Branding an Empire

An essay exploring Inca designs and their use in the development of an Inca brand identity.

Heather Tucker May 11, 2017 University of Notre Dame Inca and Colonial Peru Michael Schreffler Graduate Research Paper Content

Introduction

Defining the Brand Values

Identifying the Inca Empire Brand Identity

Inca Textile Design & Production: Materials

Inca Textile Design & Production: Iconography

Inca Textile Design & Production: Standardization

Conclusion Fig. 1 Inca tunic, Peru, 1400–1532, camelid weft, 91 x 76 cm. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, Pre- Columbian Collection Introduction

Most abstract logos—when seen without Fig. 2 (left page) Abrstract logos from left to right and context or associations—have very little top to bottom. Boomerang from Instagram, Microsoft meaning to a viewer. However, when a Windows, Mitsubishi, Mercedes-Benz, Chase company or organization builds a set of Bank, Marlboro experiences, messages, and interactions associated with their brand, the logo begins to trigger a feeling, story, or connection to broader ideas. In the same way, the Inca empire used symbols and a set of visual standards to create a “brand identity” for the empire. This is most apparent in their design, creation, and use of . In this essay, I explore how Inca textile design and production used techniques such as— attention to materials, iconography, and standardization—to create and strictly reinforce the Inca empire brand identity. Defining the Inca Empire Brand Values

According to legendary designer, Massimo Fig. 3 (left page) Martin de Murua. Coya Mamabuaco, Vignelli, “The objective of identity design from Historia general del Peru (cat. no. 36), ca. 1611 is to coordinate all visual aspects related to a company in order to present a strongly identifiable image and position in the economic and social world in which it functions. This involves the articulation of a company’s culture, which will generate and determine the quality of everything produced.”1 In the same way, the Inca empire developed a brand identity using textiles as the most frequent and visible output. Every textile designed and produced reinforced the brand identity—from the quality of the materials, icons used, and format or layout of garments. Consistency and control over these elements played a crucial role in the successful development of the Inca brand.

1 Celant, et al. Design: Vignelli, 31 In the Andes, textiles served many purposes far Fig. 6 Child sacrifice found with buried objects, beyond just providing warmth. Economically, including a miniature dress statue. Found at Cerro El textile production was part of the lower-class Inca Plomo. populations obligation to the state. In her article, Inka Unka: Strategy and Design in Colonial Peru, Joanne Pillsbury describes the economic value of textiles in the Inca empire, “[textiles were] a valuable commodity in an empire based on state and kin-based redistribution rather than a market economy.”2 In his article Cloth and Its Functions in the Inca State, John Murra writes about the exchange of obligation for access. A system where the lower-class labored the field and looms in order to plant and harvest state owned land, and access state collected textiles.3 Cloth Fig. 4 Storage house were found throughout the acted as a form of “payment” for military service, “the empire and housed tribute military on the move expected to find clothes, blankets, There are also accounts that specific types items. and tent-making equipment on their route.”4 Storage were used to mark initiation into puberty and clothing Fig. 5 Folded uncu into sixteenths. These garment houses that were once filled with textiles, food, and played an important role in marriage ceremonies would be created as tribute and death ceremonies.6 In religious ceremonies we to the empire and folded empire supplies can still be found throughout the Inca for storage. territory. know that textiles are important as they are found on dressed figures buried with child sacrifices, Betanzos

Culturally, clothing was a key part of the narrative describes this activity and the role textiles played, in the Inca story of origin as described by Juan de “He ordered that all the lords of Cuzco should send out throughout the entire land and have a thousand boys Betanzos, and girls brought... They should be very well dressed, “The men came out [of the cave] dressed in garments paired up male and female… These children would be of fine wool woven with gold. On their necks they collected from all over the land and would be carried brought out some bags, also of elaborately woven in litters together and by pairs to be buried in pairs wool; in these bags they carried sinewed slings. The with the table service that they had been given. They women also came out dressed very richly in cloaks would be buried all over the land in the places where and sashes that they call chumbis, well woven with the Inca had established residence.”7 gold and with fine gold fasteners, large pins about two palms long, which they call topos.” 5

2 Pillsbury. “Inka Unka: Strategy and Design in Colonial Peru,” 69 5 Betanzos. Narrative of the Incas (1551) 13–14 3 Murra. “Cloth and Its Functions in the Inca State,” 715 6 Murra. “Cloth and Its Functions in the Inca State,” 715 4 Ibid.,” 717 7 Betanzos. Narrative of the Incas (1551) Chapter 30 Fig. 7 (top left) Detail of Inca Textile Design Man’s tunic (uncu), Inca, late 15th-early 16th century. & Production: Camelid , 85 x 78 cm (33.5 x 30.75 in.). Boston, Materials Museum of Fine Arts

Fig. 8 (top right) Man’s tunic (uncu), Inca, late 15th- early16th century. Cotton With so many textile goods in demand it and camelid fibers, 89 x 74 cm (35 x 29 in.). New York, could have been a breeding ground for visual Metropolitan Museum of chaos, however, Inca textile share a similar Art. visual language—shared color palette (red, Fig. 9 (middle left) Woman’s dress (anacu), Inca, late white, black, yellow, dark purple, and rarely, 15th – early 16th century. Camelid fibers, 85 x 62.5 in. blue and green), highly abstract geometric (216 x 159 cm). Pachacamac, shapes (not figurative or anthropomorphic), Peru, Museo del Sitio Arqueológico. standard garment types (for both men and Fig. 10 (middle right) Detail women), and garments woven with specific Man’s tunic (uncu), Inca, 1450-1540. Cotton and materials (using exceptional craftsmanship). camelid fibers, 90 x 77 cm (35.5 x 30 cm). Washington DC, Dumbarton Oaks.

Fig. 11 (bottom) Woman’s belt (chumpi), Inca, 1400- 1532. Camelid fibers, 6.5 x 63 in. (16.5 x 160 cm). Brooklyn, Brooklyn Museum. piece of woven cloth that was doubled over and sewn together along the edges, leaving the bottom open. Women wore one-piece dresses, bound at the waist by an ornamental sash called a chumbi. And, draped over their shoulder was a cloak fastened with a large straight pin known as, topos. (See Fig 16 and 17) For both men and women’s clothing little was done to the cloth after it was removed from the loom.11 “The king had certain fabrics reserved for his use alone and his shirts are reported to have been very delicate, The highest quality materials known as kumpi and embroidered with gold and silver, ornamented with was made through a waft-faced technique Fig. 13 (left) Inca weaving feathers, and sometimes made of such rare fibers as was reserved and designated as the official method centers near Lake Titicaca. (Map by A. Roy, after bat hair.”8 Certainly, textile materials used for textile of production for garments worn by the king and Phipps 2004b:25, fig 25) design had a strategic and important function. Most his appointed administrators.12 Additionally, “early Fig. 14 Pictures of alpaca. (In-Class Lecture Week 3) garments are made from cotton and camelid—from observers agreed that kumpi blankets and clothes alpaca and llamas. For the highest quality textiles, were wonderfully soft, ‘like silk,’ frequently dyed in there was a, “specialized production system, including gay colors or ornamented with feathers or shell beads. the selective breeding of animals as sources of luxury The weave was smooth and continuous, ‘no thread fibers.”9 could be seen.’”13 Weaving made from a weft-faced pattern and with coarser material, were called awaska, To understand the Inca textile production process it’s these were produced for domestic purposes and worn

essential to understand their weaving process. The by the lower-class.14 Fig. 16 The second quya, Chinbo Urma, pen and ink, process consists of a loom that has a weft—thread or drawing from El Primer that is drawn over and under through the warp— The difference in quality of materials and weaving Nueva Coronica y Buen Goierno by Felipe Guaman yarn that holds the tension on the loom. process reinforce the Inca class based social structure Poma de Ayala, c. 1615 of hanan and hurin—the moieties of the Inca empire. Fig. 15 Visual representation of the The majority of the textile artifacts found from the The division of the empire into upper (hanan) and warp and Weft weaving technique. (In-Class Inca empire are high-quality clothing garments—both lower (hurin) references topography, kinship, and Lecture Week 3) male and female.10 The high-quality male tunic is mythology. Quality of materials used in textiles played called an uncu which consisted of a singular broad an important role in defining the division.

8 Murra. “Cloth and Its Functions in the Inca State,” 719 11 Pillsbury. “Inka Unka: Strategy and Design in Colonial Peru,” 69 9 Phipps. “Garments and Identity in the Colonial Andes,” 22 12 Phipps. “Inka Textile Traditions and Their Colonial Counterparts,” 201 10 Phipps. “Inka Textile Traditions and Their Colonial Counterparts,” 201 13 Murra. “Cloth and Its Functions in the Inca State,” 711 14 Phipps. “Inka Textile Traditions and Their Colonial Counterparts,” 202 Lliclla: cape

Tupu: pin

Chumpi: belt

Uncu: male tunic Anacu: female dress

Fig. 17 The Inca ruler Fig. 18 The second quya, Manco Capac, pen and Chinbo Urma, pen and ink, ink, drawing from El drawing from El Primer Primer Nueva Coronica y Nueva Coronica y Buen Buen Gobierno by Felipe Goierno by Felipe Guaman Guaman Poma de Ayala, Poma de Ayala, c. 1615 c. 1615. Inca Textile Design & Production: Iconography

Before focusing on Inca iconography Fig. 19 (left top) McDonald’s and Mercades specifically, it’s important to understand Benz logos transformed through time. what iconography is and how it builds and evolves over time. In Webster’s dictionary, Fig. 20 (left bottom) Intagram iconography iconography is defined as “pictorial material system relating to or illustrating a subject.”15 We know from reviewing logo evolution over time that it’s common for visual icons to change and morph. We also know that by taking a recognizable icon and improvising and modifying the structure we can create new icons with new meanings and develop a system based on one central visually represented concept (as seen in fig. 19 and 20).

15 Merrian Webster Dictionary. “Iconography” The Inca developed a system of iconography, and Now that we understand what a tocapus is and how each icon in the system is called a tocapu. A tocapu it functions as “free-floating signifiers, potentially is identified as abstract geometric shapes and capable of acquiring different meanings in relation to compositions comprised of, “diamonds, squares, the objects on which they appear and in relation to rectangles, and vertical, diagonal, and horizontal lines, other tocapus”20 The question becomes, what are the all organized within a bordered square, rhomboid, or messages communicated with these tocapus? rectangle.”16 The visual style of tocapu design may have developed because of the structural limitations By referencing the illustration by Guaman Poma de of loom weaving techniques—a phenomenon known Ayala’s visualization of the Inca empire we can begin as plectogenic. “The plectongenic style is ideographic to understand that tocapus are abstract representation rather than pictorial. Its forms occupy all the available of metaphysical Inca ideals. For example, the “Inca space with networks of parallel contour lines.”17 Key” tocapu (fig. 23) could be an aerial view of the metaphysical representation Guaman Poma In the same way that iconography systems like, visualized in his maniscript translated as The emoticons, take on different meanings based on first New Chronicle and Good Government (fig. 24). the context and surrounding emojis, the messages Furthermore, Cummins essay on Tocapu’s explains

communicated by a single icon can change, the tocapu another source that defines a way of understanding Fig. 23 & 24 (above) Details of tucapu called Fig. 21 (top) This Moche system works similarly. The tocapu is used on textiles what tocapus could be communicating (fig. 26), Inca Key found on uncu, effigy vessel found in Peru Inca, (1450-1540. Cotton but also found in other media. There is no evidence “Santa Cruz Pachacuti Yamqui… used three tocapu pre-dates the Inca empire. and camelid fibers, Which indicates that the that the tocapu patterns tie to a written language. motifs to represent the caves of origin at Pacaritambo 90 x 77 cm (35.5 x 30 checker-board pattern in his manuscript Relacion de antiguedades deste cm). Washington DC, was a icon the Inca empire Yet, the frequency of use and placement of tocapus Dumbarton Oaks) adopted as their own. reyno del Piru. Pachacuti Yamqui’s tocapu marked (200–400, ceramic, 19.1 throughout the empire indicate that the tocapu was in two ways, first, it is associated with sacred origin… Fig. 25 Color wash by x 15.9 cm. The Brooklyn a system of graphic communication.18 Furthermore, second, it designates place... this tocapu design a fixed Felipe Guaman Poma de Museum of Art) sign, and was it used by Pachauti Yamqui because Ayala, visualizing the the messages communicated with individual tocapus four parts of Cuzco (from Fig. 22 (bottom) it represented at least the concept of place, which martin de Murua, Historia Checkerboard pattern, changed based on its context. “The framing of each then could be modified in some syntactical way to del origen y genealogia real Man’s uncu, Inca, (late 21 de los reyes Inkas del Piru. geometric composition allows the tocapu to be seen reference a specific place?” 15th-early 16th century. 1590) Camelid fibers, 85 x 78 cm. simultaneously as an individual entity and as an Boston, Museum of Fine Fig. 26 (left) Inka caves Arts) element in relation to other elements.”19 This indicates of origin, pen and ink drawing, from Juan de that the meanings of individual tocapus are effected by Santa Cruz Pachacuti its surroundings. Yamqui, Relación de antigüedades deste reyno del Piru, 1613.

16 Cummins. “Tocapu” 286 20 Ibid., 301 17 Kubler. The art and architecture of Ancient America (1990) 432 21 Ibid., 298–299 18 Cummins. “Tocapu” 278 19 Ibid., 286 Inca Textile Design & Production: Standardization

“The goal of branding is to form an overall perception of any product, service, or organization, through a concise and consistently applied set of distinctive Fig. 27 (left) Checkerboard “Throughout the world, pictorial systems are pattern, Miniature tunic elements.”24 (uncu), Inca, Peru, 16th constantly developed, usually from the ground up, Fig. 29 (above) Female century. Camelid fibers, figurine, Inca, Peru, 1450- resulting in different visual interpretations of the 10.75 x 8 in. (27 x 20 cm). 1532. Silver, 2.5 in. (6.5 The strict garment design layout for men cm) in height. Chicago: Art Private collection. same concept.”22 However, in the Inca empire the Institute of Chicago and women meant that garments could iconography is consistent throughout the entire Fig. 28 (right) be created with no tailoring beyond size Checkerboard pattern, Andean territory. Additionally, prior to the Inca variations. By following a set of memorized Man’s tunic (uncu), empire, archaeological evidence indicates that Inca, late 15th-early 16th guidelines a weavers from across the empire century. Camelid fibers, 85 woven artifacts found in the Andes yielded designs x 78 cm (33.5 x 30.75 in.). could create garments that fit within the Boston, Museum of Fine that were expressive and figurative.23 However, the Arts Inca textile system. As part of the system, Inca maintained restraint and control over both the most significant size variation is found their woven process and design style. In the Inca in the miniature figurines dressed in empire, the tocapu pictorial system. This system is traditional Inca garments (fig. 29). too controlled and consistent to be arbitrary. Which means the visual language was specifically chosen. Which begs the question, why might the Inca empire want to show such restraint over the design?

22 Gomez-Palacio, et al. Graphic design referenced, 35 24 Gomez-Palacio, et al. Graphic design referenced, 24 23 Kubler. The art and architecture of Ancient America (1990) 431 “The men and women of each nation and province had their insignias and emblems by which they could be identified, and they could not go around without this “The loom-determined limitation to rectilinear portions identification or exchange their insignias for those of another nation, or they would be severely punished. of line originally required a numerical formulation They had this insignia on their clothes with different of the weaving process, with the operator trained to stripes and colors… They were so well known by follow or memorize a complex series of motions in these insignia that on seeing any Indian or when any Indian came before him, the Inca would notice sequence.”25 This meant that weavers in any part of what nation and province the Indian was from; and the empire could make identical tunic designs based there is no doubt that this was a clever invention for 29 on a numerical formula. The most common tunic distinguishing one group from another.” designs found include: the Inca Key (fig. 31), diamond waistband (fig. 32), black-and-white checkerboard (fig. 33), and tocapu waistband (not pictured).

“Certain areas are reserved for particular elaboration: the waist, neck, and lower boarder.”26 We know that details are maintain in these designs even when reduced in size. “Although the importance of these details may be clear, their significance is still not Fig. 32 diamond waistband Fig. 30 All over tocapu understood.”27 pattern Throughout the empire “The presence of the same Fig. 33 The details Fig. 31 Inca Key are maintained in all While there is clearly an emphasis on consistency ritual cluster of artifacts and garments in such representations of the checkerboard pattern—even extremely varied geographic and climatic locations is and control within the textile designs, “some leeway in the small scale. (left to an indication of the extent, and perhaps the flexibility right) repeat of fig. 27 and was afforded for the incorporation of elements that 28. (above) black-and-white had regional or local meanings.”28 Additionally, Cobo of Inka ritual activity as practiced by local populations checkerboard describes the custom in detail: within their own sacred localities throughout the vast reaches of the empire.”30 It’s also indicates the influence, consistency and control of the item produced.

25 Kubler. The art and architecture of Ancient America (1990) 432 28 Phipps, “Inka Textile Traditions and Their Colonial Counterparts,” 205 26 Pillsbury, “Inka Unka: Strategy and Design in Colonial Peru,” 71 29 Pillsbury, “Inka Unka: Strategy and Design in Colonial Peru,” 74 27 Ibid., 73 30 Cummins, “Inka Art” 167 Conclusion

As mentioned, prior to the Inca empire, Fig. 34 (left) Woman’s dress (acsu), Inca, 1450- archaeological evidence indicates that 1532. Camelid fibers, 98 x 66.5 in (250 x 170 cm). woven artifacts found in the Andes Los Angeles, LACMA yielded designs that were expressive and figurative. However, the Inca maintained restraint and control. The visual system is not arbitrary, and seems to have been specifically chosen. This begs the question, why might the Inca empire want to show such restraint over their brand identity? Perhaps, to ensure the Inca empire was easily and consistently represented in every part of the empire? Perhaps to reinforce administrative power and order through meta-physical representations in the tocapu designs? Perhaps the lack of variation made it possible to meet the demands for mass production as the empire grew? The reasons why are still a mystery, however, the success of their branding efforts is apparent in the recognizable design style they created. Bibliography

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4 Cummins, Thomas B. F. “Inka Art.” The Inka Empire: A Multidisciplinary 11 Hughes, Lauren Finley. “Weaving Imperial Ideas: Iconography And Ideology Of Approach. N.p.: Austin : U of Texas Press, 2015. 167-191. Print. The Inca Coca Bag.” Textile: The Journal Of Cloth & Culture 8.2 (2010): 148-178. Academic Search Premier. Web. 7 Feb. 2017. 5 Thomas, Cummins B.F. “Tocapu: What Is It, What Does It Do, and Why Is It Not a Knot?” Their way of writing: scripts, signs, and pictographies in Pre- 12 Kubler, George. The art and architecture of Ancient America: the Mexican, Maya Columbian America. Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and and Andean peoples. London: Penguin , 1990. 428–434. Print. Collection, 2011. 277-305. Print. 13 Celant, Germano. Design--Vignelli: essays. New York: Rizzoli, 1990. 6 Cobo, Bernabé, 1580-1657. (book 1, chap. 6, book 2, chap. 24). History of the Inca Empire: an account of the Indians’ customs and their origin, together with a 14 Gomez-Palacio, Bryony, and Armin Vit. Graphic design referenced: a visual guide treatise on Inca legends, history, and social institutions. N.p.: Austin : University to the language, applications, and history of graphic design. Gloucester, MA: of Texas Press, c1979. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.01916.0001.001. Rockport, 2012.

7 Murra, John V. “Cloth and Its Functions in the Inca State.” American 15 Merriam Webster Dictionary. “Iconography.” Accessed May 6, 2017. https://www. Anthropologist 64.4 (1962): 710-28. Wiley. Web. 03 Mar. 2017. merriam-webster.com/dictionary/iconography