应帝王 Yingdiwang—Responds to Emperors and Kings: Anarchism

CHAPTER VII 应帝王 Yingdiwang—Responds to Emperors and Kings: Anarchism

The emperor’s dao lies in coping with nature and complying with the aspirations of the people. In the previous chapter, Dazonghsi reflected on Zhuangzi’s teaching about the “inner sage” (neisheng 内圣). The present chapter illustrates the way of the “outer king” (waiwang 外王). While the teaching of the “inner sage” references the personal cultivation of the individual heart, the “outer king” relates a story about dealing with the social community. With regard to the implications of the “way of the inner sage and the outer king” (see also chapter Tianxia), Confucians and Daoists still have different approaches. The Confucians believe that the teaching of the “inner sage” can develop into the way of “the outer king.” But the Daoists think that “the inner sage” and “the outer king” are fundamentally contrary to one another, the teaching of the “inner sage” can never develop into the way of “the outer king.” The “inner sage” relates to personal cultivation, which can only be achieved by an individual. The demeanor of one person may influence only a small group of people and there will be no way to disseminate that influence within a large social community. But the “outer king” is a parable about dealing with many people and a political duty. A good government should be able to fulfill two criteria: a. The power structure must be balanced in terms of its energies, because it is useless to rely on reforms through education within a power structure. As it is more a question of a contest of powers, the personal cultivation cannot bring about this balance of power. b. If a power structure wants to govern a society, it must have an effective and compliant law system, because the society consists of many people and, while reliance on the education of the personal moral character is something very individual and specific, the implementation of the judi- cial system is something general and universal.

The Confucian “inner sage” is concerned with the teaching of “benevolence” and the “outer king” with the teaching of “rites,” but, from the Daoist perspec- tive, these two are not connected to one another. If the knowledge of the “inner sage” can develop into the way of the “outer king,” misconduct is quite likely.

First of all, because being a ruler gets reduced to personal rule2 and the great- est evil of personal rule lies the fact that politics relies on one person, when the person is gone, the government comes to an end. In his work Nanyi 难一, Han Feizi offered harsh criticism against personal rule:

The farmers at mount Li mutually invaded the boundary between the fields; when emperor Shun cultivated the fields there for one year, the farmland boundary marks were all correct. The fishermen at the riverside vied for the docks, but when emperor Shun fished there for one year, the fishermen gave fishing rights to the elderly. The quality of the pottery made by the Eastern Barbarians was very poor; when emperor Shun went there to manufacture pottery for one year; the quality of their pottery was very solid. If Shun is cor- recting his misconduct in this manner, he will only be able to eliminate one mistake a year. This means eliminating only three mistakes in three years. Besides the fact that people like emperor Shun are rather rare and his life span is limited, whereas the world’s mistakes and negligence are infinite, the lim- its of rule by a single person are obvious. Secondly, the way of the Confucian “outer king” imposes the national government on familial relationships, so a patriarchal system of government develops under the political umbrella of the family related by blood. Zhuangzi’s way of the “outer king” is also a critique of the Confucian rule of virtue that proposes an anarchistic concept. Zhuangzi opposes both the idea that man is ruled by man and that moral values are used to oppress and restrict people according to moral values. In other words, he basically opposes any kind of government, since he believes that people should spend their lives free and self- directed in nature. The present chapter expresses Zhuangzi’s idea of anarchism, by asserting that a proper government doesn’t need interference, but should fol- low human nature and regard the will of the common people as their own will. In the light of the dictatorship during the Warring States period, Zhuangzi’s idea of anarchism reflects also the contemporary sentiment of the people. Therefore the present chapter is a characteristic work of antique democracy.

1 The Selfless Image of the Anarchist

The beginning of the present chapter portrays the ideal ruler. Zhuangzi brings into play the fabulous Yuyi Zi 蒲衣子 to tell us that the Confucian idol Yu 虞 was inferior to the Daoist idol Tai 泰, because Yu excessively praised benevolence

2 Translators note: Versus the rule by law.