389, 416 antimiscegenation laws, 123, p rior to World War II, population of, 114 148, 344 322–24 publishing in, 416 anti-nepotism law, 262 in Republic of Texas, 99 racial violence in, 250 anti-New Deal Democrats, 316 state aid to, 450 slavery issue, 61–62 anti-railroad amendments, 262 o f Tejanos, 311 state institutions in, 2 6 6 , 267 Anti-Saloon League, 277 a fter World War II, 365–71 suburbs of, 447–48 anti-subversion laws, 3 4 3 Ashb y, H.S.P. “Stump,” 231 Texas Relays in, 420 antitrust laws, 2 3 4 , 261, 262, Asherton, Texas, 2 5 5 transportation in, 448 277, 351 Asian Americans, 2 1 9 , 221, 407 water issues in, 4 3 3 antitrust movement, 1 7 6 , 229, Asleep at the Wheel, 399 Austin Chroniclee, 4 1 6 261, 280 Assem blies of God, 3 6 3 , 413 Austin City Limits , 4 00 anti-vice act, 2 7 4 Astrodome, 3 9 7 , 398 Austin College, 126, 421 antiviolence labor law, 319 as ylums, 202, 266–67 Aust in County, 257 Apache Gold and Yaqui Silver AT&T Performing Arts Center, Austin Papers (Barker), 321 (Dobie), 321 413, 419 Austin Ragg, 389 Apaches at- large elections, 384 automo bile industry, 348 attacks on other tribes, 1 9 , Austin, Stephen F. automo biles 23, 24, 30 c o lonization of Texas, 56–57 , assembly plants, 348 attacks on settlements, 4 0 , 44 59, 61, 66 decline in sales, 2 8 9 Index 477 effect on churches, 2 8 3 laws regulating, 315 Bay of Espíritu Santo (La effect on farm isolation, 249 national system, 142 Bahía), 23 gasoline/roads for, 240 New Deal programs, 298–99 Beaumont, Texas as major means of reform of system, 227, 259 bl ack migration to, 332 transportation, 448 regulation of, 260, 299, 315 bl ack population, 349 racing, 421 relationship with blacks, 350 in dustrial development of, road maintenance, 2 6 8 , 466 relationship with farmers, 215 state inspection of, 340 227, 409 Ku Klux Klan in, 282 suburbanization enabled by, Sharpstown scandal, 391–93 l abor unions in, 3 5 2 243, 349 B a n ks, Ernie, 3 9 7 lumber mills at, 1 9 2 taxes on, 3 4 8 , 408, 435, 436 Banks , Nathaniel P., 134 oil and petrochemical A utry, Gene, 364 Baptists industries in, 2 3 8 , 242 ayuntamientos, 11, 33, 50, 58, African American members, racial violence in, 250, 332 62, 64 1 63, 218, 252 response to Great Depression, Aztecs, 2 , 13 colleges/universities of, 126, 291 195, 265, 266, 267, 365, Spanis h explorers in area of, B a by Boom, 354, 355, 357, 440, 412, 416, 421 15 466 ethnic groups, 413 Spindletop oil strike near, B a gdad, Mexico, 136–37 fundamentalist takeover, 4 1 2 21 5, 238–39 Baggett, William T., 226 membership, 200, 363 B e c kworth, Lindly, 342 Bailey, Joseph Weldon, 234, 261, percentage of church goers, Bedichek, Roy, 321, 369 280 283, 411 Bell, Chris, 452 Bailey, Joseph W., Jr., 316 teachings of, 125–26 Bell, John, 130 Baker, Cullen Montgomery, Baptist Standardd, 277 Benavides, Santos, 1 3 9 , 220 156 , 164 Bar Association, 282 benevolent societies, 2 1 8 , 256 Baker, James A., III, 423 barbed wire, 182, 191 Benton, Thomas Hart, 322 Baker, Paul, 365 Barbers Hill oilfi eld, 240 Bentsen, Lloyd, Jr., 383, 391, Bakerr v. Carrr, 383 Barbirolli, John, 366 422, 424 Balboa, Vasco Nuñez de, 1 3 Barker, Eugene C., 321 Bering Strait, 1 Bald eagles, 460 Barkley, David Cantú, 274 Berna l, Paulino, 368 Ball , Thomas H., 269 Barnes, Ben, 3 7 9 , 382, 388, Best Little Whorehouse in Texas ballet, 3 6 6 , 398, 413 391–93 (King), 399 Balmaceda, José María, 64, 70 Barnes , Edward Larabee, 402 Better Schools Campaign, 264 Bands of Hope, 209 Barnes/Mutcher proposal, 391 B éxar. See San Antonio de Ban k Deposit Guaranty Act, 262 Barnett Shale, 4 4 3 Béxar; San Fernando de Bankhead Cotton Control Act, Barne y, William, 415 Béxar 303, 315 Barr, Alwyn, 417 Béxar, Department of, 66, 90, banking Barr and Davenport, 47 98–99 acceptance of, 237 barrios , 199, 254, 255, 305 Béxar County, 255 agrarian reforms, 230 b arter system, 68 Bi ble-in-the-Public-Schools in antebellum era, 1 1 3 Bartheleme, Donald, 370 Association, 2 8 4 Bank Deposit Guaranty Act, baseball, 306–7 , 309–10, Bi g Bend, Texas, 172 2 62 396–97, 418 Bi g Bend National Park, 435 black owned, 2 5 1 , 252, 350 basketball, 3 9 7 , 418 Bi g 8 (became Big 12), 421 collapse in mid-1980s, 406, Bass, Perry, 379 Bi ggers, John, 366 408 Bass Performance Hall, 413 Bi g Lake oilfi eld, 240 commissioner of, 260 Bastro p, Baron de, 57 Bi g Spring, Texas, 183 crisis of Great Depression, Batson oilfi eld, 2 4 0 B ig Swing, 246–47, 254–55, 312 289, 290, 299 Battle, W. J., 271 biomedical science, 3 7 5 , 393 effects of housing crisis, 441 battles. See specifi c battle birth control, 3 8 9 funding of oil industry, 348, Baugh, Sammy “Slingin’ ,” 365 birth rate, 4 4 0 394, 408 Baum , Elmer, 391 Bis hop College, 386 Greenbacks’ i deology and, Baylor, John R., 122, 133 b ison. See buffalo (bison) 2 30 Baylor College of Medicine, Black , David, 1 9 6 institution of, 175 462 B lack, Hugo, 339 insured deposits, 262, 291, Baylor University, 126, 265, 365, B lack Belt counties, 184–85 , 299 412, 416, 421 207, 208, 231–32 478 Index black Chinese, 221 Brazos Island, 133, 134, 136 bullet trains, 449 black codes, 148 Brazos Reservation, 121, 122 Bu llington, Orville, 296 Black-Eyed Pea Festival, 421 Brazos River, 57, 62, 65, 67, 69, Bu llock, Bob, 421, 424, 425–26, Blackland Prairie region, 214, 96, 115, 117, 121 436 247–48 b read bonds, 2 9 7 , 313 Bureau of Immigration, 159, Black Like Mee (Griffi n), 370 Brec kenridge, Texas, 239 181 Black Power, 386–87 Brec kenridge oilfi eld, 240 Bureau of Labor Statistics, 262 blacksmiths, 1 9 3 , 194 Brec kinridge, John C., 130, 131 Bureau of Refugees, Freedman, black Texans. See e African Bremon d, Texas, 2 2 0 , 257 and Abandoned Lands. See Americans; enslaved Brewer, J. Mason, 308, 369 Freedmen ’s Bureau people; free blacks; Briscoe, Dolph, 392–93, 394, Bur kburnett oilfi eld, 2 4 0 freedpersons; slavery 436 Bur leson, Albert Sidney, 273 Blakley, William A., 346, 378 Br itain. See England Bur leson, Edward, 74 Blanks, Sid, 3 9 6 Broo ks, James, 366 Burnet , David G., 59, 64, 66, 83, Blanton, Annie Webb, 275 Broo ks Field, 3 3 1 84, 89, 96 Bleeding Kansas, 129 Brot herhood of Timber Bus h, George H. W., 382, 391, blind residents, 2 0 2 , 266, 314 Workers, 2 4 4 394, 423, 424 Blood Meridian (McCarthy), Brown, Gus, 313 election of 1964, 380 4 15 Brown, John, 130 B u s h, George W. bloody peninsula, 186 Brown , Lee, 4 2 7 agreement with Mexico on blue laws, 283 Brown, Milton, 323, 324 water use, 4 35 Board of Insurance Brown , Norman D., 417 appeal to minorities, 426, 427 Commissioners, 344–45 Brownsvi lle, Texas criticism of, 4 1 4 , 416 Board of Water Engineers, 345 b arrio in, 1 9 9 educational reforms, 428–29 Boatwright, Mody, 369 border troubles, 2 6 3 , 270 election of 2000, 406, 432, Bob Bullock Texas History in Civil War, 134–35 441, 450, 459 Museum, 417 mi litary installation in, 250 election of 2004, 452 Bode, Elroy, 370 per capita income in, 349 as governor, 413, 424–26 Bohemian Texans, 221 racia l violence in, 120–21 , opposition to, 450 boll weevil, 2 3 7 , 244, 265 130 proposed tax reforms, 436, Bolton, Herbert E., 321 rai lroads into, 1 9 5 465 boomtowns, 2 3 7 , 241, 294 Te jano majority in, 220 recession during presidency bootleggers, 280–81, 282 UT campus in, 431 of, 4 4 1 Borden, Gail, 92 Brown v. Board of Education of war on terrorism, 452 Border Patrol, 353 Topeka, 344, 360, 455 business border troubles, 55, 104–5, Brownwoo d High School advantages in Texas, 442, 444 126–27, 185, 187, 263, 270 football team, 3 6 4 of African Americans, 2 5 2 , Border Wars of Texas Bro yles, William, Jr., 416 350 (DeShields), 320 Br yan, Texas, 204, 394 associated with farming, 193, Borger oilfi eld, 240, 293 Br yan, William Jennings, 233 194, 214, 229, 296, 303, Bosque County, 112, 257 Br yant, D.W., 163 352–53 Bourbon Reforms, 43–45 , Bucare li, 4 4 businessmen’ s clubs, 2 5 9 48–49 Buc hanan, James P., 298 business progressivism, 280, Bowie, James, 62, 77 Bu ddhist temples, 413 285 Bowie County, 156 Buena Vista, Battle of, 1 0 7 center in Dallas, 242 Bowles, Chief, 96–97 Buen ger, Walter L., 417 failures, 289 boxing, 307, 310, 365, 420 buffalo (bison), 5, 7, 8, 9, 19, farming as, 265–66, 352–53 Boyd, Jesse, 215 40, 41, 170, 211 oil offi ces in Houston, 242 Bracero program, 353 Bu ffalo Bayou, 198 wages and profi ts, 289 Brackenridge, Tillie, 253 Bu ffalo Bayou, Brazos & women in, 390 Bracketville, Texas, 1 2 1 , 165 Colorado Railway See also corporate taxes; Bradburn, Juan Davis, 63 Company, 115 franchise tax Brammer, Billy Lee, 370 Bu ffalo Bayou Ship Channel Business and Professional Brazoria, Texas, 6 3 , 91 Company, 198 Women ’s Club, 3 9 0 Brazoria County, 115, 185 Bu ffalo Hump, 42 b usinessmen’ s clubs, 259 Brazos, Department of, 65–66 buffalo soldiers, 161–62 b usiness progressivism, 280, Brazos County, 154, 257 Bu gbee, Thomas Sherman, 183 285 Index 479 Butte, George C., 284 Carter, John, 401 Centra lists, 5 8 , 62–64, 66, Butterfi eld Overland Mail C art War, 120 72–75, 76, 77, 105–6 Company, 114 Cartwri ght, Gary, 370, 416 Central Texas B yrd, James, 427 C asa Mañana, 3 6 6 a i d to runaway slaves, 94 B ywaters, Jerry, 365 Casas, Juan Bautista de las, 49 banishment of Mexicans, 120 Castañe da, Carlos E., 358, 368 demographics of, 214, 219, C a beza de Vaca, Alvar Núñez, Castañe da, Francisco de, 73 220 13–14, 16 Castile, 11 farmin g in, 113, 244–45, 247, c a ddí, 6 – 7 Castroville, Texas, 90 255, 304 Caddos Castro, Henri, 90–91 Indian groups in, 9 decimation of, 71 Catholic Church Ku Klux Klan in, 281 displacement of, 96 in 1990s, 411 o bjections to Civil War, 132, life style of, 5, 6–7 in antebellum era, 126 138 relationship with Spaniards, colleges and universities of, oil in, 2 4 0 , 443 20 –21, 22–23, 41 12 6 ranc hing in, 172, 183, 191 reservation lands of, 121 Know-Nothings’ view of, 128 Reconstruction in, 155 territory of, 39 in Mexican Texas, 5 6 , 58, 62, sett lers in, 9 1 , 108, 112, 182, trade network of, 9, 19, 32, 68, 70–71, 72 219, 220, 221 40, 41 in New Spain, 16–17, 28–30, Texas war for independence C a ge, Ben Jack, 345 34, 38–39, 40, 45–46 in, 4 9 Caldwell, Kansas, 1 7 1 opposition to abortion, 390 win d turbines in, 4 6 1 Calhoun, John C., 104 percentage of church goers, See also B lackland Prairie California, 1 0 5 , 106, 107, 126, 2 83 region 127 in Progressive era, 283 c hain stores, 3 1 3 , 350 Callas, Maria, 366 in Republic of Texas, 84 C hambers of Commerce, 282 Calvert, Texas, 221 in Spain, 11, 17 charitable institutions, 266–67, Calvillo, Ana María del Carmen, in Spanish Texas, 28–30, 275, 336, 343, 346. See also 38 38–40, 50 asylums; hospitals Camino Reall, 35 after World War II, 3 6 3 c harter-school program, 428–29 Cam pbell, Earl, 396, 421 See also m issions C hattanooga, Battle of, 134 Campbell, Randolph B., 417 cattle Cherokees , 3 , 72, 87, 94, 96–97, Cam pbell, Thomas M., 261–63, AAA purchase of, 304 101 266 Cattle Kingdom, 170–72, C hicano Literary Renaissance, Cam p Bowie, 274 182–83, 198 4 03 Camp Logan, 274 effects of Great Depression, C hicano Movement, 388–89, 403 Camp McArthur, 274 29 5 Chichimecas, 16 campo santo , 28 federal restrictions, 3 0 3 C hickasaws, 3 Camp Travis, 274 feeding industry, 393 C hief Bowles, 7 2 Cam p Wolters, 330 in late 1800s, 213 C hihuahuita, 1 9 9 Canales, J.T., 270–71, 358 in late 1900s to date, 4 0 9 c hild labor laws, 1 4 8 , 223, 244, Canar y Islanders, 23, 34, 35, 36, in Mexican Texas, 70 260, 262, 275 37 in post-World War II era, 352 c hildren Canton , Texas, 4 2 1 ranching in Spain, 11 c hild care for, 390 Capital Boycott, 197 replaced by cotton, 195 during Civil War, 137 ca pitalists, 62 in Republic of Texas, 95 econom ic status, 4 0 7 Capital MetroRail, 448 rustling of, 40, 42, 134, 164, eradication of childhood ca pital punishment, 318, 432 172, 185–86, 187 diseases, 354 Capito l Syndicate, 197 in South Texas, 1 9 5 f ederal assistance programs, Capps, Benjamin, 370 in Spanish Texas, 30–32, 387 , 461–62 car bon black plant, 240 47–48 health care for, 3 6 2 , 380, 387, Carlos III (King of Spain), 43 Texas Fever, 1 7 1 , 182 452, 453, 462–64 Car penters Local No. 7, 116 unbranded mavericks, increasin g number of, 439, carpet baggers, 147, 149–50, 155, 1 85–86 440 159 during World War II, 333 Indian abduction of, 165 C arr, Waggoner, 378, 388 See also ranching leisure activities, 2 4 9 carrera de gallo , 3 4 censorship, 361, 362 Neighborhood Youth Corps, Carswe ll Field, 3 3 1 centennial celebration, 3 1 5 , 366 380 480 Index children (cont’d) m igration into, 214, 251–52, fi nancing of, 136–37 population of, 406 281, 306, 315, 329, 332 politics during, 137 reforms concerning, 224 oil boomtowns, 237, 241, 294 protection of Texan frontier, Social Security payments, in progressive era, 237, 281 133, 134, 143, 164–66 31 4 quarre ling over legislative public support for, 131–32 state assistance programs, priorities, 353 recruitment/supply of troops, 4 61–62 relief for depression victims, 137 welfare programs, 387, 461 291 Texans on Confederate front, in workforce, 1 3 7 , 148, 216, in Republic of Texas, 108 135–37 243–44, 245, 260, 275, 304, se gregation of, 250 Texas front, 132–35 313 suburbanization, 3 4 9 Union money supply, 208 See also e ducation trans portation in/between, women’ s role in, 1 4 3 Children ’s Health Insurance 448–49 Civil Works Administration Program (CHIP), 452, water issues in, 433–34 (CWA), 301, 311 462–63 See also towns; s pecifi c city C lark, Edward, 132 Chinese Texans, 2 1 9 , 221 Cities of the Plain (McCarthy), C lark, George, 231, 232 Chipman, Donald L., 416 415 C lark, Guy, 399 Chisholm, Jesse, 171 Citizen’ s Advisory Commission, C lark, Tom, 341 Chisholm Trail, 1 7 1 268 C larke, Edward Young, 281 Chisum, John, 172–73 Citizen’ s Charter Association, C larkson, Kelly, 414 Choctaws, 3 384 C larksville, Texas, 91 cholera, 3 5 , 161, 162 citrus industry, 244, 393 C lay, Henry, 126–27 Christian Coalition, 4 1 3 , 450 cit y beautifi cation movements, C lean Air Act, 4 3 5 Christian Crusadee, 363 243, 275 C lean Water Act, 4 3 5 Christianity, 119 Civilian Conservation Corps C leburne, Texas, 226 churches. See religion/churches; (CCC), 301–2 C leburne Demands, 2 2 6 , 227 specifi c denominations civi lian settlements, 17–18 , 19, C lements, Bill, 3 7 5 , 394–95, Churches of Christ, 411 23–24, 28, 33–35, 44 421, 422, 423, 430, 436 Cíbola, Seven Cities of, 14–15 civi l rights C leveland, Grover, 2 2 6 Cinco de Mayo, 310 o f African Americans, 1 4 2 , C linton, Bill, 4 1 0 , 424 Cisneros, Henry, 418, 426 144, 145, 146, 148, 151–52, Coa huila, 2 3 , 32 . See also Cisneros, José, 365 155, 332, 358–61 Coahuila y Tejas (Coahuila cities Democrats ’ position on, 342, and Texas) African Americans in, 376 Coa huila y Tejas (Coahuila and 2 51–52 o f ex-Confederates, 144 Texas), 58, 61–62, 64–65, in antebellum era, 113–14 progressive reforms, 280 72, 89, 470–71 barrios in, 1 9 9 , 254, 255 o f Tejanos, 254, 255, 309, Coa huiltecans, 4 – 5 , 38–40, 71 changes in new millennium, 358, 387–89 coal, 194–95, 238, 289 44 6–50 o f women, 38, 51, 70, Coa lville, Texas, 194 development of during World 123–24, 176, 221, 223, 275, code of conduct, 3 4 6 War I, 2 8 0 389–90 Co ke, Richard, 1 4 7 , 173–75, 206 in early 1900s, 214–15, See also segregation; voting Co ke County, 121, 165 251–52, 255 rights Co ld War, 3 2 8 , 347, 361–62, entertainment in. Seee leisure Civi l Rights Act (1957), 342, 347 385, 393 activities; museums; music; Civil Rights Act (1964), 380, Co leman, Ornette, 3 6 7 , 401 sports; theater 386, 389 Co leman, Texas, 172 environmental issues, 435 civi l rights movements, 256–57, Co leto Creek, Battle of, 78–79 established by railroads, 182, 357–62, 376, 380, 382, Collected Stories (Porter), 370 183, 187–90 385–90 collective bargaining, 195, 217, foreign-born Texans in, 257 civi l rights organizations, 256 300 ghettos in, 250, 383 civi l-service law, 2 8 5 Co llege for Industrial Arts for growth of, 213, 214–15, Civil War Women, 2 6 5 241–42, 348, 349 a ftermath of, 142–50 colleges and universities industrialization in, 331–32 casualties of, 1 3 5 , 143 affi rmative action, 389–90 , Ku Klux Klan in, 282 causes of, 131–32 430–31 in late 1800s, 1 8 1 , 197–99 dissent in Texas, 137–39 for African Americans, 3 3 6 , life of blacks in, 251–52 end of, 1 3 9 339 Index 481 church established, 1 2 6 , 265, Spanish policy toward, 44, 46 Conservative Unionists, 145 412. See also specifi c territory of, 24, 39 C onsolidated Vultee Aircraft institution treaty with U.S., 134 strike, 335 demographics of, 429–30 warfare of, 164–65 constitutiona l congress, 56–58 demonstrations against Commerce , Texas, 164–65 constitutiona l conventions, segregation, 386 commission plan of city 145–4 6, 153, 154, 155, expansion of, 357 government, 242–43, 262 175–76 funding for, 125, 204–5, 270, Committee of 1,000, 291 Constitutional Democrats of 339, 345, 356, 393, 431, Commo dity Credit Texas, 3 1 6 453, 455–56 Administration, 303–4 Constitutiona l Union party, 130 growth of, 429–31 common schools, 2 6 3 , 264, 356 Constitution of 1812 (Spain), history courses/writings, Commonwealth party, 226 54 , 58 35–36, 125, 368–69, 416–17 communication, 35 Constitution of 1824 (Mexico), impact of veterans, 356–57 communications industry, 181, 5 8, 72, 74, 75 improvements, 379 198, 243, 349, 354 Constitutions (Texas) integration of, 335, 336, Communication Workers of o f 1836, 83, 84, 87, 94, 96, 98 359–60, 396 America, 3 5 1 o f 1845, 104, 118, 124, 175–76 junior colleges established, commun ism. S ee of 1861, 132 2 65 anticommunism; o f 1866, 144–45, 146, 147 land set aside for, 8 9 , 204 McCarthyism; Red Scare o f 1869, 147, 155, 156, 159, in late 1800s, 204–5 Communist Party, 343 160, 173–74, 175 music programs, 366 Communit y Chest, 291 o f 1876, 175–78, 190, 203, political confl ict over, 361–62 communit y colleges, 357, 429, 229, 266, 268 in post-World War II era, 336 430 constitutions of southern states, Progressive reforms, 265–66 compan y towns, 182 , 183, 177 PWA’ s projects, 300 187–90, 216, 260 Consultation of 1835, 74, 84 sports at, 4 21 C ompaq Computer, 409 consumer culture, 362 tuition rates, 4 5 6 Com promise of 1850, 126–27 contract labor law, 1 4 8 for women, 2 2 3 , 265 Conc ho Valley, 172 convention of 1832, 64 C o llege Station, Texas, 265 Con federate States of America, convention of 1833, 64 Collin County, 447 132–39, 142–43. S ee also convention of 1836, 83 colo nization. See empresario Civil War convict leasing, 197, 202–3, 208, system; immigration Con gressional Reconstruction, 231, 266 Co lorado River, 6 7 , 69, 115, 117 1 47, 150–58 Coo dy, Charles, 398 Co lored Alliance, 226 Con gress of Industrial Coo ke County, 139 Colored Farmers’ Union, 248 Organizations (CIO), 300, cooperative marketing C olored Teachers State 316, 343 associations, 2 8 0 , 303 Association (CTSA), 253, Con gress of Mothers, 276 Cópano Bay, 73 264 Con gress of Racial Equality Cór dova, Vicente, 1 0 1 Co lquitt, Oscar Branch, 261–63, (CORE), 386 Corona do, Francisco Vásquez 266, 285 conjunto, 3 1 0 , 368, 414 de, 14–15 Co lumbus, Christopher, 12–13 Conjunto Alamo , 310 Coronado’ s Children (Dobie), Co lumbus, Texas, 91 Conna lly, John, 339, 378–80, 321 Comal County, 138 381, 384, 388, 393 corporate taxes, 260, 262, 297, Comanc he County, 113 Conna lly, Tom, 285, 298, 316, 455, 465. See also franchise Comanche moon, 1 6 6 320, 328 tax Comanc he Reserve, 1 2 1 , 122 Conna lly Act, 295 Cor pus Christi, Texas Comanches conquistadores, 11, 12–15 air base in, 3 3 1 area of domination, 1 6 5 , 166 conservation, 2 1 6 , 267, 301, bar ge traffi c in, 242 attacks on settlements, 3 4 , 334, 345 barrio in, 1 9 9 41–43, 44, 45, 46, 55–56, conservative Democrats, education in, 431 71, 97–98, 121, 122, 123, 145–4 6, 147, 173–75, i mmigrants in, 220 130, 133 205–6, 231, 376–78, mi grant workers passing during Civil War, 133, 134 382–85, 394, 406 through, 255 Mexican policy toward, 76 conservative Republicans, 142, rai lroads into, 1 9 5 migration of, 7–8, 9–10 450–51, 453–66 . See also vi gilante activity in, 185 reservation lands of, 121 Republican party wi ldlife refuge near, 460 482 Index Corrida de la Sandía, 5 1 restrictions on production, Cross Timbers, 113, 170–73, corridos, 34, 310, 368 303 192, 200, 208, 225, 257 corruption revenue from, 201 Crow, John David, 365 accusations against railroads, in state of Texas, 111 Cruz, Ted, 453–54 1 60, 190 d uring World War II, 332 Cruz Azull, 2 5 6 of Bailey, 261 See also farming; slavery Crystal City, Texas, 388, 389 of Cage, 345 Cotton Belt Railroad, 238 Cuero Recordd, 3 4 5 of DeLay, 451 cotton gins/presses, 193, 194 Cu lberson, Charles A., 232–33, of Fergusons’ a dministrations, cottonsee d mills, 1 9 4 , 214 234, 235, 285 66, 269, 270, 271–72, 296, Cotton Stabilization Cu lberson, David B., 234 297 Corporation, 295 Cu llinan, Joseph S., 238, 239, of Land Commission, 345 Counci l House Fight, 97–98 282, 316 of Mutscher, 3 9 2 counci l-manager form of cu ltural life Progressive reforms, 238 government, 243 in 1960–1986, 398–404 reforms, 2 3 8 countercu lture, 3 8 0 in 1990s, 413–17 in Spanish Texas, 43 count y music. See e music diversity in New World Truman’ s administration ’s Courtri ght, Jim, 164 cultures, 1–3 response to, 3 41 Cous hattas, 123 after World War II, 365–71 See also e lections: fraud/ cow boys. See cattle; horse and See also arts; literature; music; intimidation in gun culture; ranching; theater Corsicana, Texas, 238, 241, 267 vaqueros C u lver, Charles E., 155 Cortes (parliament), 49, 54 Cow boys Stadium, 419 Cune y, Norris Wright, 196, 207, Cortés, Hernán, 1 3 Cow boy Strike, 196–97 231 Cortez, Gregorio, 310 Cowtown , Texas, 2 1 4 Cune y-Hare, Maud, 308 Cortina, Juan Nepomuceno, Cox, Jack, 346, 379 Cunnin gham, Minnie Fisher, 120–21, 130, 138 Craddick, Tom, 4 5 1 , 452, 453 2 71, 275 Cortina War, 120–21 , 130 Craft, Juanita, 306 Currie, Ralph, 340 Coryell County, 257 cra ft unions, 2 1 7 c ycling, 420 Cós, Martín Perfecto de, 7 2 , C rane, M. M., 261 Czec hs, 2 2 0 , 257, 363 73–74 Cranfi ll, J.B., 209 Cotner, Robert C., 369 Crawford, Max, 370 D a hl, George L., 322 Cotten, Godwin Brown, 68 Creek Indians, 3 Daily Texan, 3 61 cotton Crenshaw, Ben, 3 9 8 , 419 Dain gerfi eld, Texas, 331 in antebellum Texas, 1 1 3 , 118 c rime Da lhart, Vernon, 323 boll weevil infestation, decrease in, 432 Dallas (television series), 401, 2 44–45 James Byrd Hate-Crimes Act, 402 during Civil War, 137, 143 427 Da llas, Texas effects of Great Depression, Ku Klux Klan and, 282 air pollution in, 435 295–9 6 in late 1800s, 184–87 airport in, 348 exporting of, 67, 91, 92, 113, during Prohibition, 280–81 in antebellum era, 114 198, 215 d uring Reconstruction, 160 anticommunism in, 361 German farmers, 2 5 7 in Spanish Texas towns, 34 assassination of Kennedy, in late 1800s, 2 1 3 , 214 state policy toward, 457 375, 379, 380 in late 1900s, 409 See also lynching; violence banking for oil industry, 348 mechanization of, 3 5 2 crimina l justice system, 387, black population, 349 in Mexican Texas, 6 2 , 70, 76 427, 431–32, 457–58. See Cherokees near, 72 migrant laborers, 254–55 also prisons commission plan adopted, New Deal, 303–5 criollos, 3 6, 49 . S ee also mestizaje 2 43 percent grown by state, 246 Crittenden, John, 320 cost-of-living in, 349 predominance of, 201 Crockett, Davy, 77, 78, 100, cultural life in, 3 0 8 , 323, 365, prices, 201, 214, 245, 248, 211 366, 398, 399, 402, 413, 415 251, 280, 409 Croix, Teodoro de, 44–45 defense industry in, 331 in Progressive era, 237 Cronkite, Walter, 4 1 6 economy of, 198 related industries, 1 9 3 , 194, Cross , Ruth, 3 2 1 education in, 4 2 9 , 455 215, 243, 296 cross- fi ling candidates, 341–42 electrifi cation of, 2 4 3 in Republic of Texas, 91–92, Cross-State Air Pollution rule, as fi nancial/business center, 93–94 459 242 Index 483 founded, 90 Davi dson, Robert V., 261 fl ight of conservatives, 406 government of, 243 Davis, Edmund J. f ollowing Reconstruction, horseracing in, 421 administration of, 158–60 181 industry in, 214 death of, 2 0 7 Gran ge members of, 225 integration of schools, 361 election of 1869, 156–58 d uring Great Depression, Ku Klux Klan in, 2 8 2 election of 1873, 173 290 , 296–97, 315–17 . See labor unions in, 3 5 2 election of 1880, 208 also New Deal migration into, 378 ideology of, 147, 154–55 in late 1800s, 205–10, 213, modern amenities in, 2 4 3 organization of state police, 231–33 newspapers in, 416 1 64 in late 1900s, 422–24 oil industry offi ces in, 295 parole of Indians, 167 in mid-1900s, 333–35 politics in, 380, 384, 427 relationship with African in new millennium, 4 3 9 , 466 population of, 198, 242, 349, Americans, 163 Populist Party compared to, 447 Davis, James H. “Cyclone,” 231 230 railroads at, 198 Davis, Jefferson, 137 in post-World War II era, relief for depression victims, Davis Mountains, 1 7 2 33 5–47 291 Dawes , S. O., 226 in Progressive Era, 284–85 Republican clubs in, 378 Dawes Formula, 226 progressivism of, 258–59 segregation in, 250 d aycare centers, 390 prohibitionists and, 209–10 sports in, 396, 397, 418, 419, Day the Cowboys Quit, The during Reconstruction, 142, 421 (Kelton), 403 145, 146, 148–49, 150, 154, suburbs of, 3 7 8 , 448 deaf, schools for the, 2 0 2 , 266 156, 160, 164, 173 suspicious fi res in, 119 Dealey, Samuel, 329 rejection of Subtreasury Plan, Tejano population in, 448 death penalty. S ee capital 230 television stations in, 354 punishment response to agrarians’ needs, transportation in, 448 Decatur College, 265 22 7–29 D a llas Area Rapid Transit Declaration of Independence returns to power after (DART), 448 (Texas), 81, 83 Reconstruction, 173–75 Da llas Chaparrals, 397 Deep South, 111, 127, 128, 131, secession crisis, 131–32 Da llas Civic Opera, 366 182, 214 S harpstown scandal, 391–93 Dallas Cowboys, 396, 418, 419 defense industry, 319, 328, 331, white supremacy, 249 . See Dallas Express , 308 334, 347–48, 393, 409, 441 also white supremacy Da llas-Fort Worth, 2 1 4 , 257, De laware people, 72 during World War II, 281, 331, 444, 448, 449, 459 DeLay, Tom, 426, 449, 451 333–35 Da llas-Fort Worth-Arlington De León, Alonso, 20–21 , 30 See also e lections; specifi c metropolitan area, 446 De León, Arnoldo, 417 governor or politician D allas-Fort Worth International De León, Martín, 5 9 , 69, 70 Democrats of Texas (DOT), Airport, 449 Delgado v. Bastrop Independent 346 , 376 Da llas Mavericks, 3 9 7 , 418, 419 School Districct, 358 demographics Dallas Morning News , 1 9 6, 226, De ll Computer, 409 i n 1850, 111, 112 282, 436 Del Mar Junior College, 359 in 1870, 160 Da llas Museum of Fine Arts, Del Rio Independent School i n 1940–1960, 329, 349–51 4 02 Districtt v. Salvatierra, 309 in 1960–1986, 393 Dallas Nine, 3 2 2 , 365 Demaret, Jimmy, 365 of African Americans, 1 1 6 , Dallas Observerr, 4 1 6 Democrat ic Party 118, 142, 143, 148, 207, Dallas Opera, 398, 413 in 1960–1986, 375, 376–82 251, 306, 328, 329, 407 Da llas Stars, 4 1 9 agrarian reform movements o f antebellum Texas, 113–14 Da llas Symphony Orchestra, and, 224–34 in early 1900s, 237, 241–42 366 , 413 in antebellum era, 127–29 of foreign-born Texans, 257 Da llas Texans, 396 challengers to, 207–10, 226 o f German Texans, 2 7 9 Dallas Theater Center, 3 6 5 , 399, in early 1900s, 238 of growth with railroads, 188 413 effects of reapportionment, Indians, 7 1 dams, 3 4 6 , 458 383 –84 in late 1800s, 181–82 , Daniel, Price, 3 4 1 , 342, 344–47, election of 1860, 130–31 197–98, 202, 214 379 election of 1926/1928, 284–85 in late 1900s, 4 0 6 , 407 Darne ll, Linda, 364 factions within, 213–14 , in Mexican Texas, 6 9 Darwinism , 2 8 0 , 284, 412, 451 231–32, 285 in mid-1900s, 328 484 Index demographics (cont’d) Disciples of Christ, 363 East Texas in new millennium, 439–40, d iscrimination. See racism; Anglo settlers, 59–60, 67–68 444, 446–47, 458, 466 segregation as buffer zone, 22 of New Spain, 27 d isease earthquakes in, 460 in pre-Columbian period, o f cattle, 1 7 0 , 171, 182 economy of, 444 1–2 eradication of childhood education in, 6 8 , 264, 421 of public schools, 455 diseases, 354 farming in, 32, 67–68, 237, of Republic of Texas, 90–91, o f people, 27, 35, 40, 46, 71, 244–45, 248, 295, 333. See 108 161, 162, 169 also plantations of slaves, 9 4 disfranchisement French incursion, 23 of Spanish Texas, 33, 35, 50 o f African Americans, 1 4 6 , Indian groups in, 3, 7, 19, 20, of Tejanos, 119, 219, 254, 176, 233, 237, 249–50, 260 71–72, 94, 96–97 308–9, 329, 406, 407, 440 o f ex-Confederates, 1 4 4 , 151, iron smelting in, 195 of towns in Spanish Texas, 33 154 land speculation, 73 women in, 395 o f poor whites, 176, 233, 260 lumber industry in, 68, 161, See also immigration; o f Tejanos, 254, 255 192, 215–16, 244, 268, 331 migration; s pecifi c cities See also all-white primaries; military forts, 43 Denison, Texas, 170, 188, 280 poll tax; Voting Rights Act New Deal programs, 306 departamento, 5 8 (1965) oil boom in, 293–95 Department of Agriculture, 262 district courts, 8 6 , 163 politics of, 128, 207, 208, 213, Department of Corrections, d ivorce, 70, 123, 124, 355 . See 281, 283, 296, 306, 319, 339 . See also prisons also marriage 337, 338, 422, 426 Department of Criminal Justice Dixie Chicks, 4 1 4 poverty in, 444 (TDCJ), 432 D ixiecrats, 337 racism in, 184–85 , 218, 281, Department of Forestry, 268, D Magazinee, 4 1 6 283 270 Dobie, J. Frank, 321, 369 redistribution of settlers, 44 Department of Health, 280 d octrine of interposition, 344 roads in, 3 5 Department of Juvenile Justice, Dodge City, Kansas, 172 settlements in, 3 3 , 44 4 58 Dohoney, E. L., 210 slavery in, 37, 67, 69, 94, 118, Department of Public Safety Domin go, Plácido , 3 6 6 148. See also enslaved (DPS), 313 Donaldson, Sam, 4 1 6 people; slavery Department of Texas, 58 Dorati , Antal, 3 6 6 Spanish incursion, 19–21 Department of Water Resources, Dos de Mayo , 4 9 trade in, 3 2 , 40, 41 . S ee also 4 35 Dos Passos, John, 361 Caddos depression of 1837, 90 Douglas, Stephen A., 130 U.S. encroachment, 55 depression of 1870s, 176 Dove Creek massacre, 134 War of Independence in, 79 depression of 1890s, 213, 214, Dowling, Richard W., 134 East Texas Historical Journall, 227, 234 Dra ke, Sir Francis, 18 3 69 Desdemona, Texas, 240 Drex ler, Clyde, 397, 398 East Texas Normal School, 264 desegregation. S ee integration drop the crop plans, 295–96 East Texas State University, 421 DeShields, James T., 320 d roughts, 304, 345, 352, 409, E bey, George W., 362 de Soto, Hernando, 15 410, 445, 446, 459 economic development, 187–90 . Dewey, Thomas A., 334, 337 d ry goods stores, 193 See also defense industry; Dewhurst, David, 454 d ueling, 95 farming; industrialization; DeWitt, Green, 5 9 , 61, 67 Dugger, Ronnie, 346, 370 industry; oil industry; DeWitt County, 164 Dukakis, Michael S., 422 petrochemical industry Díaz, Porfi rio, 1 8 5 , 263, 310, Dutch immigrants, 16, 18, 101, econom y 311 220–21 in 1960–1986, 376, 393–94 Dickinson, Susannah, 78 Duwali (Chief Bowles), 72, of antebellum Texas, 112–15 Dies, Martin, 2 9 8 , 317, 319, 96–97 depressions of 1873, 1893, 196 334, 346, 351, 361 diversifi cation of, 4 0 6 , 408–9 Diez y Seis de Septiembree, 4 9, E a gle Ford Shale, 443 in early 1900s, 237, 263 310 E a gle Pass, Texas, 121, 133, 165, effect of New Deal programs, Dilday, Russell, 412 168 304 dime novels, 183 Ea gles (musicians), 401 effects of World War II, 2 9 8 , Dirty Thirty, 392 eart hquakes, 460 328, 331–32 disabled residents, 314 East land County, 113 following Civil War, 143 Index 485 during Great Depression, 341, 345, 356, 391, 428, E dwards Underground Water 289 –90, 314, 319 429, 431, 444, 451–52, 453, District, 4 3 3 in Great Recession, 439, 441 455, 466 E ggars, Paul, 382, 383, 391 in late 1800s, 1 9 3 , 202, 208, of German immigrants, 198 Ei ghteenth Amendment (U.S. 213, 214–17 Gilmer-Aikin laws, 355–56 Constitution), 273, 277. in new millennium, 441–46 , Greenback Party ’s demands, See also prohibition 466 208 Eisen hower, Dwight David, 329, oil bust of 1980s, 436 Head Start program, 358, 380 339, 341–42, 344, 345, 378 recession of mid-1980s, 4 0 6 , increasing number of e lderly residents 407–9 children, 439 health care for, 3 6 2 , 380 during Reconstruction, 176, integration of schools, 342, increasin g number of, 406, 181 344, 349, 357, 358–61, 396 439, 440, 466 of Republic of Texas, 85–86, land set aside for, 193, 216 pensions for, 303, 313, 314, 87, 88–90, 101, 103, 108 in late 1800s, 1 8 1 , 202, 203–5 318, 319, 339 during World War I, 274 Mark White reforms, 423 Socia l Security Act, 303, 314, during World War II, 334 in Mexican Texas, 6 8 , 70 315, 319 Ector County, 347 New Deal programs, 300, 301 elections Edgewood ISD v. Kirbyy, 4 29 no-pass, no-play rule, 428 of 1836, 83, 84 e ducation in post-World War II era, o f 1838, 87 affi rmative action, 430 336–37 , 355–62 o f 1841, 89 of African Americans, 1 4 6 , reforms, 2 2 9 , 263–66, 270, o f 1844, 90 155, 157, 163, 203, 205, 275, 280, 283, 355–56, 395, o f 1856, 128 231, 253–54, 336, 356, 427–29 o f 1859, 129, 130 358–61, 430 in Republic of Texas, 89, 93, o f 1860, 130–31 for agriculture, 175, 204, 229, 99–100 o f 1866, 145–46 249 revision of curriculum, 346 of 1868, 153, 154 in antebellum era, 124–25 , school voucher bill, 4 5 2 o f 1869, 156–58 126 segregation of schools, 176, o f 1871/1872, 160, 173–74 anticommunist sentiments, 203, 253–54, 309 o f 1873, 173–74 36 1–62 South Texas Initiative, 4 3 1 o f 1890s, 2 2 9 , 231–33 anti-evolution campaigns, in Spanish Texas, 34–35 of 1906, 261 280, 284, 412, 451 special education, 455 o f 1910, 262, 266, 277 for blind and deaf, 2 0 2 sports in schools, 364 o f 1912, 273 charter-school program, standardize testing, 428–29, o f 1914, 269 4 28–29 455 in 1918, 269, 272 church established schools, under Stevenson, 333 of 1919, 280 12 6, 265, 412 teachers’ unions, 2 6 4 o f 1922, 283 compulsory attendance law, of Tejanos, 70, 254, 256, 309, o f 1924, 283, 284 244 , 264 357, 389, 429, 430 o f 1926, 285 consolidation of schools, textbooks, 2 6 4 , 283, 284 o f 1928, 285 263–64 , 356 upgrading under Connally, of 1930, 292 constitutional requirements, 3 79 o f 1932, 290, 296, 303 1 55, 175, 177, 203 for veterans, 3 5 6 o f 1934, 297–98, 313 crisis in new millennium, for women, 2 2 3 , 429–30 of 1936, 299, 314, 315–16 454–55 women as teachers, 223 o f 1938/1940, 317–18, 334 under Davis, 1 5 8 , 160 women ’ s campaign for of 1941, 319–20 effects of Great Depression, reforms, 2 2 3 , 224 o f 1942/1944, 320, 333, 334 291, 309 during World War I, 280 o f 1946, 335 expansion of government role after World War II, 355–62 in 1948, 320, 337–39 in, 356–57 See also colleges and o f 1950, 340 following Reconstruction, universities; specifi c college of 1952, 341 181 or university o f 1954, 342–44 by Freedmen’ s Bureau, 150, E ducation Act of 1972, 389 o f 1956, 345–46 155, 162–63 Edwards, Benjamin, 61 of 1958, 387 funding for, 125, 159, 160, E dwards, Haden, 5 9 , 61 o f 1960, 346, 375–78, 387 177, 190, 203, 204, 205, E dwards Aquifer, 433, 461 o f 1962, 378–79 231, 263, 264, 271, 340, E dwards Plateau, 1 8 4 o f 1964/1966, 378, 379, 380 486 Index elections (cont’d) population of, 242 En lightenment, The, 43, 45, 48, of 1968, 381–83 rai lroads into, 183, 188 54 of 1970, 382, 391 refugees from Mexican Enron scandal, 441 of 1972, 378, 389, 392 Revolution in, 255 enslaved people of 1974, 393 sme lting/mining in, 242 in antebellum era, 118–19 of 1978, 394 stri kes in, 255 during Civil War, 138, 143 of 1982, 390, 395, 422 Te jano majority in, 119, 219, emancipation of, 142, 143, of 1986, 395, 422–24 220, 221 146, 148, 218 of 1988, 422–23 E l Paso County, 220, 221 escape into Mexico, 94, 119, of 1989, 394 E l Paso Electric Street Car 126 of 1990s, 231–33 , 423–25, Company, 255 population of, 118 426 E l Paso settlement (Juárez), 19 in Republic of Texas, 94 of 1998, 406, 425, 426, 437 El Paso Times , 282 in Spanish Texas, 36 of 2000, 229, 426, 459 E l Paso Valley, 185 Enstam , Elizabeth York, 4 1 7 of 2002, 426, 450, 451 El Primer Congreso Mexicanista , entertainment of 2004, 452 256 in 1960–1986, 398–404 of 2006, 451–52 E ly, Joe, 400 in black communities, 2 1 8 in 2010, 453 E lyan sawmill, 217 in rural areas, 354 of 2012, 453–54 Emanc ipation Day, 143, 218 See also leisure activities; all-white primaries, 233, Emer ging Technology Fund, 456 literature; movies; music; 249–50, 306, 334, 335, 359 Emor y, Texas, 248 sports; theater at-large elections, 384 employment environmenta l issues, 2 3 8 , 241, ballots, 2 0 7 , 208, 230, 231 in 1950s, 347–48 435, 437, 459–60. See also cross-fi ling candidates, in aerospace industry, 393 pollution; water 341–42 for African Americans, 1 6 1 , environmenta l protection federal control of state codes, 252, 311–12, 350–51 conservation efforts, 3 4 5 384 in agriculture, 237, 246–47 of endangered species, 460–61 fraud/intimidation in, 2 0 5 , in cities, 243 factory emission control, 459 207–8, 232, 233, 260, 296 create d in diversifi ed federal legislation, 435 of late 1800s, 206–9 economy, 4 08–9 New Deal programs, 301, 303 in late 1800s, 210 during Great Depression, 289 pesticide regulation, 395 minimum-age requirement, in healthcare industry, 462 proration of oil production, 391 in industry, 193 293 poll tax drives, 309, 335, 358 in lumber industry, 216 reforestation, 267–68 reforms, 207, 233, 259–60 in manufacturing, 347 soil conservation, 334 of Senators, 208 New Deal programs, 300–301 water control, 434 Terrell laws, 233 in oil industry, 241, 347, 393, Envir onmental Protection See also poll tax 408 Agency (EPA), 459 Electra oilfi eld, 240 opportunities following E piscopal Church, 125–26, 218, electrifi cation, 243 World War I, 2 8 0 363 eleemosynary institutions. See on railroads, 188 Equal Educational Opportunity charitable institutions f or Tejanos, 254–55, 312–13, Plans for Higher Ellis, O. B., 339 350–51 Education, 4 3 0 Ellis County, 214 in tourism, 449–50 Equal Rights Amendment Ellsworth, Kansas, 172 f or women, 2 2 1 , 223, 243, (ERA), 390 Elm Creek, 134 311–12, 350–51 Erat h County, 113, 194, 196, El Paso, Texas during World War II, 328, 332 214, 220 barrio in, 1 9 9 , 255 empresar io system Escan dón, José de, 24, 31 in Civil War, 133 i n Mexican Texas, 5 7 , 58–59, Esc henbach, Christoph, 413 as commercial hub, 2 4 2 60, 61, 66, 71 escuelitas , 2 5 6 commission plan adopted, in Republic of Texas, 89, españoles, 35–3 6 2 43 90–91, 108 Es puela Land and Cattle fort near, 165 See also immigration Company, 183 Galveston Plan of e n dangered species, 460–61 Esta blishment, 335–40 , 347, government, 243 energy crisis, 394 352, 384, 387, 392. See also Hardin killed in, 164 En gland, 16, 18, 100–101, 104, Conservative Democrats politics in, 221 112, 328 Este lle, W. J., 431 Index 487 Estevanico , 13–14 among Indians, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9 New Deal programs, 301, ethnic groups in Texas, 198–99, in antebellum Texas, 1 1 1 , 113 303–5 220–21, 222, 249–57, 413. associated businesses, 193, organizations for, 209, 210, See also immigration; 194, 214, 215, 229, 296, 217, 225–27, 228, 229, 230, specifi c group 303, 352–53 232, 251. See also Farmers ’ ethnogenesis, 42 beginnings of in North Alliance; Grange Euro peans in Texas, 117, 125, America, 1 p olitics and, 22, 175, 208, 159, 198–99, 213, 219, during Civil War, 143 224–34, 260, 269–70 . See 220–21, 222, 257. See also commercialization of, also Farmers’ A lliance; immigration; specifi c group 200–201, 213, 234, 352–53 Grange; Greenback Party ex-Confederates , 142–51 , 154, cooperative marketing, 280 in post-World War II era, 173–75, 205–6, 231, 234 . crisis in late 1900s, 409–11 352 –54 See also Conservative crop prices, 3, 201, 227, 289, prices, 295 Democrats; Democratic 295, 302–3, 304, 328, in Progressive era, 237, 260 party; Redeemers 409–10, 446 rai lroads and, 1 8 8 , 200–201, ex parte Rodríguezz, 173–74 crops, 93 , 111, 113, 118, 201, 229 Exxon, 2 3 8 , 239 214, 244, 245, 265–66, 352, in Republic of Texas, 93–94 393, 409 revenue from, 201 f actory safety standards, 262 death of family farms, in South Texas, 1 9 5 Fair Deal, 3 4 2 , 351, 380 44 5–46 in Spanish Texas, 31, 32 Fair Employment Practices Department of Agriculture, specia lization, 234 Commission (FEPC), 332, 2 62 stri kes/march, 2 5 5 , 388 334 diversifi cation of, 2 0 1 , 393 Te janos in, 254–55 f amily life in early 1900s, 244–49 unions of, 2 4 8 , 259 in antebellum Texas, 123–24 economic diffi culties of, water issues, 432–34 of enslaved Africans, 94, 119 200–201, 208, 213, 214–15, women ’ s role in, 123, 143, of freed slaves, 162–63 225, 226–27, 289 221, 223, 245, 247–48 on the frontier, 199–200 education for, 1 7 5 , 204, 229, workers, 2 3 7 , 245, 246–47, in late 1900s, 407 249, 265 254–55, 304–5, 348, 353–54 in Spanish Texas, 37–38 effects of Great Depression, d uring World War I, 280 after World War II, 354–55 249 , 295–96 World War II, 328 f andango , 3 4 effects of stock-market crash, a fter World War II, 332–33 Fann in, James W., 78 290 See also a gribusiness; cotton; Fantastics, Thee, 3 6 6 effects of World War II, 3 2 8 , Farmers’ A lliance; Grange; Farenthold, Frances “Sissy,” 390, 332 Greenback Party; 392–93 expansion of, 182, 183, 237 plantations; ranching; Farm-Ai d, 3 9 9 experimental station, 204 slavery; tenant farming Farm Bureau, 249 federal programs, 409, 410, F a yette County, 220, 257 Farm Credit Administration, 445–46 Fayetteville, Texas, 220, 257 303–4 fence-cutting wars, 191–92 Federal Arts Project, 322 Farmer, James, 386 Fergusons’ administrations, Federal Deposit Insurance Farmers’ A lliance, 2 0 9 , 210, 217, effect on, 2 6 9 Corporation (FDIC), 262, 225–27, 228, 229, 230, 232 Freedom to Farm Act, 4 1 0 , 299, 391 Farmers ’ Alliance and 445 Federal Emergency Relief Cooperative Union of during Great Depression, Administration (FERA), America, 227 289 301, 311 Farmers’ Congress, 251 income from, 3 5 2 Federal Farm Board, 2 9 5 Farmers’ Improvement Society, of Indians, 7 1 , 72 Federal Housing Authority 251 irrigation, 280, 352 (FHA), 306 Farmers’ Institutes, 249 labor unions and, 1 9 6 , 217, federal interstate highway Farmers ’ Union, 2 4 8 , 259 309 system, 348 farming in late 1800s, 200–202 , 208, f ederalism, 7 2 , 74, 75, 77, 112 1876 constitutional 213, 214 Federalists, 5 8 , 62–66 convention, 175 leisure activities, 249 Federal Labor Union No. in 1960–1986, 393 mechanization of, 2 3 7 , 245, 11,953, 255 advances in production, 266 305, 332, 352 Federal Reserve System, 231, African Americans in, 2 5 1 in Mexican Texas, 6 7 , 70 242, 299 488 Index Federal Surplus Relief Foote, Horton, 399, 402 museum in, 402 Corporation, 302, 304 Ford, John S. “Rip,” 121–22, 133, oil drilling in, 460 Federal Theatre Project, 301 134, 175 population of, 198, 242 Federated Shop Craft Union Ford, O’ Neill, 365 public library construction, strike, 2 4 1 , 280 Foreman, George, 420 300 feminism, 3 8 9 , 412 f orests, 192–93 , 194, 211, railroads into, 188 fence-cutting wars, 191–92 215–16, 267–68, 301, 303 . rodeos in, 365 Fender, Freddie, 413–14 See also environmental Tejano population in, 448 Ferdinand (king of Spain), protection; lumber television stations in, 354 11–12, 17 industry WBAP radio in, 3 2 3 Ferdinand VII (king of Spain), Fort Belknap, 121, 122, 165, 166 Fort Worth Symphony, 413 4 9, 54 Fort Bend County, 115, 185 Foster, Andrew “Rube,” 306–7 Ferguson, James E. “Pa,” 269–73, Fort Bliss, 1 3 3 , 165, 166, 330 Foster, L.L., 229 277, 280, 283, 290, 297 Fort Brown, 1 3 3 , 250 f oundries, 193 Ferguson, Miriam “Ma” Fort Chadbourne, 1 2 1 , 122, 4-H clubs, 2 6 5 activities of, 273 165, 166 Fourteenth Amendment, 1 5 6 , campaigns of, 283, 292, Fort Clark, 1 2 1 , 122, 165, 166, 249–50, 358, 384, 430 296–97, 318 168 Fox, Vicente, 435 corruption under, 268, 269, Fort Concho, 1 6 5 , 166 frac’ in g (hydraulic fracturing), 284–85, 297, 313 Fort Davis, 1 2 1 , 122, 165, 166 44 3, 459 endorsement of Johnson, 338 Fort Duncan, 165, 166 France festivals, 3 1 0 , 363, 421 Fort Griffi n, 1 6 5 , 166, 172 ceding of Louisiana to Spain, feuds, 9 6 , 164 Fort Lancaster, 1 2 1 , 122 4 1, 43 fi estas patrias , 310 Fort McKavett, 1 2 1 , 122, 161, colonies in North America, Fifty Cent Law, 191 165, 166 1 6, 18 “Fig Tree, The” (Porter), 321 Fort Phantom Hill, 1 2 1 , 122 commercial ties with Texas, fi libusters, 55 Fort Quitman, 121, 122 104 Filisola, Vincente, 81 Fort Richardson, 1 6 5 , 166 exploration of Spanish Fillmore, Millard, 127 Fort Saint-Louis, 2 0 regions, 20, 21 fi lm industry. Seee movies Fort Sill Reservation, 166–67 French and Indian War, 4 1 , fi nancial institutions. See banking Fort Stockton, Texas, 1 2 1 , 122, 43 fi re-eaters, 1 2 8 , 130 165 recognition of Republic of First Mexican Congress, 256 Fort Sumter, 1 3 3 Texas, 101 First Monday Trade Days, 421 Fort Terrett, 1 2 1 , 122 sale of Louisiana, 55 fi scal policy, 85–86, 88–90, 427, Fort Worth, Texas trade of, 19–20, 21–22, 23, 41 435–36, 454–66. See also A frican Americans in, 349, World War II, 328 public services; taxes 350 franchise tax, 2 6 0 , 262, 408, Fisher, Abigail, 430 car racing in, 421 435, 436, 465 Fisher, King, 164 commission plan adopted, Franc iscans, 16–17, 19, 22, 29. Fisherr v. The University of Texas, 243 See also Catholic Church; 4 30 as cowtown, 1 70, 171, 198, missions fi shing, 421, 458, 466 242 Frantz, Joe B., 368 Five Civilized Tribes, 3 , 117 cu ltural life in, 3 6 6 , 413 Fraterna l Bank and Trust Five Generations Hence (Jones), defense industry in, 331 Company, 252, 350 308 econom y of, 198 fraternal organizations, 205 . See Flanagan, Webster, 229 e lectrifi cation of, 2 4 3 also benevolent societies fl ea market, 421 fi res in, 1 1 9 Fre donian Rebellion, 5 9 , 61 fl exible permitting system, 459 Fraterna l Bank and Trust Co. Fre dricksburg, Texas, 165 Flipper, Henry O., 162 in, 2 5 2 f ree blacks, 3 7 , 94–95, 116, 117, Flores, Dan L., 417 g overnment of, 243 118. See also A frican Flores, Manuel, 1 0 1 in dustry in, 214 Americans; slavery fl our mills, 1 9 3 , 194, 214 Ku Klux Klan in, 2 8 1 Free dmen’ s Bureau, 149–50 , folk islands, 257 l abor disputes in, 335 154, 155–56, 157, 162–63 food processing industry, 353 l abor unions in, 352 Free dom to Farm Act, 4 1 0 , 445 food stamps program, 387, 461 mi litary installations in, 274, freedpersons, 148–50, 151–52, football, 364–65 , 396, 417–18, 331 153–54, 155–60, 161–63, 421 mo dern amenities in, 243 164, 201, 219 Index 489 free rangers, 172–73 Ga lveston City Company, g errymandering, 385 Free Soilers, 1 0 4 91–92 Gettysburg, Battle of, 134, 136 freight haulers, 114–15, 120, Galveston-Houston, 257 ghettos, 250 187, 192 Galveston New Idea, 308 Giant (fi lm), 364 Frenc h and Indian War, 4 1 , 43 Ga lveston Plan, 242–43 , 262 G.I. Bill of Rights, 356, 382 Frenc h immigrants, 90 Gá lvez, José de, 43, 44–45 Gi ddings, Texas, 394 Friedan, Betty, 389, 390 g ambling. See horseracing; state G.I. Forum, 357–58 , 387, 388 Friedman, Richard “Kinky,” 452 lottery Giles, Bascom, 345 Friend, Llerena, 369 Gam brell, Herbert, 3 6 9 Gi llespie County, 112, 138 Frisco, Texas, 448 G arcía, G. N., 220 Gi lmer, Claud, 3 5 5 frontera, expansion, 27–52 García , Gus C., 358 Gilmer-Aikin laws, 3 3 9 , 355–56 Frontier Battalion, 1 8 6 , 187 García, Héctor P., 358 Gi lmore, Jimmy Dale, 400 frontier society, 95, 99–100, García, Hipólito, 220 Gipson, Fred, 370 199–200, 210–11 Gar d, Wayne, 369 Glenn, “Uncle” George, 162 fugitive slave law, 126–27 Gar land, Judy , 3 3 3 G lenn Pool oilfi eld, 2 4 0 full-rendition law, 2 6 2 Garner, John Nance, 297–98, g oats, 30–31, 183–84, 304, 333 fundamentalists, 283–84 , 363, 316, 334, 337 “Goat Speech” (Shivers), 340 390, 412 Garr ison, George Pierce, 320 g olden-cheeked warbler, 461 furnishing merchants, 215 Garr ison, Zina, 420 Golden Cocoon, Thee (Cross), 321 fusion ticket, 208–9 , 284 Garza , Carlos de la, 6 0 , 70 gold standard, 208, 231, 232, Garza , Catarino, 1 8 5 , 310 233, 303 Gail Borden, Dairyman to a Garza brothers, 4 1 4 Go ldwater, Barry, 378, 380 Nation (Frantz), 368 g as, natural. See oil industry golfers, 365, 398, 419 Gaines , Edmund, 7 9 Gates, J. W. “Bet a Million,” 239 Go liad, Texas (La Bahía) Ga ines, Matt, 157–58 Gatesvi lle, Texas, 2 6 6 farming near, 32, 70 Gainesville State School for gathering tax, 340, 343 founded, 23 Girls, 266 Gay Place, Thee (Brammer), 370 Indians melded into, 71 Ga ley, John H., 238 gender imbalance, 35, 123, 181, Mexican reinforcement of, Ga lveston, Texas 328 6 2, 73 1900 hurricane, 1 9 8 , 242 General Land Offi ce, 191 mi litary installations in, 68 in antebellum era, 1 1 3 General Tire and Rubber strike, petition against Law of April chamber of commerce in, 93 335 6, 64 during Civil War, 133–34 gente de razón, 29 population, 33, 47, 69 defense industry in, 331 Geor gia, 177, 181 ranc hing near, 59, 61, 111 economy of, 92, 198 German Belt, 2 2 0 in Republic of Texas, 91 education in, 157, 204 German Texans during War for Texas European immigrants in, 220 in antebellum era, 1 1 2 Independence, 73, 78–79, founding of, 91–92 arrival of, 9 1 83, 98 Germans in, 1 1 2 in Civil War, 138–39 Gómez Farías, Valentín, 5 8 , 62, government of, 242–43 in early 1900s, 257 64–65, 72 hurricane in, 242–43 intolerance toward, 279–80 Gonzales, Battle of, 7 3 industry in, 114, 214–15 music of, 3 2 2 Gonzales, Texas, 5 9 , 66–67, 73, labor unions in, 1 1 6 , 196, newspapers of, 126, 279 79, 91 197 opposition to Know-Nothing González, Henry B., 346, 358, medical school in, 204 party, 128 378, 387, 426 migration into, 214 opposition to prohibition, González, Jovita, 311, 369 newspapers in, 100, 116 277 Goodbye to a Riverr (Graves), population of, 113, 114, 198 population of, 279 370 port of, 188, 198, 242 in post-Civil War era, 198–99 Good Government League, 384 railroads into, 198 settlements of, 1 0 8 Good Neighbor Commission, in Republic of Texas, 91 view of secession, 132 334 strikes in, 244 during World War I, 257, Goodnight, Charles, 172–73, tourism in, 242 275, 279, 322–23, 332 182–83 in World War II, 331 during World War II, 328, Goodni ght-Loving Trail, 172 G a lveston Bay, 62, 79 331, 332 Goodnight Trail, 171 Ga lveston Bay and Texas Land after World War II, 2 5 7 , 363 Good Old Boys, Thee (Kelton), Company, 66 Germany, 328 4 03 490 Index Goodwyn, Lawrence, 370, 417 nationa l politics during, Ha ll, Josie Briggs, 308 Goose Creek oilfi eld, 240 315–17 Ha ll of State, 322 Gore, Al, 426 New Deal and taxes, 297–305 Hami lton, Andrew Jackson, Gould, Jay, 189, 197 Texas politics during, 291–97, 143–48, 154, 155, 156–58 Gould, Lewis L., 417 313–15 Hami lton, James, 101 government Great Migration, 251, 315 Hami lton, Morgan C., 206 of civilian settlements, 18 Great Plains, Thee (Webb), 321 Hamman, William H., 208 at end of Civil War, 1 4 3 Great Recession, 441–42 , 443, Hammi ll brothers, 2 3 8 of the Incas, 2 452, 453, 455, 461 Ham pton, Carl, 387 of independent Texas, 74–75 Great Society, 380 Hancoc k, Butch, 4 0 0 of New Spain, 18, 28, 43 Great Southwest strike, 1 9 7 , Handbook of Texas, Thee, 3 69 in Spain, 10–12 217, 226 Hands of Cantú, Thee (Lea), 370 of Spanish Texas, 33, 43 Great Western Trail, 1 7 1 , 172 Har din, John Wesley, 164, 211 of Texas cities, 242–43 , 262 Greek Texans, 2 2 1 , 257 Har din Simmons University, of Texas Indians, 6 – 7 , 10 Green, George Norris, 417 2 65 See also Constitutions (Texas); Green, Tom, 1 3 3 , 136 Har gis, Billy James, 363 politics, national; politics, Greenback Party, 208–9, 210, Harpers Ferry, Virginia, 130 Texan; speci fi c governor 225, 226, 230 Harrigan, Stephen, 416, 417 governors Greene, A.C., 370 Harrisburg, Texas, 217 of Coahuila y Texas, 470–71 G regory, E.M., 149 Harr ison, Benjamin, 197 of Indians, 4 Gregory, Thomas Watt, 273 Harvey Penick ’s Little Red Book powers of, 155, 176, 454 Greta oilfi eld, 241 (Penick), 419 provincial, 470 G rey, Mustang, 106 Hasinai Indians, 5 , 20, 22, 39 Spanish, 16–18, 28, 469–70 Gr ierson, Benjamin H., 167 Ha yden, S. A., 209 term of, 3 7 9 Gri ffi n, John Howard, 370 Ha yes, Elvin, 397, 398 of Texas state, 471–72 Gri ffi n, Robert III, 4 2 1 Ha ymarket riot (Chicago), 197 See also specifi c governor Gr iggs, Sutton E., 308 Ha ynes, Abner, 396 Goyens, William, 370 g rist mills, 193, 194, 214 Ha ynie, Sandra, 398 Gramm, Phil, 4 2 2 , 424 grocery stores, 193 Ha ys, John Coffee “Jack,” 98, 106 Grand Court, 252 Groun d Water District Act, 433 h azardous-waste disposal, 435 Grand Prairie, Texas, 331 Grover, Hank, 3 9 2 headrights, 86–87, 89, 90 Grand Saline plant, 195 Grutterr v. Bollingerr, 4 30 Head Start, 3 5 8 , 380 Grand State Alliance, 226 . S ee Gua dalajara, Diego de, 19 Health and Human Services also Farmers ’ A lliance Gua dalupe Hidalgo, Treaty of, Commission, 462 Grange, 175, 176, 177, 181, 209, 107, 109 h ealth care 210, 224–25 Gua dalupe River, 31 in 1960–1986, 393 Granger, Gordon, 143, 218 Gua dalupe River valley, 170–73 among Indians, 6 Gran Quivira, 15 Gua dalupe Salt Lakes, 185 current and future problems, Grant, Ulysses S., 156, 166, 174 Guerra, Dionisio , 2 2 0 4 62–65 Graves, Curtis, 3 8 5 Guerra , Manuel, 255 for freedpersons, 162 Graves, John, 370 Guerrero , Leandro, 310 funding for, 395, 451, 463 Graves-Woodruff Guerrero , Mexico, 102 government ’s role in, 266–67, Reorganization bill, 297 Guerrero , Vicente, 6 1 , 62 275 Great Britain. See England Gu ffey, James M., 238 increased life span, 354 Great Depression Gu lf, Beaumont, and Kansas j obs in, 409 causes of, 289–90 City Railroad, 216 Medicare, 3 8 0 East Texas oil boom, 293–95 Gu lf, Colorado, and Santa Fe progressive reforms, 280 effect on African Americans, Railroad, 188 public health movement, 265 305– 6, 311–12 Gu lf Oil Company, 239 shortage of professions, 462 effect on Tejanos, 256, 308–9 g unfi ghters, 164 in Spanish Texas, 34, 38 effect on women, 311–13 g un shops, 193 state expenditures for, 444 effect on agriculture, 249, Gutiérrez, José Ángel, 389 of Texas Indians, 7 295–96, 303–5 Gutiérrez de Lara, Bernardo, 49 after World War II, 3 5 4 end of, 3 3 1 G wynn, R. S., 415 H e m phill, Julius, 401 end of business Hempstead, Texas, 386 progressivism, 285 H a gman, Larry, 401 Henderson, James Pickney, Hoover’ s remedy, 289–90 H a ley, J. Evetts, 316, 345, 369 100–101 , 104, 126 Index 491 Henderson County, 112 Hoblitzelle, Karl, 323 Houston, Andrew Jackson, 319 Hendricks oilfi eld, 2 4 0 Hogan, Ben, 365, 398 Houston , David, 2 7 3 Henle y, Don, 401 Hogg, James S., 189, 210, 225, Houston, Sam Henrietta, Texas, 1 2 1 227–32, 239, 259, 261 arrival in Texas, 64 Henry the Navigator, 12 Hold Autumn in Your Hand as commander of Texas army, Herbert, John, 398 (Perry), 370 74 , 79–81, 83 hermandades, 11, 12 Holden, W.C., 369 conspirac y with Jackson, 75 Hernándezz v. T he State of Texas , Holleman, Jerry, 346 death of, 132 358 Holly, Buddy, 367, 399 defeated by Runnels, 128 Herrera, John J., 358 H ome Demonstration as governor, 129, 130, 131, Hewetson, James, 66 Movement, 2 6 5 132 Hidalgo, Father Francisco, Home From the Hill Indian policy of, 96, 97, 98 21–22, 54 (Humphrey), 370 infl uence of, 127 Hidalgo y Costilla, Miguel, 49, Home Owners Loan Act, 3 0 2 as president of the Republic, 54 Home Owners Loan 84 , 85–87, 89–90, 96, 101, Higgins, Patillo, 238 Corporation (HOLC), 302 102, 103 higher education. See colleges homestead laws, 8 9 , 113, 142, as senator, 1 2 6 and universities; education 159, 160, 192 as subject of folklore, 100, Higher Education Assistance Home to Texas (Walker), 370 211 Fund (HEAF), 431 homosexuality, 412, 451 supporters of, 145, 146 High Plains, 244, 245, 333, 352, Hondo fi eld, 3 3 0 support of Know-Nothings, 353, 393, 433–34. S ee also Hood, John Bell, 136 128 Texas Panhandle Hoo Doo War, 1 8 7 view of secession, 1 3 2 Hi gh Plains Aquifer System, 434 Hood ’ s Texas Brigade, 136 Houston , Texas High Plains Underground Water Hooks , Matthew “Bones,” 161 A frican Americans in, 1 6 3 , Conservation District, 433 Hoover, Herbert, 285, 289 199, 306, 349 high-tech industries, 348, 409 Hoovervilles, 289–90 air quality in, 435, 459, 460 Hightower, Jim, 416, 424, 450 Hopi, 3 in antebellum era, 1 1 4 Highway Department, 268, Hopkins, Lightnin’ , 367 anticommunist sentiments in, 313 Hopkins, Mary Agnes, 273 361–62 hi ghways. See roads and Hopwoodd v. State of Texas , 4 30 bankin g for oil industry, 348 highways horse and gun culture, 181 barrios in, 2 5 5 Hill, John, 394 Horseman, Pass By (McMurtry), Bu ffalo Bayou Channel, 198 Hill Country 371 as capital, 88, 91 confederate attacks on horseracing, 34, 315, 379, 421, c hamber of commerce in, 9 3 Unionists, 139 423 civil rights demonstrations in, endangered species in, 461 horses, 9–10 , 30–32, 41, 47, 71, 386 German settlers in, 9 1 , 245 cost-o f-living in, 349 138–39, 257, 284, 332 hospitals, 34, 202, 263, 266–67, cu ltural life in, 3 2 3 , 365, 366, Hoo Doo War in, 187 339, 340 398–99, 413 ranching in, 113, 170–73 Hot Oil, 294–95 , 300 defense industry in, 331 vigilante activity in, 163 Hound-Dog Man (Gipson), 370 econom y of, 198 Hino josa, Gilberto, 417 H ouse, Boyce, 322 e ducation in, 9 9 , 357, 391, Hino josa, Rolando, 403 House, Edward M., 232, 234, 273 429, 455 Hino josa de Ballí, María, 38 House Bill 15 (1918), 279 Enron scandal, 4 4 2 Hispanics. See Tejanos House Bill 72 (1984), 428 establishment of Republican historical writings, 35–36, 125, House Un-American Activities Party in, 151–52 368–69, 416–17 Committee, 3 1 7 European immigrants in, 220 historic assumptions, 427–36 “housewives ’ revolt,” 391 founding of, 91 History of Texas (Morfi ), 35 housing Germans in, 198–99 History of Texas (Yoakum), 125 crisis in 2008, 441 g overnment of, 243 Hitler, Adolf, 328 decline in new starts, 289 h orseracing in, 421 Hobby, Oveta Culp, 329, 342, for freed slaves, 1 6 2 h ospitals in, 462 380 of Indians, 2 , 4, 5, 6, 8 industry in, 114, 214, 331 Hobby, William P., 244, 272, in Mexican Texas, 67 inte gration of schools, 361 273, 275, 279–80, 354, 428, segregation of, 199, 250, 306 labor unions in, 3 5 2 436 in Spanish Texas, 31, 33, 34 lumber mills in, 1 9 2 492 Index Houston, Texas (cont’d) Hu bbard, Richard B., 206 into Republic of Texas, Manned Spacecraft Center Hu ddle, William H., 322 8 6–87, 90–91, 95, 108 near, 348, 393 Hu dson, Wilson, 369 into Spanish Texas, 27–28, 35 medical school in, 391, 393 Hu ghes, John, 164 after World War II, 362–63 migration into, 214, 378 Hum ble Oil and Refi ning, 239, See also empresario system military installations in, 274, 294 Immi gration Act of 1990, 407 331 Hum ble oilfi eld, 241 Immorta l 40, 318 NAACP in, 3 0 6 Hump hrey, Hubert H., 381 Immorta l 56, 318 newspapers in, 100, 416 Hump hrey, Robert M., 226 Imperial Colonization Law oil business in, 2 4 2 Hump hrey, William, 370 (Mexico), 56 politics in, 427, 452 Hunt , Lamar, 3 9 6 Imperium in Imperio (Griggs), population of, 198, 242, 349, Hunt County, 214 308 446 Hunter, Tom F., 313, 317 In a Narrow Grave (McMurtry), port of, 91, 114, 198, 242, h unter-gatherers, 1, 4, 5, 6, 8, 371 347, 449 38 Incas , 2 , 13 race riots in, 2 7 3 hunting, 421 i ncome racial violence in, 250 Huntin gton, Collins P., 189 from farming, 409, 446 railroads into, 115, 188, 198 Huntsvi lle, Texas, 126, 132, 205, per capita in Texas, 306, 349, religion in, 412 264, 273, 292 409, 444, 466 Republican clubs in, 378 Huntsvi lle penitentiary, 167, from tourism, 450 response to Great Depression, 202, 266, 431 i ncome tax, 230, 297, 436, 442, 291 hurricanes, 1 9 8 , 242 465 rodeos in, 3 6 5 Hutc hinson, Thad, 3 4 6 incorporation, 24 ship channel in, 198, 242, Hutc hinson County, 168–69 Independence, Texas, 91, 126 255, 449, 460 Hutc hison, Kay Bailey, 424, 450, Independence Day holiday, 95 slave plantations near, 117 453 in dependent school districts sports in, 364, 396, 397, 398, h ydraulic fracturing (“frac ’ ing”), (ISDs), 263, 264, 356 418, 419, 421 443, 459 Indian Depredations in Texas suburbs of, 378 (Wilbarger), 320 Te jano population in, 448 I berian Peninsula, 10–11 Indians television stations in, 354 ice hockey, 419 accommodation and transportation in, 448–49 Ickes, Harold, 300–301 , 341 resistance of, 38–43 women ’ s movement in, 389 IC T Insurance Company, 345 agriculture of, 1, 4 Houston Astros, 3 9 7 , 418, 419 I’ ll Take Texas (Lasswell), 370 ancestors, 1 Houston Ballet, 366, 398 immigration in antebellum Texas, 116, Houston Chroniclee, 282, 382 in 1930s, 308–9 121–23 Houston College for Negroes, in 1960–1986, 393 attacks on settlers, 3 5 , 42–43, 3 57. See also Texas across Rio Grande, 440 45. See also A paches; Southern University in antebellum Texas, 111, 113 Comanches Houston Colt .45s, 397 antiur ban sentiments, 2 8 1 as competition for Spanish Houston Comets, 418 Capito l Boycott, 197 settlements, 18 Houston Grand Opera, 366, in early 1900s, 254, 257 development of groups, 1–10 398, 413 f ederal amnesty program, displacement of, 164–70, 182, Houston Informerr, 308 393 210 Houston Oil Company, 239 i llegal, 60, 61, 62, 66, 407, in Mexican Texas, 71–72 Houston Oilers, 3 9 6 , 418 440 mission life, 2 8 , 46 Houston Press, 416 in late 1800s, 198–99 , 213, population of, 38–40, 71, Houston Rockets, 3 9 7 , 418, 419 219, 220–21 109, 219 Houston Ship Channel, 198, in late 1900s, 4 0 6 Republic of Texas’ s policy 242, 255, 449, 460 i nto Mexican Texas, 55–59 , toward, 8 5 , 87, 89, 96–98 Houston-Sugar Land-Baytown 61, 62–64, 66, 72–73, 75 runaway slaves and, 94 metropolitan area, 446 f rom Mexico/Latin America, as slaves, 31 Houston Symphony, 323, 366, 407 social status of, 36 413 in new millennium, 4 3 9 , 444, Spanish evangelism of, 13, Houston Texans, 4 1 9 447 16–17, 18–19, 21, 22–24, Howard, Charles, 185 d uring Reconstruction, 159, 28–30 Howard Payne College, 265 181 trade of, 1 6 9 , 170 Index 493 violence against, 181 state commission, 2 6 0 , Iturbide, Agustín de, 54–55, 56 See also specifi c group 344–45 Ivins, Molly , 4 1 6 Indian Territory, 97, 123, 169, taxes on companies, 260 171, 172 taxes on premiums, 408 j acales, 34 indios bárbaros , 4 1 , 43, 45, 46, Texans ’ health coverage, 444, J a c k County, 226 71, 76, 97 . See also Apaches; 462 J acksboro, Texas, 165, 167 Comanches; Norteños; Texas laws, 2 5 9 , 262 Jackson, Andrew, 75, 85, 127, Plains Indians inte gration 138 in dustrialization, 188–89 , of juries, 358 Jackson, Jack, 417 195–97, 213, 362 of military, 337 J ackson, Ronald Shannon, 401 industry of public facilities, 385 Jacksonian democracy, 127, in 1960–1986, 393 of schools, 3 4 2 , 344, 349, 357, 175–76, 230 in antebellum era, 114 358–61 James Byrd Hate-Crimes Act, in Civil War, 1 3 7 interest rates 4 27 diversifi cation of, 3 7 5 effect of return to gold Japanese aggression, 328 in early 1900s, 237, 241 standard, 2 0 8 Japanese Americans, 219 expansion for World War II, effect on farmers, 2 0 8 , 246, JA Ranch, 182–83 331 –32 409 j azz. Seee music Great Depression and, 289, federal control of, 2 9 9 jefe político, 5 8 300 during Great Depression, 295 J efferson, Blind Lemon, 307, in late 1800s, 198–99 , 214–15 on land, 1 9 2 308 in late 1900s to date, 4 0 9 I n t e r F irst Corporation, 408 Je fferson, Texas, 187, 188, 195 New South policies, 175 interna l improvements, 131, J efferson, Thomas, 55 in post-World War II era, 142, 151, 154, 155, 158, Je fferson County, 221, 238–39 349 159–60 Je ffersonian democracy, 315–17, processing/exporting of farm Internal Provinces, 45 334 products, 229, 296, 303, Internationa l and Great Jen kins, Dan, 370 352–53 Northern Railroad, 188 Jennin gs, Waylon, 399–400 railroads’ development of, Internationa l Association, 189 J ester, Beauford, 335–37, 187–90 Internationa l Clerks’ Protective 339–40, 361 small shops/plants, 193 Association, 2 5 5 Jews, 363, 413 spin-offs of oil, 239–40 Internationa l Ladies ’ Garment J im Crow, 218, 233, 250, 253, during World War I, 280 Workers’ Union (ILGWU), 350, 386 . See also during World War II, 331–32 311, 313 segregation after World War II, 347–48 Internationa l Typographical J im Stinson Trail, 171 See also aerospace industry; Union, 196 J. M. Guffey Petroleum cities; labor unions; lumber I nternet, 4 1 6 Company, 239 industry; manufacturing; Intersc holastic League of Negro jobs. See employment oil industry Schools, 2 5 3 Johnson, Andrew, 143–44, 145, i n fant mortality, 35, 36, 162, Interstate Circuit, 323 146, 151 354, 407, 462 Interstate Commerce Act, 227 J ohnson, Frank, 74 in fl uence-peddling scandal, 343 Interstate Commerce Jo hnson, G. H., 313 institutiona l reforms, 266–67 Commission (ICC), 206, Johnson, Jack, 307 in surance 385 Johnson, Jimmy, 418 associations/fraternities Iranian revolution, 3 7 5 Johnson, Lee Otis, 387 providing, 218, 252 Iranian-Iraqi War, 375 Johnson, Lyndon B. on bank deposits, 227–28, Ireland, John, 191, 197, 206, 209 anticommunist platform, 361 262, 299, 391 Irish immigrants, 66, 112, 221 arran gement of Longoria’ s black owned companies, 306, iron industry, 114, 194, 195 burial, 3 5 8 350 Iroquois, 2 d efense spending in Texas, commissioner of, 260 irrigation, 280, 352, 433 393 on crops, 44 6 Irving, Texas, 348 e lection of 1948, 337–39 government programs, 462, Isabella (queen of Spain), e lection of 1960, 376–77 463, 464–65 11–12 , 17 endorsement of Allred, 3 2 0 out-of-state companies, 229 Italian Texans, 2 2 0 , 221, 257, Great Society, 380 required for drivers, 340 332 liberal policies of, 394 Sharpstown scandal, 391 Italy, 328 as NYA head, 3 0 2 , 319 494 Index Johnson, Lyndon B. (cont’d) life style of, 4–5 Know-Not hing party, 128, 130, position on civil rights, 342, relationship with missions, 138 358 23, 30, 40 Korean War, 347 as president, 375, 380–81, territory of, 3 9 KPRC- TV, 354 387 Karankaway Country Kristo fferson, Kris, 4 1 5 refusal to seat liberals, 346 (Bedicheck), 321 Krue ger, Walter, 329 as Senator, 299, 342 Kau fman County, 112 KUH T-TV, 3 5 4 senatorial election, 3 1 9 Kazen , Abraham, 3 5 8 Ku Klux Klan, 1 5 4 , 156, 185, support of Daniel, 345 Kear by, Jerome C., 231, 233 280, 281–84 support of Humphrey, 381 Ke lley, Oliver H., 224–25 Kurtz, Efrem, 366 support of New Deal, 298 Ke lly Field, 274, 331 Johnson, Matthew, 387 Ke lly Plow Company, 195 La Bahía, 3 0 , 31, 32, 33, 43, 47, Johnson, Robert, 308 Ke lton, Elmer, 4 0 3 49, 71. See also Goliad, Johnston, Albert Sidney, 136 Ken dall, George Wilkins, 183 Texas (La Bahía) Joiner, Columbus Marion “Dad,” Ken dall County, 138, 183 labor. S ee child labor laws; labor 293 Kene dy, Miffl in, 113 unions; strikes/work joint resolution of annexation, Kene dy County, 195 stoppages; workers 10 4 Kene dy Ranch, 195 labor laws, 270, 395 Jones, Anson, 90, 104 Kenne dy, John F., 363, 375, 376, labor unions Jones, George, 367, 400 379, 380, 387–88, 393 of African Americans, 252 Jones, George W. “Wash,” 208–9 Kerr County, 112, 138 alleged communist ties, 279, Jones, Jesse H., 298, 299 Kerrvi lle, Texas, 172 317, 320, 335, 343, 351, 361 Jones, John B., 186, 187 Kerr y, John, 452 anti-violence labor law, Jones, John J., 359 Kic kapoos, 72, 134, 168 319 Jones, Lillian B., 308 Ki lby, Jack, 348 coal mining strike, 194 Jones, Margo, 365 Ki lgore oilfi eld, 293 in early 1900s, 244, 255 Jones, Marvin, 298 Ki ller D’ s , 4 5 1 early growth of, 93, 116, 181, Jones, Norah, 414 Kim bell Art Museum, 4 0 2 195–97, 217 Jones, Tom, 366 Kim ble County, 187 exemption from antitrust Jones, W. Goodrich, 267–68 Kimbrou gh, John “Jarrin,” 365 laws, 260 Jonesborough, Texas, 91 Kineños, 195 growth of, 181 Joplin, Janis, 367 Kin g, Billie Jean, 398 ideology of, 392 Joplin, Scott, 307, 398 K ing, Larry L., 370, 399, 416 in late 1900s, 409 Jordan, Barbara, 385, 386 Kin g, Richard, 113, 195 lumber industry ’s relationship j ournalism and journalists, 68, Kin g of Spain, 10–12, 16. S ee with, 217 416. See also newspapers; also Ferdinand VII (king of Manford Act, 334 specifi c newspaper or Spain) New Deal legislation, 300, magazine Kin g Ranch, 195 315, 316 Journal of South Texas, 3 69 Kin gsville, Texas, 431 no-strike agreement, 334 J. S. Cullinan Company, 238 K inney, H. L., 113 O ’Danie l ’s hostility, 319 Juárez, Mexico, 19 K iowas, 3 9 , 97, 123, 164–65, opposition to, 195–96 Jumanos, 7–9, 18–19, 21, 39, 40, 166–67 opposition to convict leasing, 42 Kirby, John Henry, 216, 239, 203 Juneteenth, 143, 218, 306 316 opposition to Neff, 241 juntas , 4 9 Kir by Lumber Company, 216, postwar strikes, 335 Justice, William Wayne, 431–32 239, 261 railroads’ relationship with, juvenile delinquency, 266, Kir k, Ron, 427 217 457–58 Kir kman, William G., 156 right-to-work laws, 336, 351, juvenile justice system, 457–58 K ite, Tom, 419 376, 442 Klail City Death Trip (Hinojosa), Shivers’ s anti-labor Kahn, Louis I., 402 403 legislation, 341 Kansas, 1 2 9 , 171–72, 182 Kna pp, Seaman A., 265 Taft-Harley Act, 338, 351 Kansas-Nebraska Act, 128–29 Kni ghts of Labor, 196–97, 210, for teachers, 264 Karankawas 217 Te janos in, 309, 312–13 Anglo attacks on, 71 Kni ghts of Pythias, 252 Wagner Act, 300, 315 attacks on settlements, 2 0 , 56 Kni ghts of the Golden Circle, women in, 3 1 1 , 312–13 decimation of, 9 6 128, 131 during World War II, 334 Index 495 after World War II, 3 3 5 , L aney, Pete, 425, 451 LeVias, Jerry, 396 351–52 Lang, William W., 182, 225 Levy, Adrian, 299 See also Congress of lan guage, 4, 50, 51, 84 Lewis, Guy, 397 Industrial Organizations Lan ham, Edwin, 3 7 0 , 371 ley de fuga , 18 7 (CIO); Knights of Labor; Lan ham, S. W. T., 234, 259–60 Li beral (Mexico), 64–66 strikes/work stoppages; La Orden Hijos de América Li beral Democrats, 3 4 2 , 346, specifi c labor union by (OSA), 256 377, 378, 380, 382 name Lareditos, 199 Liberty, Texas, 91 Lac k, Paul D., 417 Lare do, Texas l ibraries, 2 6 2 , 275, 300 La dies Councils, 3 1 3 barrios in, 1 9 9 lieutenant governor’ s offi ce, 340 Ladonia , Texas, 2 5 1 education in, 70 life expectancy, 354, 440 “Lad y in Blue” (Madre María de founding of, 24, 92 Life Linee, 3 63, 380 Ágreda), 19 oil boom in, 394 Life of Stephen F. Austin, The Lady Macbeth Walking in Her per capita income, 349 (Barker), 321 Sleep (Ney), 322 population of, 34, 69 Lig ht Crust Doughboys, 323 La Gaceta de Tejas, 68 race riots in, 1 8 5 Limestone County, 167 La Grange, Texas, 91 railroads into, 1 8 8 , 195 Linco ln, Abraham, 1 3 0 , 131, La guna Seca Ranch, 220 in Republic of Texas, 102 143 La Junta de los Ríos, 7–9 Te janos in, 220 Linnvi lle, Texas, 98 La kewood Church, 4 1 2 La Salle, René-Robert Cavelier L ipans. See Apaches Lamar , Mirabeau B., 84, 87–89, Sieur de, 20 Lipscom b, Mance, 367 92, 96–97, 99, 101–2, 103 Las ha, Prince, 401 liquor. S ee prohibition Lamar State College, 339, 357, Lasswe ll, Mary, 369, 370 literature 360 Last Picture Show, The in 1960–1986, 403–4 Lamar University, 415 (McMurtry), 371, 401 i n 1990s, 415–17 Lampasas, Texas, 226 Latinos. See Tejanos of African Americans, 308 Lampasas County, 113, 187 La Vere, David, 417 d uring Civil War era, 125 Lan d Grant Law (1876), 187 Law of 1884, 204 portrayal of cowboys, 183 Land of Cotton, The Law of April 6, 1830, 61, 62–66, p rior to World War II, (Scarborough), 321 69, 106 320 –22 Landon , Alf, 3 1 6 Lea , Tom, 3 2 2 , 370 in Republic of Texas, 99–100 land policy Lea gue of Texas Municipalities, o f Tejanos, 311 in antebellum Texas, 112–13 , 243 a fter World War II, 368–71 115 Lea gue of the Iroquois, 2 Litt lefi eld, George, 172–73 concerning public lands, Lea gue of United Latin Litt le Joe y la Familia, 368 190–92 American Citizens Little Rock, Arkansas, 342, 344, under Constitution of 1869, (LULAC), 256–57, 309, 378 155 354, 357–58, 387–89, Litt le School of the 400, 358 homestead laws, 8 9 , 113, 142, 430–31 little theater movement, 3 6 5 159, 160, 192 Lea gue of Women Voters, 276 livestock, 30–32 , 95, 199, 245, in late 1800s, 181–82 , Leaving Cheyennee (McMurtry), 246, 333, 352, 409 . See also 187–88, 190–92, 228, 229 371 cattle; goats; horses; of late 1800s, 2 3 4 Ledbetter, Huddie “Leadbelly,” ranching; sheep ranching of Mexican Texas, 56–59 , 72 307–8 Llano County, 113 during Reconstruction, 159, Lee , Robert E., 139 l obbyists, regulation of, 346 160 Lee County, 257 Lockhart , Matilda, 97 of Republic of Texas, 85–87 Le ftwich, Robert, 5 9 , 66 Lockridge, J. E., 385 in Spanish Texas, 30, 32 Le gislative Budget Board, 340, Lodge, Henry Cabot III, 376–77 Landr y, Tom, 396, 418 457 Log of a Cowboy, Thee (Adams), l and speculation Le gislative Council, 340 320 in Mexican Texas, 5 9 , 61, 66, Lehrer, Jim, 416 Lomax , Allan, 307–8 , 369 72, 73, 75, 77 leisure activities, 3 6 2 , 363–65, Lomax, John, 307–8, 369 in Republic of Texas, 90, 103, 396–404, 413–17, 421–22 Lonesome Dovee (McMurtry), 104 in 1960–1986, 398–404 404 , 415 in state of Texas, 1 7 3 , 191, L e n d-Lease Program, 328 Lone Star (fi lm), 415 192, 226 Leonar d, Justin, 419 Long, Huey P., 296, 314 land-traffi cking thesis, 75 Leon Springs, Texas, 274 L ong, James, 55 496 Index Long Day ’s Journey into Night anti- lynching laws, 218–19, Mason County, 112, 113, 187 (O ’ Neill), 365 316, 337, 339 Masonic lodges, 252 Longley, Bill, 164 d uring Civil War, 139 Mason Texas, 172 Longoria, Félix Z., 358 in early 1900s, 250, 251, 273 Massanet, Fray Damián, 21 Longview Riot, 250, 279 by Ku Klux Klan, 282, 283 mass transit, 3 4 8 , 448 Looney, B. F., 277 in late 1800s, 1 8 5 , 218–19 Mata dor Land and Cattle López, Fray Nicolás, 19 in Republic of Texas, 94 Company, 183 López, Trini, 368 Mata gorda, Texas, 67, 93 Laredo, Texas, 255 mac hine shops, 240 Mata gorda County, 184–85 Los Adaes, 2 8 , 32, 43, 44, 55 M a c huca, Mrs. J. C., 313 Matamoros, Mexico, 6 8 , 133, Los Lonely Boys, 414 Mac kenzie, Ranald Slidell, 134, 136–37 Los méxico americanos en la gran 167–69 Mattox, Jim, 423 guerra (Saenz), 311 Macune , Charles W., 226–27 Maule , Hamilton “Tex,” 370 Los Ojuelos Ranch, 220 ma gazine industry, 416 Mauro, Gary, 425 Los Reyes Católicos, 11–13 Ma gee, Augustus W., 49 Maverick, Maury, 282, 298, 317 Lost Battalion, 3 2 9 Ma gnolia Petroleum Company, Maverick, Maury Jr., 378 Louisiana 238, 239 Maxe y, Samuel Bell, 136, 206, 209 constitution of, 176, 177 Ma gruder, John Bankhead, Maya , 2 cotton production limits, 133–34 Ma yfi eld, Earle B., 283, 285, 292 296 Maines , Natalie, 4 1 4 McA llen-Edinburg-Mission in-migrants from, 181 Ma jor League Soccer, 420 area, 444 slave sales, 37 Ma llory Strike, 197 McAr dle, Henry A., 322 Spanish control of, 27, 41, 56 Manassas , Second Battle of, 1 3 6 McCain, John, 452 trade with Spanish Texas, 32, Man ford Act, 3 3 4 McCart hy, Cormac, 415 47 Mani fest Destiny, 76, 103, 106 McCart hy, Joseph, 361 Louisiana Purchase, 5 5 Manne d Spacecraft Center McCart hyism, 342, 361. See also Love, Thomas B., 273, 281, 285, (NASA), 348 anticommunism; Red Scare 292 Mans fi eld High School, 344 McCau liffe, Leon, 3 2 4 Loving, Oliver, 172–73 manu facturing, 113, 193–94, McCo y, Joseph G., 171 Loving Trail, 171 214–15, 331, 347–48, 409. McCraw , William, 3 1 7 Lower South. S ee Deep South See also industry McCu lloch, Ben, 9 8 , 106, Lozano, Ruben Rendón, 3 6 8 Manzie l, Johnny, 421 132–33 Lubbock, Francis R., 137 maquiladoras , 4 35, 444 McDona ld, Walt, 4 1 5 Lubbock, Texas, 1 8 3 , 255, 331, Marc h, Caso, 3 4 0 McDona ld, William M., 252 353, 391 Mar gil de Jesús, Fray Antonio, 22 McG loin, James, 66 Lucas, Anthony F., 238, 239 Mar lin, Texas, 257 Mc Govern, George, 378, 392 LULAC. S ee League of United marr iage McKin ley, William, 233 Latin American Citizens antimiscegenation laws, 123, McKinne y, Collin, 138 (LULAC) 148, 344 McLennan County, 257 Luling oilfi eld, 241 ban on same-sex marriage, McLeo d, Hugh, 102 lumber industry 451 McMi llan, Ernie, 387 after Civil War, 161 c hanges in 1960–1986, 389 McMu llen, John, 66 in early 1900s, 267–68 o f Chinese, 221 M cMurtry, Larry, 371, 403–4, in late 1800s, 192–93 , 194, o f freed slaves, 162–63 415 211, 215–17 i n Mexican Texas, 6 8 , 70 McNelly, L. H., 186, 187 in Mexican Texas, 68 rights of women, 275 Me dellín, Octavio, 3 6 6 opposition to unions, 217 o f slaves, 1 1 8 , 119 me dia. See radio; television relationship with railroads, a fter World War II, 354–55 Me dicaid, 3 8 7 , 452, 453, 462, 188 , 216–17 M a r s hall, Texas, 1 1 4 , 137, 359 463–64 unions in, 244 Mars hall, Thurgood, 358–59 Me dicare, 3 8 0 , 462 workers, 348 martia l law, 2 8 0 , 294 Me dina County, 138 during World War II, 331 Mart in, José, 322 Me dina River, Battle of, 4 9 Lutcher, Henry J., 193 Mart in, Marion, 2 1 0 Me llon, Andrew, 2 3 8 , 239 Lutherans, 3 6 3 , 411, 413 Mart in, Mary, 366 Menar d, Michel B., 91–92 lynching Martínez , Antonio, 5 6 Menar d County, 121, 165 of African Americans, 273 Mar y Hardin Baylor College, Men doza, Juan Domínguez de, in antebellum Texas, 1 1 8 265 19 Index 497 Men doza, Lydia, 368 friction with Republic of M i lam, Ben, 7 4 mental hospitals, 202, 267 Texas, 101–2 mi litary Mescaleros. Se e Apaches immigration policies of, African Americans in, 330 mesteños, 31, 48, 70 55–59 , 61 in Civil War, 132–37 mestizajee, 35–36 independence, 48–50 a fter Cold War, 409 mestizos , 35–3 6 maquiladoras , 4 35, 444 e ffects of secession, 1 3 3 Methodist Episcopal Church, 363 in pre-Columbian period, on frontier, 1 2 1 , 132, 133 Methodists, 125–26, 200, 218, 1–2 inte gration of, 337 263, 283, 363, 411 recognition of Republic of in Mexican Texas, 6 8 , 70, Metro politan Opera, 322, 366 Texas, 89 72–75 metropolitan transit authorities as refuge of slaves, 94, 119 during Reconstruction, (MTAs), 448–49 revolution of 1910, 185, 254, 1 42–43, 148–49, 150, 151, Meusebach, John O., 91 255, 263, 310 159 Mex ia, Texas, 2 4 1 , 280, 282 Salt War near, 1 8 5 o f Republic of Texas, 83–84, Mexia oilfi eld, 241 slavery in, 56, 58, 61–62 85–86, 87, 88, 89, 102 Mexican American Generation, in Spanish colonial period, se gregation of, 161–62, 167, 254 , 256 1 7–24, 27–52 273, 330 Mexican American Legal Spanish conquest of, 13, 15 U.S.-Mex ican War, 106–8 Defense and Education Spanish exploration of, World War I, 273–74 Fund (MALDEF), 388, 1 5–16 World War II, 329 429, 430–31 trade with Texas during Civil See also National Guard; M exican Americans. S ee Tejanos War, 1 4 3 topics beginning with Fortt; M exican American Youth War for Texas Independence, United States Army Organization (MAYO), 389 75 –81 m i litary bases, 274, 331, 347 Mexican bandits, 1 6 8 Wars of Independence, mi litia, 68–69 , 70, 72–75, 159, Mexican Railway, 255 4 8–50, 54 160, 217 Mexican Revolution, 2 5 4 , 255, war with U.S., 104–8, 126 Mi ller, Arthur, 3 9 9 263 See also border troubles; Mi ller, Doris, 329 M exican Texas Te janos Mi ller, James B., 64 Anglo settlers, 56–57, 59, 61 M e x ico City, Mexico, 64, 102, Mi ller, Jim, 164 boundaries dispute, 55 107 Miller , Vassar, 4 1 5 Centralists in power, 72–75 Me yerson Symphony Center, Mi llican Riot, 1 5 4 Fredonian Rebellion, 5 9 , 61 4 13 Mi lls, Roger Q., 210, 227 Iturbide ’ s emperorship, Mi ddle Concho River, 172 minera ls, 194–95 . S ee also oil 54–55 , 56 Mi dland, Texas, 1 8 3 , 331, 347, industry multicultural society of, 349, 378 Mineral Wells, Texas, 330 66 –72 mi dwives, 38 m inorities. Seee African native Mexican ranchers, Mier Expedition, 102–3 Americans; Indians; 59– 60 Mier y Terán, Manuel de, 61 Tejanos; women Plan de Casa Mata, 54–55 mi grant workers, 237, 254–55, Minute Maid Park, 418–19 slavery in, 56, 58, 61–62 301, 305, 312, 353–54 Minute Women of Houston, War for Texas Independence, m igration 361–62 72 –81 of African Americans, m issions Mexican War, 104–8 , 126 251–52 , 306, 315, 329, 349, secularization of, 45–46 , 56, Mexican Wars for Independence, 385 71 48–50 , 54, 56 to cities, 2 5 1 , 281, 306, 315, settlement of Texas, 16–17 , Méxica people , 2 332, 349, 353, 411, 446 21–22, 24, 28–30, 31, M exico of early inhabitants of 38–40, 41 abolition of slavery, 61 Americas, 1–2 Mission San Clemente, 19 Bracero program, 353 from Mexico, 2 5 4 M ission San José, 17 colonization laws, 5 6 , 57–59 in new millennium, 4 3 9 Mississippi, 181 conservative coup, 62 to the North, 3 8 5 Mississi ppian culture, 6–7 Constitution of 1824, 58, 72, out of Texas, 3 0 5 , 315, 329, M issouri, 170–71 , 181, 261 74, 75 349 Missouri , Kansas, and Texas drug-related violence in, 444 of Slavs into Texas, 220 (Katy) Railroad, 188 effects of NAFTA, 408 to suburbs, 2 4 3 , 349 Mobil Oil, 2 3 8 ex-Confederates fl ight to, 143 from western states, 407 Moderators, 96 498 Index Moffett, Charles, 401 prior to World War II, National Defense Education Act Mogollón people , 7 322–23 (1958), 356 Monclova, Mexico, 72 o f Tejanos, 310, 322 National Football League (NFL), Moneyhon, Carl H., 417 a fter World War II, 366–68 39 6 monopolies, 229, 261. See also Musica l Brownies, 3 2 3 National Guard, 2 4 4 , 263, 270, antitrust laws; antitrust Muslims, 10–11 , 413 294, 332 movement Músqu iz, Ramón, 64, 70 National Industrial Recovery Montague County, 220 Musso lini, Benito, 328 Act (NIRA), 300 Montemayor, Alice Dickerson, Mutsc her, Gus, 391–92 National Offi ce of Price 313 mutua l aid societies, 218 . See Administration, 332 Montford, John, 421 also benevolent societies National Organization for Moody, Dan, 268, 284–85, 292, mutua lism, 2 5 6 Women (NOW), 390 295–96, 320 mutualistas , 2 5 6 National Origins Act (1924), Moore, G. Bedell, 193 2 57 Moors, 1 0 N AACP. Seee National National Polish Lodges, 257 Moral and Mental Capsule of the Association for the National Recovery Economic and Domestic Life Advancement of Colored Administration (NRA), of the Negro as a Solution of People (NAACP) 29 4–95, 300, 315 the Race Problem (Cuney- N a c o gdoche people, 39 National Trail, 171 Hare), 308 Nacogdoches, Texas National Woman Suffrage moral conformity, 281–82 A n glo settlers, 61 Association, 274 Morales, Dan, 4 2 4 , 426, 430 e ducation in, 7 0 , 89 National Youth Administration Morelos, José María, 54 farming near, 32 (NYA), 302, 306, 309, 319 Morfi , Father Juan Agustín, 35 f ounding of, 44 Native Americans. S ee Indians Mormons, 413 Fre donian Rebellion in, 5 9 , nat ivism, 281–84 Morrill Act (1862), 204 61 nat ivist party, 128 Morris, King, 370 Indian groups near, 72 natura l gas, 240, 243, 442–43. Morris, Willie, 3 6 1 , 370 in Mexican period, 60, 68, 69 See also oil industry Morris Omnibus Tax Bill, 319 Mexican reinforcement of, 6 2 Navarro, José Antonio, 62, 63, Moscoso de Alvarado, Luis de, 1 5 M exican War for 70, 75, 99 Mosquito Festival, 421 Independence, 49–50 Navratilova, Martina, 420 mothers’ c lubs, 2 2 4 petition against Law of April Neches, Battle of, 97 Motley County, 183 6, 64 Nederland, Texas, 221 mound builders, 3 , 5, 6 population, 33, 47, 69 Neff, Pat M., 244, 261, 280, 281, movies, 183, 364, 401, 415 in Republic of Texas, 91 282, 307 movimiento, 388 –89 in Spanish period, 22, 30, 31, Negro National League, 307 Moving On (McMurtry), 404 32, 37 Neighborhood Youth Corps, Moyers, Bill, 416 N a c o gdoches district, 65, 66 380 mulattoes, 36 NAF TA, 408, 424 Neighbors, Robert Simpson, Muldoon, Father Michael, 6 8 Naked Lunch (Coleman), 401 121, 123 mules, 30–31 , 245 Nance , Berta Hart, 3 2 2 Nelson, Byron, 365, 398 municipio, 33, 86 Nance, J. Milton, 369 Nelson, Willie, 399–400 , 410, Muñiz, Ramsey, 389, 392 Napoleonic Wars, 49 415 Murchison, Clint Jr., 396 Narváez , Pánfi lo de, 1 3 , 16 neutra l ground, 55 Murphey, Michael, 399 Natchez people, 3 New Birmingham, Texas, 195 Murphy, Audie, 329, 364 Natchitoches, Louisiana, 4 7 New Braunfels, Texas, 9 1 , 114, Murrah, Pendleton, 1 3 7 , 143 N ational Association for the 125 Murray, Ty, 420 Advancement of Colored New Braunfels Zeitungg, 12 5 museums, 322, 402–3, 417, 450 People (NAACP), 250, New Deal music 281–82, 306, 357, 358–59, Allred ’s cooperation with, in 1960–1986, 398–402 385, 386 313–15 i n 1990s, 413–14 National Bankers Life Insurance discrimination against o f African Americans, 307–8 , Company, 391 minorities, 305–6 , 308–9, 322 National Colonization Law of 311–12 o f ethnic groups, 322–23 1824, 57 effect on Texas politics, i n New Spain, 34 National Council of Jewish 313 –15, 317–20 o ffi cial music of Texas, 453 Women, 275 expansion of, 380 Index 499 opposition to, 298, 313–17, Nixon v. Herndon, 249–50 O ffi ce of Inter-American Affairs, 334, 342, 361 Niza , Marcos de, 14 334 programs, 29 7–305, 311–12, Nolan, Philip, 55 O gallala Aquifer, 433, 434 315–16 No lte, Eugene Jr., 335 oil industry restoration of public “Noon Wine” (Porter), 321 b oom of 1970s and 1980s, confi dence, 2 9 0 , 299 Norris Wright Cuneyy (Cuney- 375, 407–8 revival of banking, 298–99 Hare), 308 boomtowns, 2 3 7 , 241, 294 support for, 298, 313, 351 Norteños, 41, 44, 45, 46, 50, 71, bust of 1980s, 406, 407–9 taxes, 29 7–305 121. See also Wichita companies, 238–39 Texas politics, 315–20 people ear ly discoveries, 238–41 union organization under, North American Free Trade East Texas boom, 293–95 312 –13 Agreement (NAFTA), 408, energy crisis, 394 N e w fi eld Exploration, 443 424 environmental impact of, New Handbook of Texas, Thee, Nort h American Soccer League, 238 , 241, 459–60 4 17 4 20 fi elds in Texas, 2 3 9 New Mexico, 8 9 , 102, 106, 107, Nort h Carolina, 1 7 7 fi nancing of exploration, 348, 125, 126, 127 Nort heast Woodlands Indians, 394 New Regulations of Presidios, 2 Hot Oil controversy, 294–95, 44 Nort h Texas, 1 8 8 , 214, 240, 255, 300 New South philosophy, 175, 295, 443 hydraulic fracturing 201, 202, 205, 234 Nort h Texas Normal School, (frac’ in g), 443, 459–60 New Spain, 16–17, 20, 21, 22, 2 64 i mport quotas, 347 24, 27–52 . S ee also Spanish Nort h Texas State University, in dustrialization by, 347 Texas 3 66, 386, 396 jobs in, 393 news papers North Towards Homee (Morris), o ffshore drilling, 347 of African Americans, 218, 370 oil boom of new millennium, 308 Norton , A. B., 208 4 39 in antebellum era, 1 2 5 Norwe gians, 112, 124, 257 OPEC embargo , 3 9 3 campaign for ratifi cation of No-T hird-Term Democrats, 334 overproduction, 293 1869 Constitution, 1 7 7 Nueces , Battle of, 1 3 9 permanent school fund from, of ethnic groups, 198, 257, Nueces River, 3 1 , 60, 66, 104, 177 279 134, 186 p rices, 348, 393–94, 406, exposure of prison abuses, Nueces River valley, 170–73 407–8, 436, 439, 441, 443 2 66 Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe p roduction, 239, 240, 241 journalists, 370 de los Nacogdoches p roration of production, in late 1900s, 415–16 mission, 22, 44 293 –94, 347 in Mexican Texas, 68 Nuestra Señora del Pilar de los recover y in 2006, 441, 442–43 reports of Ku Klux Klan Adaes, 2 3 regulation of, 241, 293–94 activities, 2 8 2 , 283 Nuestra Señora del Refugio related industries, 239–40 in Republic of Texas, 100 mission, 4 0 revenue from, 3 4 7 of Tejanos, 220 Nuestra Señora del Rosario at Scurry and Ector, 347 unionization of, 116 mission, 7 1 at Spindletop, 215, 237, view of Reconstruction, 150 Nuevo León, Mexico, 32 238–39 New Traditionalists movement, Nuevo México, 1 8 strikes , 244 4 00 Nu gent, Thomas L., 175, 231–32 taxes on, 297, 315, 318, 348, New Woman concept, 243, 274 Nunn, Gary P., 399 408, 435, 436 New World societies, 1 – 3 tec hnology, 238, 240, 443 Ney, Elizabet, 322 O bama, Barack, 4 5 2 , 459 tidelands issue, 3 4 1 , 342 nickelodeons , 323 Obamacare, 464–65 Waters-Pierce antitrust case, Nimitz , Chester A., 329 obedezco pero no cumplo , 5 0 2 61 Nineteenth Amendment, 275 O ’ Brien, Davey, 365 in World War II, 3 2 8 , 331 9t h Cavalry, 165 ocean- going tankers, 240 See also Railroad Commission NIR A. See National Industrial O ’ Daniel, W. Lee “Pappy,” 298, o i l-refi nery industry, 237, 238, Recovery Act (NIRA) 317–20, 324, 334, 338, 345, 294, 300, 331 N ixon, Lawrence A., 249 351 oil-related industries, 239–40 Nixon, Richard M., 376–77, 378, O dessa, Texas, 1 8 3 , 347, 394 O lajuwon, Hakeem, 397, 398 379, 381, 385, 392 O dessa-Midland, 3 6 6 O ld Three Hundred, 5 7 500 Index Old Yellerr (Gipson), 370 patronato reall, 1 7, 28 Peters Colony, 90 omnibus tax bill, 340, 346 Patrons of Husbandry. See petroc hemical industry, 240, Oñate, Juan de, 18 Grange 242, 328, 331, 460. See also Onderdonk, Julian, 322 Patterson, James, 172 oil industry; specifi c oil Onderdonk, Robert Jenkins, Patterson, Paige, 412 company by name 322 peace party, 6 3–64, 84, 139 Petticoat Lobby, 276 O ’ Neill, Eugene, 365, 399 Pear l Harbor, 328, 329 P fl ugerville, Texas, 447–48 One O’ C lock Lab Band, 366 p earls, 18–19 Philadelphia (soundtrack by OPEC, 3 9 3 , 408 Pease , Elisha M., 124–25, 146, Coleman), 401 Open Port Law, 244 147, 153, 154, 155, 156 Philli ps, O. A. “Bum,” 396 opera. Seee music pecan shellers’ strike, 312–13 P hillips, Robert, 415 Operation Wetback, 353 Pecos River, 1 7 2 Pierce, Able H. “Shanghai,” Orange, Texas, 192, 193, 217 Pei, I.M., 413 172–73 Orange County, 331 Penic k, Harvey, 419 Pierce, Henry Clay, 261 Orbison, Roy, 367 p eninsulares, 36, 48 P ig W a r , 1 0 1 orchestras. See e music pensions Pine y Woods, 192–93, 215–17 Order of the Calanthe, 252 Socia l Security Act, 303, 314, P izarro, Francisco, 13 Order of the Eastern Star, 252 315, 319 P lains Indians Order of the Sons of America state offered, 314–15, 318, 319 attacks on other tribes, (OSA), 256 peons, 7 0 4 1–43, 72 Ordways, Thee (Humphrey), 370 People’ s Convention, 131 attacks on settlements, 83, Organization of Petroleum People’ s party. S ee Populist Party 97, 103, 121–22 Exporting Countries People’ s Party Two, 387 displacement of, 188 (OPEC), 393, 408 Perales, Alonso S., 358 lifestyle of, 9–10 orphanages, 202, 266, 267 Permanent School Fund, 1 7 7 , offensives against, 165–70 orquesta, 4 14 190, 203, 204 territory of, 76, 165, 166 Oswald, Lee Harvey, 379 Permanent University Fund treaty with U.S., 134 Our Catholic Heritage in Texas (PUF), 271, 431, 456 warfare of, 164–65 (Castañeda), 368 Perot, Ross, 4 2 4 , 428 See also A paches; Comanches; outlaws, 2 7 , 87, 134, 138, 187 Perry, George Sessions, 370 Tonkawas; Wichita people Owens, William A., 369, 370 Perry, James Richard “Rick” Plan de Casa Mata , 5 4–55 oxen, 30 –32 bid for presidency, 442, 454 Plan de San Diego, 270 e lection of 1990, 424, 450 P lanned Parenthood, 4 6 4 Paderewski, Ignace, 323 e lection of 2000, 426 plantations, 94, 113, 143, 161 Pale Horse, Pale Riderr (Porter), e lection of 2010, 453 p low-up campaigns, 248, 295, 321 fi scal policy, 451, 452 303 Palo Duro Canyon, 166, 169, h igher education reforms, pobladores , 18, 27–34, 43–45, 183 456–57 47–48, 50, 55 Palo Duro Canyon, Battle of, platform of, 452 Poetry Society of Texas, 415 1 66, 169 proposa l for coal-burning Polish Texans, 2 2 0 , 257 Palo Pinto County, 113, 194 power plants, 459 P olitical Association of Panic of 1873, 175 proposal for tax reforms, 465 Spanish-Speaking Panna Maria, Texas, 220 redistricting problems, 451 Organizations (PASO), 388 Parent-Teacher Associations refusal of Obamacare, 464 p olitics, national (PTA), 224, 276 response to TYC scandal, 458 in 1990s, 4 2 4 Paris, Texas, 2 2 3 rise of, 450–51 in 2000, 426 Parker, Cynthia Ann, 167 si gning of Hate-Crimes Act, assassination of Kennedy, 379 Parker, Quanah, 167, 169 427 election of 1960, 376–77, Parker ’s Fort, 167 support of school vouchers, 387–88 parks, 241, 243, 275, 300, 301, 428, 452 election of 1968, 381–82 421, 450 veto of capital punishment election of 1972, 392 Parsons, Albert R., 197 bill, 4 3 2 election of 1988, 422 Patient Protection and P e r s hing, John J., 270 election of 2000, 406 Affordable Care Act (2010), Personal Memoirs of Juan N. election of 2008, 452 4 64–65 Seguín (Seguín), 125 election of 2012, 454 Patman, Wright, 298 Peru, 13 during Great Depression, patriotism, 278–79, 332 Peters, W. S., 90 31 5–17 Index 501 Johnson administration, election fraud, 296–97 in Spanish colony, 19, 69–70 380 –81 opposed by O’ Danie l, 318 state programs, 206, 227, 231, in post-World War II era, 337 purpose of, 259, 260 263, 266, 305–6 religious campaigns, 412–13 repeal of, 339 o f Tejanos, 199, 349, 407 during World War II, 334 Twenty-fourth Amendment P o w e ll oilfi eld, 241 See also civil rights barring, 383 Power, James, 66 movements pollution, 211, 435, 459 Pra irie View A&M University, politics, Texan Ponce de León, Juan, 13, 16 251, 254, 336, 386 in 1876–1886, 205–10 poor farms/houses, 263, 266 Prairie View Normal Institute, in 1886–1900, 227–33 population. S ee demographics 205 of 1929–33, 291–96 Populist Party, 210, 226, Prairie View State Normal and in 1933–1935, 296–97 230–34, 249 Industrial College, 359 in 1960–1986, 376–95 Port Arthur, Texas Presb yterians, 125–26, 218, 363, African Americans in, black newspaper in, 308 411 153–54 , 157–58, 160, 207, employment in, 331 Presi dential Reconstruction, 231, 249–50, 252, 424, 427 infl ux of blacks into, 3 3 2 1 43–50, 151 of agrarian organizations. See labor unions in, 3 4 3 , 344, presidents (Spanish), 471 Farmers’ Alliance; Grange; 352 Presidio, Texas, 219 Greenback Party oil and petrochemical p residios, 16, 23–24, 28, 30, in antebellum era, 126–32 industries in, 242 33–34, 35, 44, 61, 62 during Eisenhower Our Lady of Fatima in, 411 Press ler, Paul, 4 1 2 administration, 342–45 racial riots in, 2 5 0 , 279 Pr ice, Ray, 367, 400 following Reconstruction, railroad into, 1 9 0 Primer Congreso Mexicanista, Ell, 181 refi nery at, 240 2 56 during Great Depression, P o r t e r , Katherine Anne, 3 2 1 , printing, 68, 93, 116, 214 29 7–98, 313–15 369, 370 prisoner-of-war camps, 331 labor unions involvement in, Porterfi eld, Bill, 3 7 0 “Prisoner ’ s Song, The” 217 Portilla, Nicolás de la, 78–79 (Dalhart), 323 in late 1900s, 422–27 Port Neches, Texas, 240 p risons in new millennium, 450–54 Port of Houston, 9 1 , 114, 198, c a pital punishment, 317, 318, philosophy of, 466–67 242, 347, 449 432 progressive reforms, 259–68 ports, 347, 449. See also construction of, 4 2 4 , 432, 457 quarreling over priorities, Galveston, Texas; Port of controversy over, 39 5 353 Houston convict leasing, 197, 202–3, redistricting, 340, 383, 451, Portugal, 12 208, 231, 266 453 Potter and Bacon Trail, 171 expansion of, 432 religious campaigns, 412–13 poverty f unding for, 315, 457 rise of the Tea Party, 453–54 benevolent associations aid, improvements, 346 Sharpstown scandal, 391–93 2 56 iron works at, 2 6 6 Te janos in, 220, 255, 358, of Caddos, 96 overcrow ding of, 431–32, 457 382, 385, 393, 424, 426, 437 development of arts in, 307, pardons/paroles, 280, 284, two-party system, 39 4–95, 308 297 406, 422, 437 education and, 3 5 , 177 in post-World War II era, 336 women in, 3 8 5 , 390, 392, as excuse for fi scal policies, reforms , 2 2 9 , 263, 266, 280, 423–24, 452 177 , 267 339, 423 during World War II, 333–34 of farmers/sharecroppers, study of, 285 after World War II, 335–47 202 , 214, 225, 234, 246, 251 See also convict leasing; See also Democratic party; federal programs, 462–63 Department of Corrections elections; Populist Party; federal relief programs, 290, prize fi ghting, 297 Republican party 292, 305–6, 387, 394 Procter , Ben, 3 6 9 Polk, James K., 104–8 in ghettos, 250 progressive Democrats, 227–37 poll tax in Mexico, 4 3 5 Pro gressive Era approved by voters, 233 rates in Texas, 4 0 7 , 444, a griculture and rural life, Constitution of 1876, 176 461–62 244–49 drives for voters, 3 0 9 , 335, in Rio Grande Valley, 407, c haracteristics of, 237–38 358 439 ethnic groups in Texas, efforts to repeal, 339, 346 of single mothers, 355 2 49–57 502 Index Progressive Era (cont’d) Q uakers, 166 Ra dical Unionists. S ee Union labor unions, 244 Quarterly of the Texas State Party oil in, 238–41 Historical Association, 321 ra dio, 249, 283, 317–18, 323, politics, 258–74 354, 363, 367, 414, 416 prohibition in Texas, 276–78 r a c e r iots, 1 8 5 , 250, 273, 281, Railroad Commission Texas after World War I, 332, 386 creation of, 2 2 9 , 259 278–85 r a c ism members of, 206, 230, 262, urban growth, 241–44 in 1900s, 3 0 9 294, 317, 335, 340, 379 women ’s activities, 274–76 i n 1950s, 3 4 4 powers of, 234, 241, 259 Progressive reforms, 274 a gainst African Americans, 221 proration of oil production, Progressive Voters League, 335, in antebellum Texas, 118–19 , 293 –95, 347 385 120, 128 release of railroad agreement, Progressivism, 234, 256, 258–68, as cause of Civil War, 131–32 189 –90 276–85. See also business as cause of War of Texas r a i lroads progressivism Independence, 76 as aid to internal prohibition in criminal justice system, 387 improvements, 154 end of, 2 9 7 d issipation of, 358 in antebellum era, 115 enforcement of, 241, 280–81 in early 1900s, 249–54 construction of, 170, 181, federal amendments, 2 7 3 , a gainst European immigrants, 183, 214 276–78, 297 221 decline of, 3 4 8 lobbying for, 223, 224, 230, following Reconstruction, development in late 1800s, 237, 258, 262, 269, 272, 273 181 181, 187–90, 198, 210, 213, state law repealing, 313–14 following World War I, 279 234 prohibitionists, 209–10, 223, d uring Great Depression, development of industry, 272, 276–78, 281 305–6, 308–9, 311 192 –94, 213 property-rights advocates, o f Ku Klux Klan, 1 5 4 , 156, economic development 448–49 , 460 185, 280, 281–84 enabled by, 187–90, 198 property taxes, 429, 452, 455, 465 l ack of in Spanish Texas, economic diffi culties of, 289 prostitution, 282 35–36, 37 land grants to, 160, 187–88, Protestant churches. See in late 1800s, 2 1 1 , 218 191, 192 fundamentalists; s pecifi c in Mexican Texas, 6 9 , 76 in late 20th century, 449 religious groups in New Deal distribution, 3 0 6 lines in 1900, 189 provincial government, 470 Pro gressive legislation, 237 migration of Chinese Provincias Internas , 45 during Reconstruction, 146, workers, 221 provisional government, 74, 148–49, 161 oil-powered engines, 238 143–45, 147 in Republican party, 207–8 population growth due to, public health movement, 265 in Republic of Texas, 94, 181, 182 public lands. See land policy 98–99 during Reconstruction, 155 public schools. See education a gainst Tejanos, 77, 117, regulation of, 176, 208, 227, Public Schools Reform Act, 428 119–20, 254, 357–58 228, 229, 260, 262 public services in United States, 106 relationship with farmers, in early 1900s, 263 vio lence associated with, 1 8 1 , 188, 200–201, 229 future of, 461–62 184–85. See also Ku Klux relationship with lumber in ghettos, 250 Klan; lynching; race riots; industry, 216–17 in late 1800s, 202 vigilantes segregation of, 229, 233, 250 PWA’ s projects, 300 o f Wallace, 3 8 1 in South Texas, 1 9 5 for Tejanos, 255 a fter World War II, 3 5 8 , 385 strikes, 2 4 4 See also e ducation; health See also disfranchisement; subsidized construction care; prisons; state police; enslaved people; lynching; program, 1 60, 187–88 welfare programs segregation; slavery; union organization, 217 Public Works Administration vigilantes; white supremacy use of coal, 194 (PWA), 300–301 R a dical Reconstruction, 1 4 7 , See also Railroad Commission Puebla, Battle of, 310 151, 158–60, 187 . See also R a iney, Homer Price, 335, 361 Pueblo Indians, 3 , 14–15, 18–19 Radical Republicans Rainy Day Fund, 464 Pueblo Revolt, 1 9 Ra dical Republicans, 142, 147, Ramírez , Sara Estela, 3 1 1 Pure Food and Drug 150–58, 173. See also Ramón, Diego, 22 Department, 280 Republican party Ramón, Domingo, 22–23, 31 Index 503 Ramsdell, Charles W., 321 as Speaker of the House, 298, Red-Headed Strangerr (Nelson), Ramsey, Ben, 340 337, 339, 342 399 rancherías, 60, 111 support of Daniel, 345 redistrictin g, 340, 383, 451, 453 ranc heros, 1 8 , 31–32, 33–34, support of Johnson, 345, Re dman, Dewey, 401 47–48, 49, 70, 71, 98–99 376 Re d River, 6 9 , 117, 121, 133, ranc hing tidelands issue, 3 4 1 137, 187 African Americans in, 1 6 1 , 162 R a yner, J. B., 231 Re d River War, 168–69 among Tejanos, 220 Raza Unida Party (RUP), 389, Red Scare, 244, 281, 335, 343, in antebellum Texas, 113 393 361–62. See also cattle drives, 170–72 , 182 Rea gan, John H., 146, 175, 206, anticommunism cattle rustling, 40, 42, 134, 209, 227, 229, 232 referenda 164, 172, 185, 186, 187 Rea gan, Ronald, 394, 422 o n boundary issues, 127 confl icts between cattle and Reagan v. Farmers Loan and on integration of schools/ sheep ranchers, 185 Trust Co. , 229 interracial marriage, 344 in early 1900s, 237, 254 Reag h, Frank, 322 on prohibition/aid to elderly, federal programs, 409, 410 real estate industry, 240 313–14 fence-cutting wars, 191–92 reapportionment, 340, 383, 451, for sale of 3.2 percent beer, of Indians, 72 453 29 7 in late 1800s, 191 Rebel, Thee, 2 7 9 on secession, 1 3 1 , 132 in late 1900s, 409 recall, 2 3 0 r eforms in Mexican Texas, 59–60 , 69, reclamation, 2 8 0 o f 1920s, 283 70 recon quista, 10–11, 16–18 o f Fergusons’ a dministrations, New Deal programs for, 304 R econstruction 269–70 range lands, 172–73, 182 Congressional Pro gressive era, 234, 256, in Republic of Texas, 95 Reconstruction, 1 4 7 , 258–68 rise of cattle kingdoms, 150–58 refri geration, 354 170–73 constitutional convention, Re fugio, Texas, 66, 78, 91, 112, sheep and goats, 183–84, 254 144–46 , 148 241 in South Texas, 195 divergent views of, 142, 201 Re gulators, 96 in Spain, 11 ex-Confederates in power, religion/churches in Spanish Texas, 18, 30–32, 1 48–49 in 1990s, 411–13 39, 47–48 immigration during, 181 a bortion issue, 390 Tejanos in, 59–60, 254 Indian displacement, 164–70 o f African Americans, 1 6 3 , women’ s role in, 2 2 3 Presidential Reconstruction, 218, 252 See also cattle; goats; land 143–4 6, 147, 148–50 in antebellum Texas, 125–26 policy; sheep ranching; Radical Reconstruction, 157, anti-evolution theory vaqueros 158–60 crusaders, 2 8 4 ranc hos, 1 8 , 24, 28, 30–32, Redeemers, 173–75 colleges and universities of, 59–60, 220 rise of cattle kingdoms, 12 6, 265, 412 Randado Ranch, 220 170–73 e ffects of urbanization, 283 Randol ph, Frankie, 346 violence during, 149, 150, fundamentalism , 283–84 , Randolph Field, 274, 331 151, 154, 156, 160, 163–64 363, 390, 412 Ranger oilfi eld, 241 Reconstruction Acts, 151 o f Indians, 4 , 21 Rangers Ballpark, 418 R econstruction Finance in late 1800s, 199–200 Rankin, Judy, 398 Corporation (RFC), 296, i n Mexican Texas, 6 8 Rankin, Melinda, 1 2 4 , 125 297, 298, 299, 315 prohibition movement, 277 ra pe crisis centers, 390 r ecreation. See arts; leisure relief for depression victims, Rather, Dan, 4 1 6 activities; literature; music; 291 rationin g, 332, 333 sports; theater Reli gious Right, 363, 390, Rattlesnake Springs, Battle of, Re d Cross, 2 7 3 , 274, 275, 291 412. See also 161 Redeemers, 173–75 , 181, 205, fundamentalists Rauschenburg, Robert, 366 206–7. See also in Republic of Texas, 84 Ra yburn, Sam Constitution of 1876 right-to-life crusade, 390 bid for governor, 345 (Texas); Democratic party; rise of megachurches, 411–12 refusal to seat liberals at Reconstruction o f slaves, 1 1 9 Democratic convention, Re demption, 147, 173–75, 177, in Spanish Texas, 28–30 346 184, 207 o f Tejanos, 220 504 Index religion/churches (cont’d) R ice Institute, 265, 416 map of, 467 of Texas Indians, 6, 10 Richards, Ann, 390, 395, New Deal projects, 301, 303 view of Ku Klux Klan, 423–24, 430 paving of, 240 282 –84 Richardson, Rupert, 369 in post-World War II era, after World War II, 3 6 3 Richardson, Sid, 3 7 9 33 6, 339 See also Catholic Church; Richmond, Texas, 9 1 progressive reforms, 241, missions; speci fi c Ri ggs, Bobby, 398 268–69, 280 denomination right-to-life crusade, 390 in Republic of Texas, 100 Religious Right, 363, 390, 412. right-to-work laws, 336, 351, suburbanization associated See also fundamentalists 376, 442 with, 349 Renaissance Festival, 421 Río Conchos, 7 , 19 toll roads, 4 6 6 René and René, 3 6 8 Rio Grande See also Highway Department Renters’ Union of North border troubles, 263 Road to Spindletop, Thee (Spratt), America, 248 an d Civil War, 133 3 68–69 repatriation, 256 ear liest settlements on, 7 , 24 Ro berts, Oran M., 145, 148, 191, republicanism, 84–85, 230 e ducation along, 431 202, 203, 204, 206, 208 Republican Party La Salle explores near, 20 Ro bertson, Felix D., 283, 284 in 1950s, 342 l ivestock herds near, 31 Ro bertson, Lexie Dean, 322 in 1960–1986, 375, 376–85 p ollution of, 435 Ro bertson, Sterling C., 59, 66 before Civil War, 128–29 ranc hing on plains of, 60, Ro bertson County, 221, 257 during Eisenhower 172, 183, 186 Ro bertson Insurance Law administration, 341–42 Sout h Texas Initiative, 431 (1907), 262 election of 1860, 130–31 as Texas-Mexico boundary, Ro bin Hood bill, 4 2 9 , 455 election of 1928, 285 81, 86, 102, 104–5, 127, 263 Ro binson, Frank, 397 election of 1960, 376 towns along, 69 Ro binson, James W., 74 factions within, 450–51 See also border troubles ro deos, 1 1 , 50, 306, 365, 420 during Great Depression, Rio Grande City Riot, 185 Ro dríguez, Johnny, 413–14 285, 289, 315 Rio Grande Plain, 183–84 Ro dríguez, Joseph, 173 in late 1800s, 2 0 5 , 206–8 Rio Grande Valley Ro dríguez, T. A., 220 in late 1900s, 422–27 a griculture in, 244, 245, 255, Roemer, Ferdinand, 125 lily-white factions, 207 352 Roe v. Wadee, 390, 413 in new millennium, 4 3 9 , anti-evolution bill defeated Ro gers, Ginger, 364 450–53 by, 284 Ro gers, Jimmie, 323 position on slavery, 131–32 b order troubles, 270–71 Ro gers, Kenny, 400 during Reconstruction, in Civil W a r , 1 3 4 Roman Catholic Church. See 151– 60, 173 f armers’ march, 284 Catholic Church Religious Right and, 412–13 oil industry, 388 Romne y, Mitt, 454 response to Great Depression, poverty rates in, 407, 439 Rooseve lt, Franklin D. 289 ranc hing in, 38 Allred ’s relationship with, resurrection of, 394–95 , 406, S panish settlement of, 24 31 5, 320 437 water control issues, 4 3 5 election of 1936, 299 See also A frican Americans; R i pperdá, Juan María de, 44 New Deal programs, Democratic party; Radical Ritter, Maurice Woodward 29 7–305. See also specifi c Republicans; “Tex,” 367 program Reconstruction; specifi c R ivera, Tomás, 403 opposition to, 298, 315–17, politician by name roa ds and highways 334 Republic of Texas. See Texas, in antebellum era, 114–15 regulation of oil production, Republic of Comino Reall, 3 5 29 4 reservations, 121–23 in early 1900s, 249 relationship with Garner, reservoirs and dams, 433 ex pansion of in 1950s, 346 297–98 Retail Liquor Dealers’ following Reconstruction, restoration of public Association, 277 181 confi dence, 2 9 0 Reynolds, Debbie, 364 funding for, 348 support for, 297–98, 303, Reynolds, Joseph J., 156 im provement of, 237, 315, 316, 317, 351 Reynolds v. Sims, 383 267–68, 284–85, 333, 339, Texan politicians and, RFC. Seee Reconstruction 348 29 7–98 Finance Corporation (RFC) o f the Incas, 2 World War II and, 3 2 8 Index 505 Rooseve lt, Theodore, 2 5 0 , Salcedo, Texas, 47 mi gration into, 214 267–68 sa les tax, 2 9 7 , 318, 319, 346, mi litary installation in, 68, Roots and Folkloree (Carter), 401 408, 435–36, 448, 465 198, 274, 331 Rose, Archibald J., 204, 225 Saligny, Count Alphonse de, mus ic in, 3 2 2 Rose, Billy, 366 101 news papers in, 416 “Rosie the Riveter,” 332 Salt Creek Massacre, 166–67 politics in, 384, 426 Ross , Lawrence Sullivan, 1 3 5 , Saltillo, 8 9 population of, 33, 47, 69, 175, 204, 206, 210 salt mining, 185, 195 114, 198, 242, 349, 446 Ross ’ s Texas Brigade, 135 Salt War, 185 ranc hing near, 31, 70 Ro yal, Darrell, 396 Salvation Army, 291 Re publican clubs in, 378 Rubí, Marqués de, 43–44 Sam Houston: The Great in Republic of Texas, 91, 93 Ruby, George T., 153, 156, 157, Designerr (Friend), 369 Santa Anna ’ s attack on, 1 0 2 158, 163 Sam Houston Memorial sports in, 397, 418, 419 Rudder, James Earl, 329 Museum, 417 suburbs of, 3 7 8 Ruiz , David, 4 3 1 Sam Houston State Normal Te janos in, 98–99, 256, 313, Ruiz, José Francisco, 70, 75 School, 2 0 5 , 264 448 Ruiz v. Estellee, 431 S am the Sham and the te levision stations in, 3 5 4 Runawa y Scrape, 79 Pharaohs, 368 as tourist destination, 242, Runne ls, Hardin R., 128, 130 San Angelo, Texas, 165, 267, 331 363–64 r ural area San Angelo College, 379 during War for Texas control of legislature, 353 San Antonio, Texas Independence, 73–74, development of economy, Anglo settlers in, 61, 113 77–79 354 in antebellum era, 1 1 4 water issues in, 433 education in, 204 anticommunist sentiments in, See also A lamo; San Antonio growth of, 112–13 361–62 de Béxar life of African Americans in, arts in, 311 San Antonio de Béxar 251 barrio in, 1 9 9 , 255 b attle of Alamo, 77–79 life style of, 245–48, 249, 304, on Camino Reall, 35 commun ications in, 43 315 as capital of Spanish Texas, 47 farming in, 32 migration out of, 251, 281, cattle drives through, 172 fi nishing of presidio, 28 306, 315, 332, 349, 353, Cisneros elected mayor of, founding of, 23 411, 446 365 interracia l marriages in, 39 New Deal programs, 303–5 civil rights demonstrations in, M exican War for in post-World War II era, 349 386 Independence in, 49 See also farming; ranching; in Civil War, 1 3 3 p lan for colleges, 89 settlements Council House Fight in, politics in, 62, 64 R ural Electrifi cation 9 7–98 ranc hing near, 34, 59, 70 Administration (REA), cultural life in, 3 2 3 , 366, 413 relocation of settlers in, 4 4 30 4, 315 as departure point for tra de of rancheros, 32 Rusk, Texas, 1 9 5 , 266, 267 western expeditions, 198 water supply for, 34 Rusk, Thomas Jefferson, 83, 84 economy of, 34 San Antonio de Valero mission, Rusk College, 265 education in, 7 0 , 126, 431 23–24 rust ling, 40, 42, 134, 164, 172, epidemics, 35 San Antonio El Bejareño , 12 5 185–86, 187 farming near, 32, 70, 113 San Antonio River, 3 2 , 59, 95, R yan, Nolan, 418 founding of, 23, 24, 92 183 Germans in, 1 1 2 , 198–99, San Antonio River valley, S a beata, Juan, 19 257 170–73 S a bine Pass, Battle of, 134 horseracing in, 421 San Antonio Road, 35 Sabine River, 5 5 , 59, 95, 113, hospital in, 34, 202 San Antonio-San Diego Mail 117, 148 industry in, 214, 242 Line, 114 saddler y shops, 193, 194 labor disputes in, 351 San Antonio Spurs, 397, 418, Saengerfests, 322 labor unions in, 312–13 419 Saenz, J. Luz, 311 mental institution in, 267 San Antonio State Hospital, 202 St. Cecilia Club, 323 Mexican Americans in, 111 Sánchez, George I., 358 St. Denis, Louis Juchereau de, Mexican reinforcement of, 62 Sánc hez, Tony, 426, 450 21–22 Mexican War for sanctuary cities bill, 453 Salas, Fray Juan de, 19 Independence, 49 San ders, Barefoot, 392 506 Index San Diego, Texas, 270 Secess ionist Democrats, 129–30, sett lement houses, 256, 275, 276 San Elizario, Texas, 185 147 sett lements San Felipe de Austin, 57, 62, 64, Secon d Gulf War, 441, 452 of ethnic groups, 111–12, 65, 66, 74 sectiona lism, 112, 128–31 116, 117 San Fernando de Béxar, 23–24 , Securities and Exchange Indian attacks on, 3 4 , 40, 35–36, 62, 70 . See also San Commission (SEC), 41–43, 45, 46, 55–56, 71, Antonio, Texas 391–92 97–98, 121, 122, 123, 130, San Francisco de los Tejas, 21 Sedalia, Missouri, 170–71 133, 164–66 San Gabriel missions, 2 4 Sedalia Trail, 170–71 in New Spain, 16–17, 24 sanitation, 3 4 , 46, 161 Sedition Act (1917), 279 See also civilian settlements; San Jacinto, Battle of, 70, 79, 80, se gregation missions; presidios; s pecifi c 98 o f African Americans, 2 1 8 , area San Jacinto Day holiday, 95 233, 312, 350 Seven Breakthrough Solutions, San Jacinto Museum, 417 Brown v. Board of Education 45 6–57 San Jacinto River, 79 of Topeka, 3 60 Seven Cities, 14–15 San José y San Miguel de o f CCC camps, 301–2 severance taxes, 4 3 5 , 436. See Aguayo mission, 23 o f churches, 363 also taxes: on oil San Juan Bautista, 22, 43–44 in early 1900s, 249, 250 sex ism, 311 San Marcos, Texas, 3 3 1 , 461 end of, 385–87 S hackelford County, 165 San Marcos de Neve, 47 FHA ’ s encouragement of, 306 S hafter, William R., 167 San Patricio, Texas, 66, 78, 112 intro duction of, 161 s hamans, 10 San Saba County, 113, 187 l egislation in Progressive Era, s harecropping. See e tenant San Sabá missions, 2 4 , 41, 43 237 farming Santa Anna, Antonio López de o f military, 161–62, 167, 273, S harp, Frank, 391 attempt to overthrow 330, 337 S harpless, Rebecca, 417 Centralists, 6 3 movemen t to overturn, S harpstown scandal, 391–93 capture of San Antonio, 102 357–58 S harpstown State Bank, 391 edict against Iturbide, 55 nationa l stand against, 385 S haver, Billy Joe, 399 as president of Mexico, o f New Deal programs, 312 S hawnees, 7 2 64–65, 72–76 o f public facilities, 250 s heep ranching in Texan war for o f railroad facilities, 2 2 9 , 233, in antebellum Texas, 183–84 independence, 77–81, 83 250 clashes with cattle ranchers, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1 8 during Reconstruction, 161 185 Santa Fe Expedition, 89, 102 resi dential, 1 9 9 , 250 diseases spread by imported Santa Fe Railroad, 216 o f schools, 176, 203, 253–54, sheep, 170 Satanta (Kiowa chief), 166–67 309, 312, 357, 358 in early 1900s, 254, 304 savings-and-loan scandals, 408 in sports, 396 in post-World War II era, 352 sawmills. See lumber industry o f Tejanos, 199, 254, 255, in Republic of Texas, 95 Sayers, Joseph, 234, 259–60 309, 350, 357–58 rustling, 185 scalawags, 147, 158–59 t hreats to, 3 3 4 shearers’ union, 309 Scarborough, Dorothy, 321, 369 o f U.S. military, 161–62 Spanish ranching, 11 Schiwetz, E.M. “Buck,” 365 during World War II, 330, 334 in Spanish Texas, 30–31 Schmidt, Harvey, 366 See also integration; Jim Crow wool production, 113 School for the Deaf, 267 S eguín, Erasmo, 58, 60, 64, 70 during World War II, 333 schools. See education Seguín, Juan N., 60, 64, 70, 79, S heep Shearers’ Union of North school voucher bill, 452 98–99, 125 America, 309 Scott, Winfi eld, 1 0 7 Select Committee on Tax Equity, S helby County, 96 Screwman ’s Benevolent 436 S helbyville, Texas, 91 Association, 196 Selective Service Act, 3 2 8 s helters for battered women, Scurry County, 347 Selena, 4 1 4 390 Season of Weatheringg (Owens), Selman, John, 164 S heppard, Morris, 298, 319, 347 370 Semico lon Court, 173–74 S hepperd, John Ben, 340, seatbelt law, 3 9 5 Semino les, 3 344–45 secession, 1 0 9 , 128, 130, Sense of Smell, Thee (Bedicheck), S heridan, Ann, 364 131–32, 138, 144, 146, 155 321 S heridan, Philip, 152–53 secession convention, 131–32 , Serbian, Texas, 2 2 0 S herman, Texas, 1 2 6 , 215, 250 145, 148 service industry, 409, 441, 466 S herman, William T., 167 Index 507 S hilladay, John R., 250 smu ggling, 32, 68 Sout hwest Texas State S hiloh, Battle of, 1 3 6 snow birds, 440 University, 421 ship yards, 331 s o c c e r , 4 20 Space Cityy, 389 S hivercrats, 3 4 2 , 394 socia lism, 279 S pain S hivers, Allan, 3 3 7 , 339, 340–45, socia list movement, 2 3 3 Bour bon Reforms, 43–45 , 376, 380 socia l justice movement, 280 48–49 S hoe Bar Ranch, 1 8 3 Socia l Security Act, 303, 314, conquest of Mexico/Peru, Shrake, Edwin “Bud,” 370, 416 315, 319 12–13 Si bley, Henry Hopkins, 133 Sociedad Benito Juárezz, 220 Constitution of 1812, 54 Siec ke, Eric O., 208 society control of Louisiana, 4 1 , 43 silicon microchip, 348 in antebellum Texas, 116–26 exploration of Texas/Great Si lsbee, Nathan D., 216 during Civil War, 143 Plains, 14–15 silver coinage, 227, 230, 232, in late 1800s, 199–200, 221 involvement in French 233 in Mexican Texas, 66–72 Revolution, 4 5 Simmons, William Joseph, 281 in Progressive era, 237 l egacy in Texas, 50–52 sin ging societies, 322 in Republic of Texas, 93, Mexican independence, s in tax, 3 4 6 , 408, 435, 436, 465 95–96, 98–99, 108 4 8–50 Sirin go, Charles H., 320 in Spanish Texas, 35–38 Mexican War for S laughter, C.C., 172–73 after World War II, 362–71 Independence, 48–50, 54 S laughter, Marion T., 323 Societ y of Female Muslim era, 1 0 s laughter industry, 194 Manufacturing Workers, reconquista, 10–11 s lave codes, 3 7 , 94 312 sett lements of, 16–17 s laveholders, 1 1 3 , 116, 119 Solms-Braunfels, Prince Carl of, war with France, 4 9 s lave rebellion paranoia, 119 91 S paniards, 8–9 s lavery Somerve ll, Alexander, 102 S panish law, 38, 51, 108 in antebellum Texas, 113, Somervell Expedition, 102 Spanish Texas 116, 118–19 Sonnic hsen, C.L., 369 Bour bon Reforms and, as cause of Civil War, 131 Sour Lake oilfi eld, 240 4 3–45 churches ’ view of, 1 2 6 Sout h, the. S ee Confederate farming in, 32 end of, 1 3 9 , 146 States of America; Deep government of, 28 in Mexican Texas, 5 6 , 58, South; Upper South governors, 469–70 61–62, 69 Sout h by Southwest Music and i mmigration into, 27–28 in Republic of Texas, 94, 108 Media Festival, 4 1 5 Indians of, 38–43 sectional crisis over, 1 0 8 , Sout hern, Terry, 370 missions, 28–30 126–32 Sout hern Alliance, 2 2 7 p residios, 30 in Spanish Texas, 31, 37 Southern Manifesto, 347 ranchos, 30–32 in state of Texas, 1 1 1 Sout hern Methodist University, s lavery in, 37 Texas annexation, 104 265 , 359, 396, 397, 416, 421 society in, 35–38 slaves. See enslaved people Sout hern Pacifi c Railroad, 1 8 8 , Te janas in, 37–38 S lavic Texans, 220 189, 216 towns of, 33–35 Slidell, John, 105 Southern Pine Association, Special Force of Texas Rangers, sma llpox, 161, 162 217 1 86–87 Smit h, Alfred E., 285, 297 Sout hern Slave Power, 1 3 1 S pecie Resumption Act, 208 Smith , Antonio Maceo, 3 0 6 , 359 South Texas, 1 9 5 , 219, 237, 255, S pindletop oil strike, 215, 237, Smit h, Ashbel, 204 333, 353, 388, 443, 444 238–39 Smith , Bessie, 308 South Texas Initiative, 431 spor ts Smit h, Edmund Kirby, 137 Sout hwest Conference, 3 6 5 , in 1960–86, 396–98 Smit h, F. Todd, 417 396, 397, 421 i n 1986 to present, 417–21 Smith, Henry, 74, 84 Southwestern Historical African Americans in, 306–7 , Smit h, Lonnie, 3 0 6 Quarterlyy, 3 2 1 , 369 396 Smith , Preston, 3 7 9 , 382, Southwestern Immigration in early 1900s, 249 390–92, 436 Company, 182 d uring Great Depression, Smit h, Robert Lloyd, 251 Sout hwestern Theological 306 –7 Smith-Hu ghes Act, 265 Seminary, 412 no-pass, no-play rule in Smit h-Lever Act, 265 Sout hwestern University, 265, schools, 4 2 8 Smith v . Allwright t (1944), 306, 359 se gregation of, 365 334, 335 Sout hwest Texas Normal, 264 a fter World War II, 364–65 508 Index spousal rape law, 390 Stevenson, Coke, 333–34, Supreme Court of the United Spratt, John S., 368–69 338–39, 361 States. See United States Spur Ranch, 183 Stewart, Payne, 419 Supreme Court Sputnikk, 35 6 Stinson, Katherine, 276 suspen ded-sentence law, 280 St. Mary ’s University, 126 stock-market crash (1929), 285, Sutton, William E., 164 stagecoaches, 114, 187 289, 290 Sutton-Taylor Feud, 164 stagfl ation, 394 Stou denmire, Dallas, 164 Swa yne, Jim, 239 Stance, Emanuel, 1 6 1 Stra it, George, 400 Sweatt , Herman Marion, 3 3 5 , Standard Oil Company, 234, S traus, Annette, 390 336, 359, 360 261, 294 Strauss, Joe, 453 Sweatt v. Painterr, 335, 359 Starlight Operetta, 366 Stra yhorn, Carole Keeton, 452 Sweetwater , Texas, 183 Star of the Republic Museum, streetcar barn convention, 2 3 1 Sw itzer, Barry, 418 4 17 streetcars , 243, 255 s ymphony. See e music Starr County, 388 Stricklands, Thee (Lanham), state auditor’ s offi ce, 285 371 Ta folla, James, 358 State Board of Control, 2 6 6 , stri ke and pursue tactic, 97 Ta ft, Robert, 3 4 2 , 378 267 stri kes/work stoppages Ta ft, William Howard, 263 State Board of Education, 355 in 1881/1885, 196–97 Ta ft-Harley Act, 338, 351 State Capitol building, 183, 197, causes of, 195–96 Tamau lipas, 69 206, 376, 417 in coal mines, 194 ta riffs State Colonization Law (1825), o f dock workers, 244 Democrats ’ move to lower, 58 in early 1900s, 255 233 State Democratic Executive o f farm workers, 3 8 8 effect on European economy, Committee (SDEC), 339 d uring Great Depression, 289 state ethics advisory 311, 313 immigrants’ exemption, 58, commission, 3 9 5 in lumber industry, 217 68, 73 State Fair, 3 6 6 in oil industry, 244, 280 of Mexico, 6 3 State Federation of Labor, 259 a gainst railroads, 244, 255, Mill ’s attempt to lower, 227 State Highway Commission, 280 during Reconstruction, 142, 2 70, 284–85, 292 in Republic of Texas, 93 151 State Industrial Commission, o f retail employees, 343 South ’s opposition to, 131 2 64 Te janos wildcat strikes, 353 Tarrant County, 121 State Juvenile Training School, a fter World War II, 3 3 5 , 351 tasinques , 254 2 66 Student Nonviolent Tawa konis, 121 State Land Board, 191 Coordinating Committee t axes state lottery, 424, 466 (SNCC), 386 of Allred administration, state militia, 1 5 9 , 160, 161 . S ee Subtreasury Plan, 227, 230–31, 313 also military; militia 233 Bourbon Reforms, 43, 48–49 State Orphans’ School, 202, 267 suburbs, 243, 349, 362, 378, on cattle, 32 state parks. See parks 383, 447–48, 455 on chain stores, 3 1 3 state police, 159, 160, 161, 164, suffrage on cigarettes and alcohol, 186 for African American males, 2 62, 314, 315, 346, 408, states’ rights, 128, 131, 142, 146, 142, 146, 151, 153, 207, 435, 436, 465 173, 334, 337, 459 231, 249–50, 384 Constitution of 1876 State Teachers’ Association, 2 0 4 f or ex-Confederates, 1 4 4 restrictions, 176 State Tuberculosis Sanitorium, for women, 3 8 , 70, 123, 176, corporate, 2 60, 262, 297, 346, 2 67 223, 230, 231, 237, 238, 455, 465 State Water Plan, 433 , 458 271–72, 274–75 deferred decisions, 435–36 steamboats, 187 s u gar, 113 , 114 Democrats ’ policies, 181 Stephen F. Austin Normal Sul Ross Normal School, 264 for education, 1 5 9 , 160, 177, School, 2 6 4 Sumners, Hatton, 2 9 8 , 316, 341 203, 204, 263, 264, 340, Stephens County, 194, 240 Sunn y and the Sunglows, 368 343, 356, 431 Stephenville, Texas, 265 Sun Oil Company, 239 effects of Great Depression, Sterling, Ross S., 292, 294, 296 Superfund program, 435 291 Steve Miller Band, 4 0 1 Supplemental Nutrition excise, 3 0 3 , 435 Stevenson, Adlai, 3 4 1 , 342, 380 Assistance Program franchise, 2 6 0 , 262, 346, 408, Stevenson, Ben, 398 (SNAP), 461 435, 436, 465 Index 509 on gasoline and motor Anglo prejudice against, 77, in politics, 220, 255, 358, 382, vehicles, 3 1 9 , 348, 408, 117, 119–20, 254, 309, 312, 385, 393, 424, 426, 437 435, 436 334, 350, 357–58 poll tax drives, 309 gathering on natural gas in antebellum Texas, 1 1 1 , p opulation of, 119, 219, 254, pipelines, 340, 343 113, 116, 117, 119–21 308–9, 329, 406, 407, 440 on immigrants’ necessities, barrios, 1 9 9 , 254, 255 in post-World War II era, 350 27 , 62 at Battle of San Jacinto, 79 p residial service of, 30 income, 230, 237, 262, 293, border troubles, 185, 270 as ranchers, 31–32, 59–60, 297, 436, 442, 465 Bracero program, 353 111, 113, 220 increases in late 1900s, 4 0 6 as capitalists, 62 as ranch hands, 1 9 5 inheritance, 262 on cattle drives, 172 religion of, 29, 220 on insurance premiums, 408 Chicano Movement, 388 repatriation/deportation of, under Moody, 285 in cities, 199, 219–20, 254, 256, 309, 350, 353 oil crisis and, 4 0 8 255, 350 in Republic of Texas, 98–99, on oil industry, 297, 315, 318, civil rights movement, 101, 108–9 435, 436 387–89 resi lience of, 50–52 omnibus tax bill, 3 4 6 in Civil War, 1 3 8 , 139 resistance to Law of April 6, on overproduction of cotton, cultural infl uence of, 50–52 1830, 62–64 303 culture of, 2 2 0 rights of, 358, 384 for pensions, 314–15, 319 disfranchisement of, 2 5 4 , 255 se gregation of, 199, 254, 309, poll, 233, 259, 260, 296, 318, dispossession of, 195 350, 357–58 335, 339, 358, 383 in early 1900s, 254–57 se lf-help organizations, progressive reforms, 260, 262 economic status, 4 0 7 2 55–57 property, 4 29, 435, 452, 455, education of, 7 0 , 254, 309, socia l status of, 35–38 465 357–58, 429, 430 in Spanish Texas, 28, 31–32, ranking in nation, 442 effects of Great Depression, 47–49 during Reconstruction, 159, 291 in sports, 398 160 employment for, 254–55 as teamsters, 11 5, 120 reforms in 2006, 465–66 as farm laborers, 246–47 , as tenant farmers, 304–5 relief for depression victims, 254–55, 309 vio lence against, 120–21, 185, 234 fi ght for integration of 255, 270 in Republic of Texas, 85, 88 schools, 357 Viva Kennedy Clubs, 377, restructuring of, 425 during Great Depression, 388 revenue from tourism, 4 5 0 25 6, 306, 308–9 voter turnout, 4 2 6 sales, 2 9 7 , 318, 319, 346, 408, illegal immigration, 60, 61, during World War II, 329, 435–36, 448, 465 62, 66, 407, 440 332, 334 on slaves, 1 1 8 in labor unions, 2 5 5 , 309, as writers, 1 2 5 , 403 in Spanish Texas, 43, 46, 49 312–13 Te jas Indians, 20–22 . See also for sports arenas, 418–19 in late 1800s, 219–20 Caddos on tobacco and alcohol, 3 1 8 , leisure activities, 309–11 , 368 Telegraph and Texas Registerr, 346 LULAC activism, 256–57 , 100 , 125 on transactions, 318 309, 313, 354, 357–58 te lephone systems, 243, 249, 354 Ta ylor, Creed, 164 in Mexican Texas, 51–52 , te levision, 3 5 4 , 363, 396, 397, Ta ylor, Hobart T., Sr., 306 69–71 401, 414, 416 Ta ylor, Zachary, 104, 105, Mexican War for Te lles, Raymond, 387 106–8, 127 Independence, 49–50 temperance. See prohibition Teac her Retirement System, 315 migration in early 1900s, 254 Temporary Assistance for Needy teachers. See education in military, 273–74 Families (TANF), 461, 462 Tea Party, 453–54 music of, 3 2 2 , 368, 413–14 tenant farming Te huacana Creek Treaty, 98 New Deal programs, 304–5, A frican Americans in, 201–2 , Te ja, Jesús F. de la, 417 308–9 251, 304–5 Te janas, 37–38, 51, 70, 256, 369 . opposition to Know-Nothing ca p on rent, 269 See also women party, 128 in early 1900s, 237, 245, 246, Te janos opposition to prohibition, 266 aid to runaway slaves, 119, 277 e ducation and, 2 6 6 126 per capita income, 349, 350 h alfers, third and forth at Alamo, 78 political affi liation, 439 renters, croppers, 24 6 510 Index tenant farming (cont’d) recover y of Indian’ s captives, faculty of, 456 in late 1800s, 201–2, 214 167 forestry service New Deal programs, 304–5 return to Union, 156 administration, 268 in post-World War II era, 352 secession. See e secession funding for, 271, 431 progressive reforms, 280 U. S. Senators, 472–73 . See Hogg ’s support of, 229 during Reconstruction, 161 also specifi c Senator Hopwood case’ s effect on, rent caps, 2 69–70 War for Independence, 75–81 4 30 women’ s role in, 2 4 8 , 304 wet and dry counties, 277 professors at, 416 during World War II, 332 See also antebellum Texas; rural education through, 249 See also cotton; farming Civil War; economy; Great sports at, 3 65 Tenayuca, Emma, 312–13 Depression; Mexican Texas; Texas A&M University Press, 369 Tender Mercies (Foote), 399, New Deal; Progressive Era; Texas Admission Act, 104 401–2 Reconstruction; Spanish Texas Aeronautics Commission, Tennant, Allie Z., 366 Texas; Texas, Republic of; 348 Tennessee, 1 7 7 , 181 World War II Texas Agriculture Experiment tennis, 3 9 8 , 419, 420 Texas (Roemer), 125 Station, 2 0 4 , 265 Tenochtitlán (Mexico), 2 Texas, Republic of Texas: A Guide to the Lone Star Terán, Domingo de, 21 a griculture in, 93–95 Statee, 301 Terms of Endearment annexation of, 8 4 , 85, 100, Texas Almanacc, 363 (McMurtry), 404 103–4, 111, 127 Texas and Pacifi c Coal Terrell, Alexander W., 260 area of, 86 Company, 255 Terrell, Texas, 2 0 2 , 267 cu ltural identity in, 95–96 Texas and Pacifi c (T&P) Terrell Elections Laws, 2 3 3 , 260, demographic growth, 90–91 Railroad, 1 8 7 , 188, 189, 197 261 econom y of, 85–86, 87, Texas Association for Counties, Terrell State Hospital, 202 88–90, 101, 103, 108 4 65 terrorism, 441 e ducation in, 8 9 , 93, 99–100 Texas Association of Nashville, Terr y, Benjamin Franklin, 135 esta blishment of fi rst elected Tennessee, 5 9 , 66 Terr y ’s Texas Rangers, 135 government, 83–85 Texas Ballet Theater, 4 1 3 Texaco, 2 3 9 , 240, 294 establ ishment of interim Texas Blind, Deaf, and Orphan Texarkana Junior College, 360 government, 74, 83 School for Negroes, 202, Texas fi scal policy of, 85–90 267 border troubles. See border f riction with Mexico, 101–2 Texas blind salamander, 460–61 troubles in dependence declared, 81, Texas Brewers’ Association, 277 centennial celebration, 3 1 5 , 83 Texas Central Railroad, 1 8 8 366 Indian policy of, 87, 89, “ Texas chic,” 401 challenges of new 96–98 Texas Christian University, 265, millennium, 439–67 interna l problems, 85–90 365, 416 cities. S ee specifi c city l and policy, 85–87, 89, 90 Texas City, 331, 460 constitutions. See Mexican legacy in, 108–9 Texas City Refi nery, 460 amendments to Texas mi litary of, 85–86, 88, 89, Texas Clubs of Democratic constitution; Constitutions 102 Voters, 3 3 5 , 385 (Texas) news papers in, 100 Texas College of Mines, 265 counties, 447 . S ee also specifi c population growth of, 108 Texas Company (Texaco), 239, county presidents, 84, 86, 90, 471 240, 294 cultural homogenization, 406 reco gnition by foreign Texas Congress, 85, 86, 87 current issues and future nations, 8 5 , 88, 100–101 Texas Congress of Mothers, challenges, 454–66 s lavery in, 94 224 , 276 enforcement of proration of societ y of, 93, 95–96, 98–99 Texas Cooperative Association, oil production, 294 Te janos in, 98–99, 101 22 5 frontier society, 95, 99–100, towns in, 9 0 , 91–93 Texas Cotton Association, 296 181–211 trans portation in, 100, 108 Texas Court of Appeals, 430 governors, 471–72. See also ur ban life in, 9 3 , 95 Texas Cowboy, A (Siringo), 320 specifi c governor Texas A&I University, 396, 421 Texas Education Agency, 355 as New Texas, 4 0 6 , 436–37 Texas A&M University, 175 Texas Equal Rights Association, offi cial music of, 453 a gricultural experimental 223, 274 population of. See station of, 265–66 Texas Equal Suffrage Association demographics as all-white school, 204–5 (TESA), 223, 271, 275 Index 511 Texas Farmers Congress, Texas Planning Board, 313 Texas State Historical 248–49 Texas Playboys, 324 Association (TSHA), 320, Texas Federation of Business Texas Power and Light, 243 369, 417 and Professional Women ’s Texas Preemption Act (1854), Texas State Labor Union, 217 Club, 2 2 4 , 276 113 Texas State Penitentiary. See Texas Federation of Women ’s Texas Prison Board, 2 6 6 , 285 Department of Corrections Clubs (TFWC), 224, 252, Texas Prison System. S ee prisons Texas State Teachers Association 253, 275, 276 Texas Railroad Commission. See (TSTA), 264 T exas Fever, 1 7 1 , 182 Railroad Commission Texas State University for Texas Film Commission, 415 T exas Rangers Negroes, 339, 357. See also Texas Fine Arts Association, 3 2 2 antecedents to, 69 Texas Southern University Texas Folklore Society, 369 boomtown lawlessness tamed, Texas Sunday School Texas Forestry Association, 268 239 Association, 284 Texas Gazettee, 68 b order troubles quelled, 263, T exas Supreme Court, 173–74, Texas Good Roads Association, 270–71 296, 429, 455 2 68 in Civil War, 1 3 5 Texas Tech University, 265, 396, Texas Grant, 456 communit y feud control, 415, 416, 421, 456 Texas Idea, 242–43 164 Texas Traffi c Association, 189, Texas in 18500 (Rankin), 125 Cort ina War, 120–21 229 Texas Instruments, 3 4 8 creation of, 8 7 “Texas Troubles,” 119 Texas in the Middle Eighteenth Ma Ferguson ’s changes, 297 Texas Typographical Centuryy (Bolton), 320 organization of, 108 Association, 93 Texas League (baseball), 396–97 p rohibition enforcement, Texas v. Whitee, 155 Texas League of Women Voters, 280 –81 Texas Water Commission, 4 3 5 2 76 racia l violence quelled, 332 Texas Water Department Board, Texas Local Option Association, reorganization of, 313 45 8 277 resurrection of, 186–87 Texas Water Plan, 4 3 3 Texas Marketing Association, ro le in integration of schools, Texas Water Pollution Control 295 3 44 Board, 4 3 5 Texas Medical Center, 462 Salt War, 1 8 5 Texas Water Quality Texas Mexicans. See Tejanos strike control, 388 Commission, 4 3 5 Texas Monthlyy, 4 1 6 Te janos’ battles with, 310 T exas Water Research Texas Motor Speedway, 421 i n U.S.-Mexican War, 106–8 Committee, 3 4 5 Texas Municipal League, 465 war with Comanches, 9 8 , Texas Western College, 359 T exas Natural Resources 121, 134 Texas Woman Equal Suffrage Conservation Commission Texas Rangers (baseball team), Association, 276 (TNRCC), 435 39 7, 418, 424 Texas Woman ’s College, 275 Texas Observerr, 346, 370, 378 Texas Regulars, 334–35, 337–39, Texas Woman Suffrage Texas Pacifi c Land Trust, 188 361 Association, 2 2 3 , 274 Texas Panhandle, 2 0 0 , 244, 255, Texas Rehabilitation and Relief Texas Woman’ s University, 223, 411, 433 Commission, 2 9 6 , 297, 303 265 buffalo hunting in, 170 Texas Relays, 420 Texas Women’ s Political Caucus campaigns against Indians in, Texas Relief Commission, 2 9 6 , (TWPC), 390 167 , 168 306 Texas Writers ’ Project, 301 development of towns, 183 Texas Review Press, 415 Texas Youth Commission farming in, 244–45 Texas Revolution, 75–81 (TYC), 458 Indian groups in, 97 Texas School for the Blind, 2 6 6 , Texians , 95–96 loss of population, 411, 446 267 Tex-Son Company, 351 migration out of, 446 Texas Southern University, 336, textile mills, 2 8 9 railroads in, 1 8 8 , 200 339, 357, 386, 387 t heater, 3 1 1 , 323, 365, 366, 398, ranching in, 161, 172–73, Texas South Plains, 1 7 2 , 173, 413 182–83 183 T hirteenth Amendment, 1 4 4 , Spanish view of, 15 Texas State Cemetery, 417 145, 146, 156 water control issues, 433 Texas State Council of This Stubborn Oill (Owens), 370 See also High Plains; speci fi c Methodist Women, 339 T hompson, Ben, 164 place names Texas State Federation of Labor T hompson, Ernest O., 294, 317, Texas Park Board, 3 6 3 (TSFL), 217, 244 318 512 Index Thompson, Thomas, 370 o f the French, 19–20, 21–22 Tr inity University, 265, 365 Three Friends (Owens), 370 o f Indians, 71, 72, 169, 170 Trip to Bountiful, Thee (Foote), Three Rivers, Texas, 358 in Mexican Texas, 68, 69 399 Throckmorton, James W., o f Muslims, 11 Truc k Grower’ s Union, 251 145–46, 147, 150, 152–53 rai lroads’ e ffect on, 188–89 Truett, Joe C., 417 Throckmorton County, 121 in Republic of Texas, 93, 98 T ruman, Harry S., 315, 335, 337, Thunder in the Earth (Lanham), o f Spanish Texas, 32, 43, 47, 341, 351 3 70 48, 50 trusts , 2 2 9 , 261 Thurber, Texas, 1 9 4 , 220, 255 o f Texas Indian groups, 7, Tubb, Ernest, 367 Thurmond, Strom, 337 8–9, 18–19, 21, 40, 41, 46–47 Tucker, Tanya, 400 tidelands issue, 3 4 1 , 342 o f U.S. in 1920s, 289 Tues day Music Club, The, 322, Tijerina, Andrés A., 59, 62 t r a de associations, 217 323 Tijerina, Félix, 358 Trail to Ogallala (Capps), 370 Tune, Tommy, 399 timber. See forests; lumber Tram bley, Estela Portillo , 4 0 3 Tuneful Tales (Wiggins), 308 industry transaction tax, 3 1 8 Tunne ll, Byron, 379 Time It Never Rained, The Transcontinenta l Treaty, 55, 56, turkeys, 460 (Kelton), 403 105 Turner, Elizabeth Hayes, 417 Tinhiouen (the Elder), 41 Trans-Mississippi Military Turtle Bayou Resolutions, 63 Title IX, 398 Department, 137 Twent y-fi rst Amendment, 296, Toltecs, 2 Trans-Nueces ranching frontier, 297 Tonkawas, 9–10, 24, 39, 121 60 Twent y-fourth Amendment, tort reforms, 4 4 2 Trans-Pecos region, 172 383 tourism, 2 4 2 , 363–64, 449–50 trans portation Twent y-sixth Amendment, 384 Tower, John, 377–78, 382, 392, in antebellum era, 114–15 Twi ggs, David E., 133 422 bullet trains, 4 4 9 T yler, John, 104 Tower y, Kenneth, 345 commercial system, 449 towns development of railroads, U gartechea, Domingo de, 72 in antebellum era, 113–14 187–90 U m lauf, Charles, 366 boomtowns, 2 3 7 , 241, 294 facilitation of immigration, unemployment built by lumber companies, 447 in 1960–1986, 394, 395 21 6 in Gilded Age, 181 of African Americans, 387 of Caddo Indians, 6 g ood roads movement, 268 Americans’ attitudes toward, cattle drives through, 170–72 improvements of early 1900s, 291 established by railroads, 182, 243 during Great Depression, 183 in late 1800s, 187–90, 198, 289 , 290, 291 founded by immigrants, 199, 200 New Deal programs, 300–301 221–22 nee d for mass transit, 4 4 8 in new millennium, 441–42 , in late 1800s, 197–99, 214–15 in post-World War II era, 461 in Mexican Texas, 57, 60, 61, 348, 349 in post-World War II era, 66–67, 69 in Republic of Texas, 100, 350 railroad development of, 183, 108 unemployment insurance, 395 187–90 in Spanish period, 35 Union Army. See United States in Republic of Texas, 90, streetcars , 2 43, 255 Army 91–93, 95–96, 108 See also a irports; Houston Unionist Democrats, 1 2 8 , 130, rise of, 181 Ship Channel; ports; 138, 144, 145 in Spanish Texas, 23, 33–35, railroads; roads and Unionists, 1 3 0 , 138–39, 143–45, 44 highways 146, 151–52 See also c ities Trans-Texas Corridor, 4 4 9 Union Labor Party, 210 Townsend, Francis E., 314 Travis , William Barret, 6 3 , 72, Union League, 138–39, 153–54, Toyota Center, 419 77–79 156, 157, 163 track and fi eld, 4 2 1 Trav is County, 255, 392 Union Party, 145, 146 trade treat ies. See specifi c treaty by un ions. See labor unions; in antebellum era, 114 place name of signing strikes/work stoppages Bourbon Reforms and, 4 3 Trevíño, Jacinto, 310 Unite d Cannery, Agricultural, during the Civil War, 143 Trev ino, Lee, 3 9 8 Packing, and Allied effects of NAFTA, 4 0 8 Tr inity River, 69, 72, 115, 117, Workers of America exports from Texas, 442, 444 118 (UCAPAWA), 309 Index 513 Unite d Friends of Temperance, in World War II, 329 me dical school, 204 209 See also military mi litary training at, 274 United Mine Workers (UMW), United States Army Air Force, Re gulars on board of, 361 1 96 274, 329, 331 s ports at, 396, 397, 421 Unite d States Unite d States Court of Appeals, Sweatt ’ s court case, 3 3 5 , 336 aid to agricultural areas, 409, 45 9 Universit y Interscholastic 410 Unite d States Department of League, 265 annexation of Texas, 84, 85, Agriculture, 265 veto of German Department, 87, 100, 103–4, 111, 126, Unite d States Senators, 472–73 279 127 Unite d States Supreme Court See also e ducation Bracero program, 353 on abortion, 3 9 0 , 413 Universit y of Texas at Arlington Compromise of 1850, 126–27 on affi rmative action, 4 3 0 (UTA), 416, 456 encroachment of Texas, on all-white primaries, 306 Universit y of Texas at Austin 55–5 9 on Jim Crow laws, 250 (U.T.-Austin), 366, 386, environmental protection on railroad regulation, 229 456 acts, 4 35 on reapportionment, 383 Universit y of Texas at Dallas, Great Depression, 289–90 on rent caps , 2 69, 270 4 56 Great Society, 380 Roosevelt’ s court packing Universit y of Texas at El Paso Louisiana Purchase, 55 plan, 316 (UTEP), 416 NAFTA, 4 0 8 , 409 ruling on Obamacare, 464 Universit y of Texas MD New Deal programs, ruling on poll taxes, 383–84 Anderson Cancer Center, 297–305 , 315, 316 ruling on tax on natural gas 4 62, 463 prohibition, 277–78, 296 pipelines, 340 Universit y of Texas Press, 369 recognition of Republic of ruling on tidelands, 341 U pper South, 113, 182 Texas, 85 rulings on New Deal Urban Cowboyy (fi lm), 401 response to Indian attacks in restrictions, 295, 300, 303 urbanization Texas, 1 3 0 on secession, 1 5 5 beginnings of in antebellum role in Texas rebellion, 77 on segregation, 344, 358, 359, Texas, 113–14 savings-and-loan scandal, 360, 385 in early 1900s, 251, 274, 281, 4 08 Stevenson’ s restraining order 283 sectionalism, 126–27 set aside, 3 3 9 effect on leisure activities, suffrage for women, 275 on Tejanos’ civil rights, 358 363 supervision of prison tidelands issue and, 3 4 1 during Great Depression, reforms, 431–32 on white primaries, 249–50 30 6, 315 Texas independence and, 77, universities. See education; in late 1900s, 411 79 specifi c institution need for school reforms, 355 War on Poverty, 387 Universit y Interscholastic d uring World War II, 329 war with Mexico, 104–8 League (UIL), 265 a fter World War II, 331–32 , World War I, 273–74 Universit y of Houston (UH), 349 World War II, 328–29 354 , 366, 379, 396, 397, See also c ities; See also politics, national; 415, 416, 421, 456 industrialization specifi c president Universit y of North Texas, 366, urban life. See cities; towns; Unite d States Army 401, 416, 456 specifi c city African Americans in, 1 6 7 , Universit y of Texas (UT) Urrea, José de, 78, 81 273 affi rmative action programs, USA (Passos), 361 border troubles quelled, 263, 4 30 US-Mexican War, 75–77 270 battle with Ferguson, 271 U.S. Trust and Guaranty, on the frontier, 1 2 1 , 122, 132, civil rights movement at, 359 344–45 149, 156, 165 faculty of, 456–57 utilities, 3 0 4 , 315 prejudice against black founding of, 125, 204 troops, 250 funding for, 431 Valerio , Cecilio, 1 3 8 during Reconstruction, 143, graduate programs, 357 V a lverde, Battle of, 1 3 3 149, 150, 151, 156, 160 history department/writings Val Verde County, 219 Salt War, 1 8 5 at, 320–21 , 416 Vance , Nina, 3 6 5 Sutton-Taylor feud, 164 integration of, 359–60, 396 Van Cliburn International Piano Te janos in, 273–74 land reserved for, 177 Competition, 413 war with Mexico, 104–8 law school, 3 3 5 , 359 Van Zandt County, 97, 112, 195 514 Index Vaquero of the Brush Country a gainst Tejanos, 120, 185, Wallace, Beulah “Sippie,” 308 (Dobie), 321 186, 255, 270 Wallace, Ernest, 369 vaqueros, 11, 33, 183. See also See also lynching; race riots; Wallace, George C., 381 cowboys; ranching vigilantes Wallace, Henry A., 303, 334, 335 Vásquez, Rafael, 102 V irginia, 177 Wallace, William A. “Big Foot,” Vehlein, Joseph, 59, 66 Visi goths, 10 106, 107 Vela, Macedonio, 220 Viva Kennedy Clubs, 388 Wall Street, 208 Velasco, Texas, 6 2 , 67, 91 Viva Tejas (Lozano), 368 Walsh, W. C., 191, 193, 216 Velasco, Treaties of, 8 1 , 83, Viva Terlingua (Walker), 399 Wanted: The Outlaws (Nelson/ 101–2, 104–5 vo lunteerism, 291 Jennings), 399–400 Vernon, Texas, 220 voter-i dentifi cation bill, 4 5 2 , Wardlaw, Frank, 3 6 9 veterans, 280, 329, 345, 354, 453 Ware, Andre, 4 2 1 356 voter-registration act, 384 War for Texas Independence, Veterans Administration, 3 5 8 votin g rights 75– 81 Veteran’ s Land Board, 345 o f African Americans, 1 4 6 , War for the Empire, 43 Vicksburg, Siege of, 134 151, 153, 207, 237 War on Poverty, 387 Victoria, Guadalupe, 62 o f ex-Confederates, 1 4 4 war party, 6 2–63, 73, 85 Victoria, Texas, 59, 69, 91, 98 m inimum-age requirement, Washington, Booker T., 251 Victoria County, 255 384 Washington, D.C., 126–27 Victorio (Apache chief), 161 poll tax, 176, 233, 259, 260 Washington, Jessie, 250, 251 Viesca, Agustín, 62, 64–65 Populist view of, 231 Washington County, 184–85, Viesca, José María, 62, 64–65 Supreme Court rulings, 384 257 Viesca faction, 64–66 o f Tejanos, 254, 255, 256–57 Washington-on-the-Brazos, Vietnam War, 3 8 0 , 382 o f women, 1 1 6 , 123, 223, Texas, 8 4 , 91, 98 vigilantes, 122, 138–39, 163–64, 237, 238, 274–75 w ater 184–85, 250. See also Ku See also disfranchisement; control issues, 3 4 5 , 346, 352, Klux Klan; lynching; suffrage 379, 432–34, 458. See also violence Vo t i n g Rights Act (1965), 384 irrigation villa, 24 pollution, 211, 435 Villa, Pancho, 270 W a c o , Texas supply for frontera, 34 Vinson, Robert E., 271 a gricultural processing in, 208 W a t e r gate hearings, 385 violence b ank in, 2 5 1 Water Pollution Control a gainst African Americans, bl ack newspaper in, 308 Council, 3 4 5 119, 148, 149, 154, 181, e ducation in, 1 2 6 Waters-Pierce antitrust case, 184–85, 218, 237, 250, 251, e lectrifi cation of, 243 2 61 273, 282, 332, 427 Federation of, 215 Waters-Pierce Oil Company, a gainst Civil War dissenters, Ku Klux Klan’ s domination of 234 , 261 138 police, 282 Watts riot, 386 o f Democrats in 1992, 232 mi litary training at, 274 Waugh, Julia Nott, 369 h orse and gun culture, 181 racia l violence in, 250 WBAP Radio Station, 323 a gainst Indians, 121–22, Texas Federation of Women ’s WBAP Television Station, 3 5 4 166–70, 181 Clubs in, 2 2 4 WC TU, 2 0 9 , 223 to instill patriotism, 279 work stoppage in, 335 wea lth distribution, 2 8 9 , 439, o f Ku Klux Klan, 281–84 W a c o I n dians, 3 9 , 121 444 in labor disputes, 244, 311, Waco State Home for Weat herford, Texas, 1 7 1 319 Dependent and Neglected Webb, Walter Prescott, 1 6 3 , 321, in late 1800s, 184–86 Children, 2 6 7 369 in new state of Texas, 1 0 8 Waerenskjold, Elise, 124 Weber, David, 417 in oil boomtowns, 294 Wagner Act, 300, 315 Weddington, Sarah, 390 a gainst Populists, 233 Walker, Doak, 3 6 5 Weddle, Robert, 4 1 7 d uring Reconstruction, 149, Walker, Edwin A., 379, 380 we lfare programs, 255, 387, 407, 150, 151, 154, 156, 160, Walker, Jerry Jeff, 399 461, 462 163–64 Walker, Samuel H., 106 Wells, Jim, 255 in Republic of Texas, 95–96 Walker, Stanley, 370 Wends, 2 2 0 b etween sheep and cattle Walker, T-Bone, 3 6 7 Wesley, Carter W., 306, 308, raisers, 1 8 5 , 191 Walking on Borrowed Land 359 at strikes, 1 9 6 , 197 (Owens), 370 West brook, Lawrence, 2 9 7 Index 515 W est Texas W hitfi eld, Fred, 4 2 1 on farms, 1 2 3 , 143, 221, 223, barrios in, 199 W hitmire, Kathy , 3 9 0 245, 247–48, 251 blacks in, 161–62 Whitworth, Kathy, 398 feminist movement, 389, buffalo herds in, 1 9 , 40 w hooping cranes, 460 412 during Civil W a r , 1 3 8 Wichita Falls, Texas, 2 6 7 , 331, on frontier, 247–48 demographics of, 219, 411, 444 446 d uring Great Depression, economy of, 139 Wichita people, 9, 39, 41, 46. 30 4–5, 311–13 farming in, 237, 255, 439 See also Norteños; Plains health care for, 464 forts in, 1 2 1 , 166 Indians Indian abduction of, 165 Germans in, 1 3 2 , 138 Wier, Allen, 370 in labor unions, 3 1 1 , 312–13, Great Depression, 291 Wigfall, Louis T., 130, 136 351 Indian groups in, 3, 7, 8–9, W iggins, Bernice Love, 308 in late 1800s, 200–202 , 221, 134–37 Wilbar ger, J.W., 320 223–24 land sales, 1 9 2 wi ldcatters, 2 3 8 , 240, 293 l egislation protecting, 390 lawlessness in, 1 3 8 , 187, 202 Wild Horse Desert, 183 i n Mexican Texas, 7 0 oil in, 2 4 0 , 242, 347 Wiley College, 386 in military, 273, 329 politics in, 391, 421 Wilkie, Wendell, 3 3 4 New Deal programs, 311–13 poverty in, 439, 444 Wilkinson, James, 55 occupations of, 199 racism in, 1 8 5 Willard, Frances E., 224 organizations of, 224, 252, railroads in, 1 9 1 , 192 Williams, Benjamin F., 158 264, 274, 275–76, 351 ranching in, 170–73, 184, Williams, Clayton, 423–24 p ledge to prohibition, 209, 187, 192, 196–97, 254, 333 Williams, Ricky, 421 223 settlement of, 1 3 3 , 182–83 Williams, Samuel May, 91–92 in politics, 385, 390, 392, 395, socialization in, 199–200 Wills, Bob, 3 1 8 , 323–24, 367, 423–24, 452 Spanish interest in, 19 399 population of, 329 sports in, 364 Wilson, Teddy, 367 in progressive era, 274–76 unions in, 196–97 , 309 Wilson, Will, 3 4 7 , 379 in ranching, 223 water issues, 3 9 1 , 433 Wilson, Woodrow, 2 3 4 , 261, in reform movements, West Texas Historical Association 263, 273–74, 280 223 –24 Year Bookk, 369 Wind, Thee (Scarborough), 321 Re publican clubs in, 378 Wharton, John A., 64, 136 windmills , 1 9 1 rights of, 38, 51, 70, 123–24, W harton, William H., 64, 74, 84, win d-power turbines, 461 176, 221, 223, 275, 389–90 85 wine making, 113 ro le in Civil War, 1 4 3 W harton County, 185 Wins pear Opera House, 413 ro les in American Indian W hig party, 127, 130, 138 With His Pistol in His Hand society, 4, 6, 7 White, Bill, 453 (Paredes), 369 self-help organizations, 251, W hite, Lulu B., 359 Wittenburg, 346 252–53, 256 W hite, Mark, 3 9 5 , 422, 423, 428 Wolf and the Buffalo, The as slaves, 9 4 , 119 w hite cappers, 185 (Kelton), 403 in Spanish Texas, 37–38, 51 w hite fl ight, 349, 455 Woll, Adrían, 102 i n sports, 398, 418, 420 White House Conference of Wolters, Jacob R., 294 suffrage, 38, 223, 231, 237, Governors on Woman ’s Christian Temperance 238, 271–72, 274–75 Conservation, 267–68 Union, 224 as teachers, 2 6 4 , 311, 312 white men ’ s associations, 2 0 8 , Woman ’ s Joint Legislative as tenant farmers, 304 233, 254 Council, 2 7 6 view of Ku Klux Klan, 282 white supremacy women in workforce, 1 6 1 , 216, 221, in antebellum Texas, 128 in antebellum Texas, 123–24 223, 243, 252, 262, 274, integration of schools as civil rights movement, 332, 350–51, 390 threat to, 358 389–90 in World War I, 2 7 3 , 274, 275 Ku Klux Klan, 281–84 during Civil War, 137, 143 during World War II, 329, in late 1800s, 184–85 club movement, 2 2 4 , 252, 331, 332 in Progressive Era, 237, 249, 264, 275–76 a fter World War II, 354–55 250, 254 education of, 9 9 , 357, 429–30 wr iters, 1 2 5 , 321, 322, during Reconstruction, 145, effects of Great Depression, 369–70, 403, 417 146, 148–49 291 W o m e n ’s Army Corps, 329 during World War II, 334 efforts during World War I, Women ’s Auxiliary of Farmers’ See also K u Klux Klan 27 4 Improvement Society, 251 516 Index Women ’s Christian Temperance 306, 316, 332, 351, 352, Wright, Jim, 378 Union (WCTU), 209, 223, 354, 389, 391, 461–62 wr iters. See e literature 276 workers’ compensation/ women ’s club movement, 224, unemployment insurance, x inesí, 6 252, 259, 275–76, 351 262, 395 XIT Ranch, 1 8 3 , 206 women’ s clubs, 2 2 4 , 252, 264, during World War II, 332 274, 275–76, 283 a fter World War II, 362 Ya r borough, Don, 378–79 Women ’s Health Program, 464 See also employment; labor Ya r borough, Ralph Women ’ s Joint Legislative unions; ranching; slavery; election of 1952, 342–45 Council, 2 7 6 unemployment election of 1956, 345–47 women ’ s movement, 3 8 9 w o r kmen ’s compensation election of 1964, 380 Wonderful Country, Thee (Lea), legislation, 262, 395 election of 1968, 381, 382 370 Works Progress Administration election of 1970, 382 Wood, Gordon, 364 (WPA), 300–301, 306, 311, G.I. Bill passage, 356 wood-pulp industry, 331 312, 315, 322 political comeback attempt, Woodrow Wilson State World War I 392 Democratic League, 273 a griculture during, 245 position on civil rights, 358 wool, 113, 184. S ee also goats; e ffect on blacks, 281 refusal to seat liberals at sheep ranching e ffect on German Texans, Democratic convention, 346 workers 257 Yates oilfi eld, 2 4 0 , 293 in 1940–1960, 349–51 e ffect on roads, 268 Y barbo, Antonio Gil, 44 in agriculture, 237, 245, in dustrial recovery, 290 Y no se lo tragó la tierra 246–47, 254–55, 304–5, lumber industry in, 268 (Rivera), 403 312, 353–54. See also tenant s hortage of workers, 243 Yoakum, Henderson K., 125 farming Texans in, 273–74 Yom Kippur War, 393 children, 1 4 8 , 245, 260, 262, triumph of, 280 Youn g County, 121, 165, 313. See also c hild labor use of oil, 2 3 7 166–67 laws W o r ld War II Youn g Democrats, 344 during Civil W a r , 1 3 7 A frican Americans during, Young Man from Atlanta, The employment during World 332 (Foote), 399 War II, 332 e ffect on racism, 3 8 5 Youn g Women ’s Christian during Great Depression, e ffect on women, 3 2 9 , 331, Association (YWCA), 275, 289, 290, 291, 311–13 332 276 lack of insurance, 462 e ffect on Texas, 2 9 8 , 328, Youth Development Council, minimum-wage law, 391 329–35 339 New Deal programs, 300–302 end of Great Depression, 316 youth movement, 380 in post-World War II era, Pear l Harbor bombing, 328, Yucat án, 7 2 3 50–51 329 Progressive reforms, 262 politics during, 317–20, Z acatecas, 72 right-to-work laws, 336, 351, 333–35 Zaharias , Mildred “Babe” 376, 442 POWs in Texas, 331 Didrikson, 3 6 5 Taft-Harley Act, 338, 351 se gregation during, 330 Zava la, Lorenzo de, 5 8 , 59, 62, in urban areas, 243 Te janos during, 329, 332 65, 66, 73, 75, 83 wages and hours of, 31, Texans ’ participation in, zero cipher, 2 195–96, 216, 217, 223, 243, 329–30 zoos, 2 43 244, 246–47, 251, 255, 260, W o r t ham Center, 4 1 3 Zuñ is, 3 , 14–15 262, 264, 289, 300, 304, Wright, Jefferson, 99 ZZ Top, 400–401