an informa business T,._.� ,._.lSTORV ANO C'-'ttt�R� Of ,)A'PAN�S� fOOO

Despite the popularity of Japanese food in the West today, remarkably little is known about its history. This innovative work is the fist of its kind, is a detailed study of the food and dietary practices of the Japanese from the Palaeolithic era, before rice was cultivated, through the period when the distinctive Japanese culinary tradition reached its culmination (between 1640 and 1860), and on to the present day. This evolution is traced through presenting typical dishes of all periods, condiment, beverages, ingredients, methods of preparation, etiquette, the aesthetics of presentation, eating implements and utensils in the social, political, and economic contexts of their consumption and use. Topics include the spread of , the design of Japanese food, introducing the reader to home cookery and regional schools of cuisine that are virtually unknown outside . It makes a unique contribution to the study of Japanese culture, and of culinary history as a whole.

Dr. Naomici Ishige has written prolifically regarding the Japanese diet. He has authored 12 books, and co-authored or edited an additional 60 works. He is currently Director General at the National Museum of Ethnology, . Kansai ( ""' LakeBiwa _, Nagoya Kyo�y� I e

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LONDON AND NEW YORK First published 2001 by Kegan Paul Limited

This edition published by Routledge 2011

Published 2014 by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OXl4 4RN 2 Third Avenue, New York, NY USA 711 10017,

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

ISBN: (eTSBN) 978-0-203-35790-3 First issued in paperback 2011 Naomichi Ishige, 2001 ©

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or be any electric, mechanical or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying or recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Ishige, Naomichi The history and culture of Japanese food .Japanese- Food 2.Food habits- Japan - History 3.Diet- Japan - History I 4.Cookery- Japan 5.Cookery, Japanese 6.Japan- Social life and customs I.Title 394.1'0952

(hbk) ISBN 978-0-710-30657-9 (pbk) ISBN 978-0-415-51539-9

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Applied for. PREFACE

Every kind of food carries social, historical and cultural information. A human meal consists not only of the absorption of matter as a means of supplying nutrition, but also the absorption of information that is associated with the food. Concerning Japanese foodthere is a great deal of information that is virtually unknown outside Japan, and that is why I have written this book forpublication in English. With the proliferation of Japanese restaurants in cities around the world since the late 1970s, it has become rather easy to enjoy without going to Japan. As the cuisine has gained popularity, many books about it have been written and published in various languages. However, the great majority of them are simply cookbooks. There has been no book designed to inform a non­ Japanese audience about Japanese dietary history and how the culture ofJapan is projected through its food. This book is meant to fill thatvacu um. As a cultural anthropologist, I have spent the past 20 years conducting field work on the food and diet of many peoples, mainly in Asia. On the basis of my findings, I present in this book various comparisons between the dietary cultures ofJapan and other parts of Asia, especially China and Korea, which are the areas that historically have had the strongest influence on Japan. Part One surveys the history of Japanese food and diet, from the Stone Age to the present. Part Two describes the contemporary dietary culture of Japan, from table manners to cookery to typical foods. Readers who are primarily interested in the Japanese diet of today may wish to start with Part Two. Several people and organizations have helped me prepare this book forpublicati on. I am particularly indebted to Stephen Suloway and Kyoto Tsushinsha for the translation and editing of my Japanese manuscript, to the Aj inomoto Foundation for Dietary Culture which provided financial support for that work, and to my long­ time friend Pro( Kenneth Ruddle for his comments on the manuscript. Naomichi Ishige National Museum of Ethnology, Osaka January 2000 \ I \ , , I I ... - I , ,...... r ' I ' Siberia (Russia) ' I ' I , I I I ', ' \ Mongolia

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VI CONTENTS

Introduction - The Historical Framework 1

PART ONE THE DIETARY HISTORY OF JAPAN

Chapter The Prehistoric Era 7 1 1.1 The Paleolithic Age 7 1.2 The Advent of Earthenware 9 1.3 Jomon Society and Dietary Culture 12

Chapter Establishment of a Rice-Growing Society 2 17 2.1 A Crop Held in Special Regard 17 2.2 Dissemination and Development of Rice 21 2.3 Rice Cooking 27 2.4 Brewing 32 2.5 Fermented Fish and Flavourings 35

Chapter The Formative Period of Japanese 3 45 Dietary Culture

3.1 Historical Setting 45 3.2 The Taboo on Eating 52 3.3 The Lack of Dairy Industry 58 3.4 Annual Observances and Rites of Passage 62 3.5 Place Settings and Table Settings 67 3.6 Cooking and Banquet Styles 71 3.7 The Role of the Monasteries 75 3.8 The Popularization of 77

Vll Chapter The Age of Change 4 81 4. 1 Historical Setting 81 4.2 The Diffusion of Tea 86 4.3 The Impact of the 'Southern Barbarians' 91 4.4 Formation of a New Style 96 4.5 Change in the Frequency of Meals 101

Chapter The Maturing of Traditional Japanese 5 105 Cuisine

5.1 Historical Setting 105 5.2 City and Country 109 5.3 The Spread of Soy Sauce 113 5.4 The Emergence of the Restaurant 117 5.5 Snack Shops 122 5.6 Books on Cooking and Restaurants 124 5.7 The Ainu 128 5.8 The Ryukyu Islanders 133

Chapter 6 Changes in the Modern Age 141 6.1 Historical Setting 141 6.2 The Resumption of Meat Eating 146 6.3 Milk and Dairy Products 153 6.4 Entry of Foreign Foods 155 6.5 Zenith and Nadir 158 6.6 New Meal Patterns 162 6.7 Integration of Foreign Foods - A Model 167

Vlll PART TWO THE DIETARY CULTURE OF THE JAPANESE

Chapter 7 At the Table 175

7.1 Cohan - Framework of the Meal 175 7.2 The Rise of the Table 178 7.3 The Tabletop as Landscape 187 7.4 Chopsticks and Table Manners 189 7.5 Etiquette - As You Like It 194

Chapter In the Kitchen 199 8 8.1 The Secularization of Fire and Water 199 8.2 From Wood Fire to Electric Rice Cooker 202 8.3 The Knife - A Sword forthe Kitchen 206

8.4 Restaurants - The Public Kitchen 213

Chapter 9 On the Menu 219

9.1 and Flavouring 219 9 .2 - Cuisine That Isn't Cooked 224 9 .3 - From Preserved Food to Fast Food 227 9.4 and 231 9.5 and Natt6 - Meat forVege tarians 236 9.6 Vegetarian Temple Food 240 9. 7 and Oil 244 9.8 Noodles and Regional Tastes 248 9.9 Pickled and Preserved 253 , Confectionery and Tea 257 9.10 9 The Dynamics of Sake and Tea .11 262

References 267

lX ILLUSTRATIONS

Map ofJapan [Preface] Map of East Asia [Preface] Table Periods ofJa panese Dietary Culture [Preface] Figure 1 Sphere of fe rmented fish cuisine [2.5] Figure 2 Sources of salt in the diets of Japan and the [2.5] UK Figure 3 Sphere of narezushi in the nineteenth century [2.5] Figure 4 Areas where milking was common in the [3.3] fifteenth century Figure 5 An upper-class family meal in the Edo period [3.6] Figure 6 Traditional production of somen noodles [3.8] Figure 7 A meal of the Heian period [4.4] Figure 8 A fashionable diner of the early Meiji period [6.2] Figure 9 Recent trends in foodintake of the Japanese [6.6] Figure Correlation of main and side dishes [6.7] 10 Figure 11 Courses of the typical Japanese meal today [7.1] Figure 12 Side dishes with rice and with sake [7 .1] Figure 13 Zen : meal stands and meal trays of the Edo [7.2] period Figure 14 A chabudai set fora family meal [7.2] Figure 15 Diffusionof the high family meal table [7.2] Figure 16 The correct way to use chopsticks [7.2] Figure 17 The rice pot and stove of a premodern kitchen [8.2] Figure 18 Slicing a fishin the sixteenth century [8.3] Figure 19 Common types of hocho and their cutting [8.3] edges Figure 20 A serving vessel and cup forsake [9.11] Figure 21 Cultural polarities of sake and tea [9.11]

x INTRODUCTION

THE HISTORICAL FRAMEWORK

The history of Japan is usually divided into ages and periods corresponding to changes in government. The ancient age, marked by the central authority of the imperial court and its bureaucracy, gave way in the twelfth century to the medieval age of warrior governments. The early modern age began in the sixteenth century with reunification and the emergence of the Tokugawa shogunate, and the modern age dates from the Meiji Restoration of 1868. Compared to changes in political and economic systems, which are often linked with sudden or even revolutionary shifts in ideology and technology, changes in diet normally exhibit much gentler patterns of advance. Historians tend to take changes of political system as the dividing points for historical eras, yet a change in government does not lead to any rapid change in people's eating habits. New foodstuffs or manners of eating will not spread through a nation without a preparatory period for the adjustment of systems of production and supply. Moreover, the food tastes and preferences that are formed during childhood and youth tend to undergo a slow process of change, transforming gradually as they are transmitted from generation to generation. Therefore, divisions in the history of dietary life differ from the periods into which historical events are generally classified. Rather than the periodization used by historians, this book adopts an original system conceived by the author as a practical

1 INTRODUCTION

framework for investigating the dietary history of the Japanese (see Table page 4). 1, In palaeolithic and neolithic times, the society of the Japanese islands was based on hunting and gathering, and the diet consisted largely of acorns and other nuts, fish and shellfish, and wild game. The cultivation of rice and other crops began and gradually spread through the islands between about and CE 400 BCE 250, which is here called the Early Agriculture Period. The long interval between the sixth and fifteenth centuries, stretching across most of the ancient and medieval ages, is viewed as the Formative Period of the dietary culture of Japan. Various influences which were absorbed from the Asian continent during the first part of the period were gradually adapted and assimilated into a stable indigenous cuisine. The period spanning the sixteenth and the first half of the seventeenth centuries (which historians would term the close of the medieval and beginning of the early modern ages) is surveyed as a separate era in Chapter 4, The Age of Change. This is the time when many aspects of dietary culture were altered as a result of external influences introduced through trade with China and western Europe. It corresponds to the social changes accompanying the collapse of the medieval order and reorganization of the fe udal system. Thereafter, the distinctive Japanese culinary tradition that has continued to the present day reached its culmination between about and the period of national isolation when foreign 1640 1860, influence was extremely limited. This era is dealt with in the Chapter 5, The Maturing ofTraditionalJapanese Cuisine. Finally, since the reopening of the country in the mid­ nineteenth century, Japanese society has progressively modernized in line with the norms of Western civilization, a process that initiated great changes in food culture which continue today. It is described in Chapter Changes of the Modern Age. 6, Part Two presents the food culture that is found today in Japan. Historical background is included, but the focus is on specific aspects of the dining experience. Bon appetit!

2 THE HISTORY AND CULTURE OF JAPANESE FOOD

JAPANESE PRONUNCIATION AND SPELLING

The vowel sounds of romanized Japanese are: as in father, as in a e bed, like the in equal, as in note, and like the in boot. i e o u oo When vowels occur next to each other, each is pronounced with no break between the sounds. A macron above a vowel-a, 11, a-indicates that the basic sound is elongated. (Macrons are not used for proper names in this book.) consonant always marks the start of a new syllable. There is A never a consonant sound at the end of a syllable, although some syllables end with a written which indicates that the preceding n, vowel is nasalized. Consonants are otherwise pronounced essentially the same as in English. Each syllable of a word is given equal stress. Japanese personal names are written in the traditional manner, last name first.

3 INTRODUCTION

Periods ofJapanese Dietary Culture

DIETARY PERIOD HISTORICAL PERIOD

Paleolithic - 400 Hunting - 8000 BCE BCE Age and Gathering ------c��ooo�------· )6Ilion(f'.reo11tfi�) c.400 BCE ------Middlejomon 3500- 2000 Prehistoric 400 - Early Yayoi c. 400 Age BCE BCE - 250 Agriculture c. 250 ------CE ------CE ------___ _ 01un ;:f5cr: 111i A."lldent R Nara 710 - 794 Age Formative Heian 794 - 1192

500 - 1500 Period Kamakura 1192 - 1336 N Southern Courts 1336 - 1392 Medieval & Muromachi 1392 - 1568 Age

Civil Wars 1467 - 1568 Age of 1500 - 1641 Change Momoyama 1568 - 1600 Early Modern Edo 1600 - 1868 Age Maturing of 1641 - 1868 Traditional Cuidne ------· ------Mei i 1868 - 1912 Modern Modern TaishO/Showaj 1912 - 1989 Age

1868 - Period Postwar 1946 -

4 References

Copyright

VI Contents

Figure 1 Sphere of fermented fish cuisine [2 . 5]

Figure 2 Sources of salt in the diets of Japan and the [2 . 5] UK

Figure 3 Sphere of narezushi in the nineteenth century [2 . 5]

Figure 4 Areas where milking was common in the [ 3.3 ] fifteenth century

Figure 5 An upper-class family meal in the Edo period [ 3 .6]

Figure 6 Traditional production of somen noodles [ 3 . 8]

Figure 7 A meal of the Heian period [ 4 .4]

Figure 8 A fashionable diner of the early Meiji period [ 6 .2]

Figure 9 Recent trends in food intake of the Japanese [6 .6]

Figure 10 Correlation of main and side dishes [6 . 7]

Figure 1 1 Courses of the typical Japanese meal today [7 . 1 ]

Figure 1 2 Side dishes with rice and with sake [ 7 . 1 ]

Figure 1 3 Zen : meal stands and meal trays of the Edo [ 7 . 2] period

Figure 1 4 A chabudai set fo r a family meal [ 7 .2]

Figure 1 5 Diffusion of the high family meal table [ 7 . 2]

Figure 1 6 The correct way to use chopsticks [ 7 . 2]

Figure 1 7 The rice pot and stove of a premodern kitchen [8 .2]

Figure 1 8 Slicing a fish i n the sixteenth century [8 . 3 ]

Figure 1 9 Common types of hocho and their cutting [ 8 . 3 ] edges

Figure 20 A serving vessel and cup for sake [ 9 . 1 1 ]

Figure 2 1 Cultural polarities of sake and tea [9. 1 1 ] x 6 Chapter 6 Changes in the Modern Age

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