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The Biological and Economic Benefits of Shade Coffee Plantations in the Blue Mountain, Jamaica W.I A Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at George Mason University By Herlitz A. Davis Master of Philosophy The University of the West Indies, 2002 Director: Larry Rockwood, Professor Department of Environmental Science and Policy Spring Semester 2013 George Mason University Fairfax, VA Copyright: 2013 Herlitz A. Davis All Rights Reserved ii DEDICATION This work is dedicated to my late father, Lascelles Davis, who sacrificed much to ensure my education. Sorry he is not here to see the fruits of his investment. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research was made possible by a Doctoral Fellowship in Conservation Science offered jointly by the Department of Environmental Science and Public Policy, George Mason University and the Smithsonian Institution’s National Zoological Park (NZP), a James Bond Endowment Trust grant provided to P.P. Marra and H. Davis by the Smithsonian Institution, and a grant to P.P. Marra and H. Davis from the Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center Coffee Fund. Thanks to my committee members for their patience and for tirelessly working to ensure the completion of this process. Peter Marra was a dedicated mentor from start to finish. Larry Rockwood made navigating George Mason University administrative bureaucracy easy. Thomas Wood was an advisor, field assistant, and friend who always had room in his home whenever the need arose. Thanks to Robert Rice, for inspiring the subject in the fourth chapter, an excellent addition to this research and Chris Parsons always offered an encouraging word and fun times playing cricket. Special thanks to Professor John Miller in the Department of Statistics, who voluntarily provided statistical direction when I was sinking in the mire of statistical obscurity. Very special thanks to Yvonne Henry for making me so much a part of her family and making my sojourn in the United States a home away from home and to all my friends and family who encouraged and helped me along the way. Essential assistance in the field and otherwise was provided by C. Studds, J. Carson, K. Wilson, T. Jones, K. Blake, T. Wood, K. Shea, J. Mellen, R. Terell, R. Reightsma, A. Sills, and R. Miller. I owe a debt of gratitude to Mr. John Fletcher, Mr. Noel Levy, Mr. Randolph Whitton, Mr. Arnold Kine, Mr. John Allgrove, Dr. Peter Fletcher, Dr. O.C. Hutchinson, and Dr. and Mrs. Lynn for graciously allowing me to conduct this research on their coffee farms. I would also like to say a special thanks to Mr. John Fletcher, Mr. Noel levy, and Dr. Peter Fletcher for kindly allowing me to use the Ramble Hill Estate house at no cost as one of my base of operation during this study. To the many coffee farmers that willingly participated in the farm survey I say many thanks. Finally, this research was conducted under permits issued by the U.S Fish and Wildlife Service and the National Environment and Planning Agency of Jamaica. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page List of Tables .............................................................................................................. …vi List of Figures ............................................................................................................ …vii List of Equations ....................................................................................................... …viii Abstract ....................................................................................................................... …ix Chapter 1 .......................................................................................................................…1 Chapter 2 .........................................................................................................................12 Chapter 3 .........................................................................................................................47 Chapter 4 .........................................................................................................................75 Appendices ......................................................................................................................89 List of References .........................................................................................................107 v LIST OF TABLES Table Page Table 1 ....................................................................................................................……39 Table 2 ............................................................................................................................69 Table 3 ............................................................................................................................70 Table 4 ............................................................................................................................86 Table 5 ............................................................................................................................88 vi LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page Figure 1 .......................................................................................................................…11 Figure 2 ...........................................................................................................................40 Figure 3 ...........................................................................................................................41 Figure 4 ...........................................................................................................................42 Figure 5 ...........................................................................................................................43 Figure 6 ...........................................................................................................................44 Figure 7 ...........................................................................................................................45 Figure 8 ...........................................................................................................................46 Figure 9 ...........................................................................................................................71 Figure 10 .........................................................................................................................72 Figure 11 .........................................................................................................................73 Figure 12 .........................................................................................................................74 vii LIST OF EQUATIONS Equation Page Equation 1 .......................................................................................................................57 Equation 2 .......................................................................................................................57 viii ABSTRACT THE BIOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF SHADE COFFEE PLANTATIONS IN THE BLUE MOUNTAIN, JAMAICA W.I Herlitz Alphonso Davis, Ph.D. George Mason University, 2013 Dissertation Director: Dr. Larry L. Rockwood Although many studies have touted the conservation value of coffee agroecosystems for migratory and resident birds, gaps do still exist in our knowledge about the suitability for birds and the economic benefit of fruit trees as shade in coffee agroecosystem. In this study I examine the habitat specific abundance, foraging ecology and performance of birds as well as the economic benefit of fruit trees as shade in coffee agroecosystems in Jamaica. Research was conducted on six shade coffee plots and in adjacent forested habitats in two distinct rainfall zones within the Yallahs River valley on the south-eastern slopes of the Blue Mountains, Jamaica. While shade coffee had higher or similar abundance for many bird species groups such as granivores and frugivores as compared to that of adjacent forest habitats, ecologically sensitive groups like forest restricted species were more abundant in adjacent forest habitats. Understory insectivorous and omnivorous bird species also exploited the shade canopy more than the coffee trees for the arthropod and nectar resources it provided. Results also suggest that rainfall, which influences arthropod biomass and quality but not the quantity of shade, are important to ensure that birds maintain overwinter body condition, depart early on migration, and return the following season. Results of a survey of local farmers suggests that they can reap additional economic rewards when fruit trees are utilized for shade on coffee farms, although this depends on management and marketing of shade tree products. Overall, this work suggests that although rainfall influences arthropod food for birds, optimizing the shade diversity where rainfall is low will benefit the bird community as well as the coffee farmers. CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION Human agency upon the Earth has resulted in extensive modification, conversion, and destruction of natural areas. The continued maintenance and growth of this population is dependent on the expansion of agricultural systems to provide enough food to sustain this predicted exponential population growth (Rosenzweig and Liverman 1992). It is therefore foreseeable that many more natural areas will be converted to expansive areas of mono-specific crops such as coffee. This loss of native forests to agricultural landscapes has contributed in a marked way to the

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