Sponsoring Committee Professor Florence S. Downs, Chairman Assistant Professor Sally R. Miller Professor Stephenie G. Edgerton
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SPOUSES' STRENGTH OF IDENTIFICATION
AND THEIR PATTERNS OF CHANGE IN PERCEIVED BODY SPACE
AND ARTICULATION OF BODY CONCEPT
DURING AND AFTER PREGNANCY
Jacqueline Fawcett
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy degree 1n the School of Education, Health, Nursing, and Arts Professions of New York University
1976 I hereby guarantee that no part of the dissertation which I have submitted for publication has been heretofore published and (or) copyrighted in the United States of America, except in the case of passages quoted from other published sources; that I am the sole author and proprietor of said dissertation; that the dissertation contains no matter which, if published, will be libelous or otherwise injurious, or infringe in any way the copyright of any other party; and that I will defend, indemnify and hold harmless New York University against all suits and proceedings which may be brought and against all claims which may be made against New York University by reason of the publication of said dissertation. Sponsoring Committee Professor Florence S. Downs, Chairman Assistant Professor Sally R. Miller Professor Stephenie G. Edgerton
An Abstract of
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SPOUSES' STRENGTH OF IDENTIFICATION
AND THEIR PATTERNS OF CHANGE IN PERCEIVED BODY SPACE
AND ARTICULATION OF BODY CONCEPT
DURING AND AFTER PREGNANCY
Jacqueline Fawcett
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy degree in the School of Education, Health, Nursing, and Arts Professions of New York University The family is a living open system characterized by pattern and
organization. While the rate of change in pattern and organization
varies throughout the life cycle of the family, few periods involve the
rapid and extensive repatterning and reorganization present in pregnancy
Empirical evidence suggests that changes in body image occur during and
after pregnancy in both wives and husbands. Identification has been
postulated to mediate changes in body image among family members. On
the basis of this theoretical model, four hypotheses were formulated:
(1) spouses' patterns of change in perceived body space during and
after pregnancy will be similar; (2) the stronger the identification between spouses, the greater the similarity 1n their patterns of change
in perceived body space during and after pregnancy; (3) spouses' patterns of change in articulation of body concept during and after pregnancy will be similar; (4) the stronger the identification between spouses, the greater the similarity 1n their patterns of change 1n articulation of body concept during and after pregnancy.
The study designed to test the hypotheses used a sample of fifty married couples who attended lamaze preparation for childbirth classes. Each couple was visited 1n their own home for data collection during the eighth and ninth months of pregnancy and the first and second postpartal months.
Strength of identification was operationally defined as the extent of similarity between spouses' frames of reference and was measured by a semantic differential. Perceived body space was measured by a topographic device, and a figure drawing test was used to measure articulation of body concept. 2
The data were analyzed by trend analysis, using multiple regression techniques. Hypothesis One was not supported. A cubic trend in perceived body space significant at the .005 level was found for the wives in the study sample. A quadratic trend in perceived body space significant at the .01 level was found for the husbands in the sample.
No evidence of similarity in spouses' patterns of change in perceived body space could be found. Perceived body space increased during pregnancy and decreased during the postpartum for both spouses; wives, however, demonstrated a slight secondary rise in perceived body space during the second postpartal month.
Hypothesis Two could not be tested. Significant patterns of change in perceived body space were found for wives in the three strength of identification groups Into which the sample was divided. However, the pattern of change in husbands' perceived body space was not significant in any of the strength of identification groups.
Hypotheses Three and Four could not be tested. No changes in articulation of body concept were found for either spouse.
Additional trend analyses for subsets of the sample indicated significant quadratic patterns of change in perceived body space for husbands of multigravidas and for husbands belonging to the lower-middle class.
In this investigation, strength of identification could not be demonstrated to be a mediator of changes in spouses' body images. An alternate theoretical model, using conjugal role relationships as the mediator, was proposed. i Additional studies which replicate the present one were recommended, with the following changes: (1) extend the data collection 3 period to include the first and second trimesters of pregnancy;
(2) include other measures of body image; (3) stratify the sample to include adequate numbers of subjects in each social class and parity group and in various method of childbirth groups; (4) enlarge the sample to include a control group of non-pregnant couples.
Further analysis of the data collected in the present study was recommended. Projective scoring of the human figure drawings was suggested, as was concept-by-concepljuialysis of the semantic differential. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
My sincere appreciation is due to the following persons and organizations, whose assistance made this study possible.
To my committee members, Florence S. Downs, Sally R. Miller,
and Stephenie G. Edgerton, for their continued encouragement
and expert advice.
To Elazar J. Pedhazur and Ellis B. Page, for their expert
consultation in the analysis and interpretation of the data.
To B1ll1e M. Carlson, Margaret Waite, Joan Sidney, the
Manchester Monitrice Association., and PACE, Inc., for
their assistance with the recruitment of subjects.
To the Staff of the University of Connecticut Computer Center,
for their financial support and consultation 1n the analysis
of the data.
To my subjects, for their continued Interest and cooperation.
To my classmates, Norma Hanson and Judith Chodll, for their
time spent 1n discussion and their support through all phases
of this dissertation.
To my husband, John S. Fawcett, for being there all the time.
i i i TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS...... Hi
LIST OF TABLES...... vii
LIST OF FIGURES...... x
Chapter
1. THE PROBLEM...... 1
Introduction ...... 1
Statement of the Problem ...... 1
Sub-Problems ...... 1
Definitions ...... 2
Delimitations ...... 3
Hypotheses ...... 4
Theoretical Framework ...... 4
2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ...... 9
Identification ...... 9
Body Im a g e...... 12
Perceived Body S p a c e ...... 15
Articulation of Body Concept ...... 16
Pregnancy ...... 19
3. METHODOLOGY...... 27
The S am ple...... 27
The Instruments ...... 29
Semantic Differential ...... 29
Topographic Device ...... 31
iv Page
Chapter
3. Figure Drawing T e s t...... 35
The Procedure for Collection of D a t a ...... 38
4. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA...... 39
Measures of Central Tendency and Variability ...... 39
Tests of the Hypotheses...... 39
Hypothesis O n e ...... 43
Hypothesis T w o ...... 48
Hypothesis Three ...... 48
Hypothesis F o u r ...... 54
Tests Related to the hypotheses ...... 54
Auxiliary Findings ...... 58
5. DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS...... 69
Hypothesis O n e ...... 69
Hypothesis T w o ...... 74
Hypothesis Three ...... 78
Hypothesis F our ...... 78
Auxiliary Findings ...... 82
6. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 84
Summary ...... 84
Conclusions ...... 86
Recommendations ...... 86
BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 88
APPENDIXES
A. SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL...... 100
v Page
APPENDIXES
B. TOPOGRAPHIC DEVICE ...... 113
C. FIGURE DRAWING TEST AND ARTICULATION OF BODY CONCEPT SCALE...... 115
D. PERSONAL DATA SHEET...... 121
E. SHRINKAGE FORMULA ...... 124
F. SUBJECT RECRUITMENT LETTER ...... 126
G. CODING OF THE DATA AND SAMPLE DATA...... 128
vi LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table
1. The Relation Between Two Measures of Perceived Body Space ...... 32
2. Correlation Matrix for the Three Sets of Random Numbers ...... 33
3. Test-Retest Reliability Data for the Modified Topographic D e v ic e ...... 34
4. Means, Standard Deviations and Ranges for Perceived Body Space of Wives and Husbands During and After Pregnancy ...... 40
5. Means, Standard Deviations and Ranges for Articulation of Body Concept for Wives and Husbands During and After Pregnancy ...... 41
6. Medians and Ranges for Spouses' Strength of Identification During and After Pregnancy ...... 42
7. The Regression of Perceived Body Space on Time for Wives. Tests for Trend ...... 44
8. The Regression of Perceived Body Space on Time for Husbands. Tests for Trend ...... 45
9. Trend Analysis for the Multiple Regression of Perceived Body Space on Time for Wives and Husbands During and After Pregnancy ...... 47
10. The Regression of Perceived Body Space on Time for Wives and for Husbands. Strength of Identification Group I. Tests for Trend ...... 50
vi i Page
Table
11. The Regression of Perceived Body Space on Time for Wives and for Husbands. Strength of Identification Group II. Tests for T r e n d ...... 51
12. The Regression of Perceived Body Space on Time for Wives and for Husbands. Strength of Identification Group III. Tests for T r e n d ...... 52
13. The Regression of Articulation of Body Concept on Time for Wives and for Husbands. Tests for T r e n d ...... 53
14. The Regression of Articulation of Body Concept on Time for Wives and for Husbands. Strength of Identification Group I. Tests for T r e n d ...... 55
15. The Regression of Articulation of Body Concept on Time for Wives and for Husbands. Strength of Identification Group II. Tests for T r e n d ...... 56
16. The Regression of Articulation of Body Concept on Time for Wives and for Husbands. Strength of Identification Group III. Tests for T r e n d ...... 57
17. Probability Levels for the Cubic Trend In Perceived Body Space for Wives' Strength of Identification Groups ...... 59
18. Probability Levels for the Quadratic Trend in Preceived Body Space for Husbands' Strength of Identification Groups ...... 59
19. The Regression of Perceived Body Space on Time for Husbands of Primi gravidas and Multi gravidas. Tests for T r e n d ...... 60
20. The Regression of Perceived Body Space on Time for Husbands According to Social Position. Tests for Trend ...... 61
21. Correlation Coefficients for Perceived Body Space and Articulation of Body Concept of Wives and Husbands During and After Pregnancy ...... 65
vi i i Page
Table
22. Correlation Coefficients for Perceived Body Space and Reported Body Weight of Wives and Husbands During and After Pregnancy ...... 66
23. Results of the Analysis of Variance for Strength of Identification Scores Using Friedman Rank S u m s ...... 67
ix LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure
1. Plot of Means of Perceived Body Space for Wives and Husbands During and After Pregnancy ...... 46
2. Distribution of Semantic Differential Scores and Strength of Identification Groups ...... 49
x Chapter 1
THE PROBLEM
Introduction
The family 1s an open system characterized by pattern and organ ization. While the rate of change In pattern and organization varies throughout the life cycle of the family, few periods involve the rapid and extensive repatterning and reorganization present in pregnancy.
Although it is agreed that pregnancy affects the whole family, there is little objective evidence of specific effects. The purpose of this study was to Investigate selected changes 1n both spouses during and after pregnancy.
Since one of the most obvious changes in pattern and organization during pregnancy is the outward form and appearance of the woman's body, two components of body Image were selected as variables.
Statement of the Problem
What is the relationship between spouses' strength of Identi fication and their patterns of change in perceived body space and articulation of body concept during and after pregnancy?
Sub-Problems
1. What 1s the relationship between spouses' patterns of change in perceived body space during and after pregnancy? 1 2
2. What 1s the relationship between spouses' strength of
Identification and the similarity in their patterns of change in perceived body space during and after pregnancy?
3. What is the relationship between spouses' patterns of change in articulation of body concept during and after pregnancy?
4. What 1s the relationship between spouses' strength of
Identification and the similarity in their patterns of change In articulation of body concept during and after pregnancy?
Definitions
Identification
Identification Is the similarity between two Individuals' sets of connotatlve meaningsJ In this study, strength of Identification was operationally defined as the amount of semantic similarity between spouses for a set of concepts related to Identification and was 2 determined by a semantic differential.
Perceived Body Space
Perceived body space 1s the amount of space an Individual perceives his body to occupy and 1s an Indicator of one's perception of the limits of his body boundaries. In this study, perceived body space
^Lionel M. Lazowlck, "On the Nature of Identification," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 51:176, 1955. 2 See Appendix A, Semantic Differential.
^Louise Schlachter, "The Relation Between Anxiety, Perceived Body and Personal Space and Actual Body Space Among Young Female Adults" (unpublished PhD dissertation, New York University, 1971), pp. 1-2, 21. 3 was determined by a topographic device.
Articulation of Body Concept
Articulation of body concept is defined as . . the extent to which the body is experienced as having definite limits or 'boundaries', and the 'parts' within these boundaries experienced as discrete, yet joined into a definite structure."® Articulation of body concept is an indicator of the extent to which an individual experiences his body as separate from the surrounding environment.® In this study, articulation of body concept was determined by the Figure Drawing Test.^
Delimitations
1. The sample was limited to married couples living together during the period of study.
2. The sample was limited to English-speaking individuals with a minimum of a high school education, to insure that directions given during the study would be understood.
3. The sample was limited to Individuals who were free from acute or chronic Illness, physical deformity, or perceptual Impairment,
Including uncorrected vision, since these conditions are associated with
^See Appendix B, Topographic Device.
5H. A. Wltkin and others, Psycholog1cal Pifferentiation. Studies of Development (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1962), p. 116.
®Herman A. W1tk1n, "Psychological Differentiation and Forms of Pathology," Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 70:318-320, 1965.
7 See Appendix C, Figure Drawing Test. 4 O alterations in body image.
Hypotheses
1. Spouses' patterns of change in perceived body space during and after pregnancy will be similar.
2. The stronger the identification between spouses, the greater the similarity in their patterns of change in perceived body space during and after pregnancy.
3. Spouses' patterns of change in articulation of body concept during and after pregnancy will be similar.
4. The stronger the identification between spouses, the greater the similarity 1n their patterns of change In articulation of body concept during and after pregnancy.
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework of this study was derived from the g theory of the family as a living open system, a theory which 1s based upon Rogers' conceptual model of man. Rogers posits that man and environment are complementary energy fields characterized by wholeness, openness, unidirectionality, pattern and organization, sentience and thought. Alterations 1n pattern and organization are postulated to be continuous and to reflect the mutual and simultaneous Interactions
®Pa'jl Schilder, The Image and Appearance of the Human Body (New York: International Universities Press, Inc., 1950), pp. 17-118. g Jacqueline Fawcett, "The Family As A Living Open System: An Emerging Conceptual Framework For Nursing," International Nursing Review, 22:113-116, 1975. 5
between man and environment.^
One environmental field in which man is embedded is his family.
The family is a living open system, an Integral, unified whole, ”... a
complete organism, a unity in its own right, as real as an individual."^
It is a system of interrelated systems, the family members, and a system 17 of relationships, built upon the husband-wife dyad. Since the family
is an open system, any change in one family member is accompanied by 13 changes in the other members.
The family system is patterned and organized. Pattern and
organization are the observable properties of a system, identifying it 14 and reflecting its wholeness. The pattern of a family system is
never complete, but rather is fluid and ever-changing. Changes in 15 pattern are effected by the mutual interactions among family members.
^Martha E. Rogers, An Introduction to the Theoretical Basis of Nursing (Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Company, li)70j.
^John G. Howells, "Childbirth Is a Family Experience," Modern Perspectives in Psycho-Obstetrics, ed. John G. Howells (New York: Brunner/Mazel, Publishers, 19^2), p. 127. 12 Murray Bowen, "The Use of Family Theory in Clinical Practice," Comprehensive Psychiatry. 7:351-354, 1966. 13 Bowen, p. 351; see also William J. Lederer and Don D. Jackson, The Mirages of Marriage (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, Inc., 1968), p. 90; see also Paul Watzlawlck, Janet H. Beavin, and Don D. Jackson, Pragmatics of Human Communication. A Study of Interactional Patterns, Patnologies, and Paradoxes (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, Inc., 1S67). pp. 134-136. ------
Judson Herrick, The Evolution of Human Nature (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1956), p. 5:T 15 Bowen, p. 354; see also Robert D. Hess and Gerald Handel, "The Family as a Psychosocial Organization," The Psychosocial Interior of the Family. A Sourcebook for the Study of Whole"Families, ed. Gerald Handel (Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company, 1967), p. 15. 6
Family members identify with one another.^ Identification, the process and the end product of change in a system's pattern and organ- 17 ization,' is effected by interactions between a system and the environ ment.^ Identifications vary in strength.^
Identification was defined in this study as the similarity 20 between individuals' connotative meanings of images or events. The similarity between this definition and Hess and Handel's discussion of the establishment of consensus in a family is striking. Hess and Handel stated that throught their mutual interactions, family members work toward consensus in their perceptions of and attitudes toward themselves, each other, and the environment. Consequently, they establish more or 21 less congruent meanings for the Images and events of their world. It is this congruence of meanings that Lazowick defines as identification.
Since Identi Ication is mediated by interactions, and since interactions between systems are mutual and simultaneous, It appeared that Identification, as defined 1n this study, could be considered an
^Roy Schafer, Aspects of Internalization (New York: International Universities Press, Inc., 1968), p. 160.
^Schafer, pp. 141-148. 18 Jacob L. Gewlrtz and Karen G. Stingle, "Learning of General ized Imitation as the Basis for Identification," Psychological Review, 75:395-396, 1968. IQ Jerome Kagan, "The Concept of Identification," Psychological Review, 65:303, 1958.
20Lazow1ck, p. 176.
^Hess and Handel, pp. 10-17. 22 empirical indicator of mutual and simultaneous interaction.
Pregnancy is associated with change in ", . . the whole of what 23 one feels one's self to be. It is a period of observable change in
the pattern and organization of a woman's total life situation. One of
the most profound changes is in the form and appearance of the woman's
body. As the body changes during pregnancy, the amount of space occupied
changes and the relationship between body boundaries and the environment 9 A changes.
The amount of space an Individual perceives he occupies and the way in which he perceives the relationship between his body boundaries 25 and the environment are components of body Image. Body image forms
and reforms throughout life. Alterations are influenced by physiological
psychological, and sociological changes. Identification and object
relations play predominant roles in the continuous evolution of body
^Henry Margenau, "The Method of Science and the Meaning of Reality," Integrative Principles of Modern Thought, ed. Henry Margenau (New York: Gordon and Breach, 1972), pp. 12-29; see also S. S. Stevens, "Mathematics, Measurement, and Psychophysics," Handbook of Experimental Psychology, ed. S. S. Stevens (New York: John Ml ley and Sons, Inc., 1951). p. 48. 23 Sr. Mary Charitas Iffrlg, 'Body Image In Pregnancy. Its Relation to Nursinq Functions," Nursinq Clinics of North America, 7:631, 1972. 24 Kenneth R. Edwards, J r., "Psychological Changes Associated with Pregnancy and Obstetric Complications" (unpublished PhD dissertation University of Miami, 1969), p. 29; and Seymour Fisher, The Female Orgasm. Psychology, Physiology. Fantasy (New York: Basic Books, Inc., Publishers, 1973), pp. 349-350; and Owen L. McConnell and Paul G. Daston, "Body Image Changes 1n Pregnancy," Journal of Projective Techniques, 24:453, 1961; and Leonide M. Tanner, "Developmental Tasks of Pregnancy," Current Concepts in Clinical Nursing, II, ed. Betty S. Bergersen and others Tat. Louis: The C. V. Mosby Company, 1969), pp. 295-296. 25 Seymour Fisher, Body Experience in Fantasy and Behavior (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1970), p. 155; and Schlachter, p. 21; and Witkin and others, Psychological Differentiation, p. 116. 8 image. The closer others are, spatially and emotionally, the more they 26 influence change in body image.
Since pregnancy Involves changes in a woman's body and since body image changes as one's body changes, it was hypothesized that a woman's body image would change during pregnancy. Furthermore, since the amount of space occupied and the relationship between body boundar ies and the environment change during pregnancy, it was hypothesized that perceived body space and articulation of body concept were two 27 aspects of body image which would change.
Since identification and object relations are associated with changes in body Image, and since a husband may identify with and is 28 emotionally and spatially close to his wife, i t was hypothesized that his body image would also change during pregnancy, 1n a pattern similar to his wife's. Furthermore, since Identification varies in strength,
1t was hypothesized that the similarity 1n spouses' patterns of change in body Image would be positively related to the strength of their identification.
26 SchUder, Image and Appearance of the Human Body, pp. 235-241. 27 Cf. ante, pp. 2-3.
^®M1chael Ballnt, "On Genital Love," International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 29:37, 1948; see also Rubin Blanck and Gertrude Blanck, Marriage and Personal Development (New York: Columbia University Press, 1968), pp. 5-6; see also Therese Benedek, "Parenthood as a Developmental Phase. A Contribution to the Libido Theory," Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 7:399, 1959. Chapter 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Identification
Identification implies a positive affective relationship between two persons. Many theories have been advanced to explain this phenomeon, resulting in more confusion than clarity. There is, however, one point of agreement among all theories of identification, which is that identi fication is something that is learned J Lazowick postulated that what is learned are the meanings which comprise an individual's frame of 2 reference. Lazowick's theory of Identification represents an attempt to present a unified theory. Incorporating the essential element in all other theories of identification. 3 Identification Is based upon mediation, through which meanings 4 are learned. A mediation process occurs when some fractional part of the total behavior elicited by a stimulus (signlflcate) occurs. Media tion produces responses which would not occur without the previous
\azowick, pp. 175-176. 2 Lazowick, p. 176. 3 0. Hobart Mowrer, Learning Theory and Personality Dynamics. Selected Papers (New York: The Ronald Press Company, 1950), pp. 590-596.
^Charles E. Osgood, "Behavior Theory and the Social Sciences," Behavioral Science, 1:167-185, 1956.
9 10 association of a derived stimulus (sign) with the original stimulus
(significate). This process therefore ties particular signs with particular significates. Words or concepts are signs because they produce some replica of the actual behavior toward the image or event c they represent.
Lazowick proposed a mediation theory of Identification. He postulated that an individual (the subject) first observes another's
(the model) overt response to an image or event (a sign) and imitates that response. Then, as a function of the contiguous association between the sign and the imitative response, the subject acquires connotative meanings for that sign. These meanings are similar to those which the sign has for the model. The extent of similarity 1n connotative meanings between the individuals defines the strength of their identification.®
Identification, then, is a learning process. It is agreed that the antecedents of identification reside in the milieu of family Inter actions,^ with the primary identifications based upon models provided by parents, siblings, and others with whom an individual 1s 1n early, O close, dependent, and continuing association. Identifications continue
^Charles E. Osgood, George J. Suci, and Percy H. Tannenbaum, The Measurement of Meaning (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, ra7yrpprS3. ------
®Lazowick, pp. 176-178.
^William J. Mueller, "Need Structure and the Projection of Traits onto Parents," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 3:63, 1966.
^Schafer, pp. 159-160. n to form throughout life with others who are important, impressive, and g emotionally significant. Every love relationship is dependent upon and characterized by identification.^ It therefore seemed reasonable to assume that a major identification of adult life is formed between husband and wife.
The preponderance of research on Identification has been con cerned with parent-child relations. However, there have been some studies of identifications formed during the adult years. Interestingly, these investigations used Lazowick's definition of Identification and his technique of measuring strength of identification with the semantic differential
DeWolfe and his associates found that Identification with an
Instructor reduced student nurses' fear during tuberculosis and psych iatric nursing experiences. A positive relation was found between 12 strength of identification and decrease of fear.
Yelen designed an experiment to test Lazowick's theory of iden-
^Schafer, pp. 160-161; see also Heinz Hartmann and Rudolph M. Loewensteln, "Notes on the Superego," Psychological Issues, Vol. 14, No. 2, Monograph 14 (New York: International Universities Press, Inc., 1964), p. 153; see also Edward C. Tolman, "Identification and the Post- War World," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 38:141-148, 1943.
^B alint, p. 37; see also Otto Fenlchel, The Psychoanalytic Theory of Neurosis (New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1945), pp. 04- W.
^Lazowick, pp. 178-179.
^Alan S. DeWolfe, “Identification and Fear Decrease," Journal of Consulting Psychology, 31:259-263, 1967; and Alan S. DeWolfe, Ruthanne K. S. DeWol/erand Janet McNulty, "Fear Decrease and Identi fications in a Psychiatric Setting, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 39:160-165, 1972. tification. He found that subjects learned to imitate peer models' semantic ratings of nonsense syllables, and that the subjects acquired the same evaluative connotations of the syllables as held by the models.
Yelen concluded that these results indicated that identification, as 13 defined by Lazowick, had occurred.
Although many claims have been made that spouses identify with 14 one another, there have been no objective investigations of husband- wife identification.
Body Image
The body Image, ". . . the picture of our own body which we form in our mind, that Is to say the way in which the body appears to our- 15 selves.", Is a tridimensional unity of Interpersonal, environmental, and temporal factors. It 1s the composite of perceptions, attitudes, and feelings that each individual has of his own body as 1t exists 1n space.^ Body Image 1s concerned with the individual's subjective experience of his body and the manner in which he organizes these
^Donald R. Yelen, "Identification: The Acquisition of Evaluative Connotations," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 12:328-332, 1969. 14 Blanck and Blanck, p. 6; see also Benedek, "Parenthood as a Developmental Phase,", p. 399; see also Gerald Caplan, Concepts of Mental Health and Consultation. Their Application in Public Health Social Work, Children's Bureau Publication, No. 373 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1959), p. 55.
^Schilder, Image and Appearance of the Human Body, p. 11.
^Franklin C. Shontz, Perceptual and Cognitive Aspects of Body Experience (New York: Academic Press, 1969), pp. 165-175. 13 experiences.^
Body image Is differentiated from body scheme and bodily ego.
Body image is the changing presentation of the body in one's mind, while body scheme is the constant mental knowledge of one's body, and the bodily ego is the continuous awareness of one's body throughout change.^
Body image develops through the continuing interaction between the body and its environment. It provides the Individual with specific information about the position and structure of his body as well as of the space It occupies. Body image 1s a dynamic phenomenon, changing as physiological, psychological, and sociological changes occur throughout life .19
There 1s a close connection between one's own body Image and the body Images of significant others. The continuous process of construc tion, dissolution, and reconstruction of body Image is mediated, in part, by Identification. It 1s through Identification that an Individual 20 Incorporates parts of the bodies of others Into his own body Image.
The family has a predominant role in the development of an
Individual's body Image. The Intimacy of the family system Involves
^Seymour Fisher and Sidney E. Cleveland, Body Image and Personality (2d ed.; New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1968), p. x. 18 Paul Fedem, Ego Psychology and the Psychoses, ed. Edoardo Weiss (New York: Basic Books,Inc.,1052), p. 213. 19 Schilder, Image and Appearance of the Human Body, pp. 11-16.
^Schilder, Image and Appearance of the Human Body, pp. 173, 235. 14 giving up some degree of differentiation between one's own body and the bodies of other family members. Children incorporate perceptions of and attitudes toward their bodies from their parents; husbands and wives may 21 treat each other's bodies as self extensions.
While there is no substantial evidence to support the concept of body image as an empirical reality, Shontz concluded that the global concept of body image ". . . makes it possible to speak and think 1n terms that apply to the Integrated individual as a comprehensive 22 reality." There are, however, no measures of body Image as a whole.
Traub and Orbach noted that body Image encompasses two Independent dimensions. The perceptual dimension refers to an Individual's mental picture of the physical appearance of his body, and Is measured by observational methods and projective techniques. The attitudlnal dimension refers to an Individual's feelings, attitudes, and emotional reactions toward his body, and 1s evaluated by Interviews and attitude scales.^
This study was concerned with two components of body Image, perceived body space and articulation of body concept. Both of these deal with aspects of an Individual's perceptions of his body boundaries.
Gerald Handel, ed., The Psychosocial Interior of the Family. A Sourcebook for the Study of WKole Families (Chicago; Aldlne Publishing Company, 1967), p. 2; see also Seymour Fisher, Body Consciousness; You Are What You Feel (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1973), p p ." 3 ? - w------.
^Shontz, p. 171. ^Arthur C. Traub and J. Orbach, "Psychophysical Studies of Body Image. I. The Adjustable Body-Distorting Mirror," Archives of General Psychiatry, 11:53-54, 1964. 15
Perceived Body Space
The individual exists as an object in space; his body occupies space. Perceived body space is the amount of space an individual perceives his body to occupy. It is an indicator of the individual's perception of the limits of his body boundaries.^ That perceived body space is a component of body image is supported by Fisher's statement that a fundamental aspect of body image is the manner in which an 25 individual experiences the limits of his body, his body boundaries.
Shontz referred to perceived body space, defining it as the estimation of linear distances on the body, rather than the amount of 26 space occupied. Other investigators have studied perceptions of the body 1n space by measuring estimations of body size and shape using such 27 instruments as an anamorphic lens and an adjustable body-distorting 28 mirror. However, the study variable was termed body Image.
Two investigations of perceived body space as defined in this study have been conducted. Schlachter found that the higher the anxiety, the greater the difference between actual body space and perceived body
^Schlachter, pp. 1-2, 14-21. 25 Fisher, Body Experience, p. 155.
^6Shontz, pp. 36-84. 27 Ityron L. Glucksman and Jules Hirsch, "The Response of Obese Patients to Weight Reduction. III. The Perception of Body Size," Psychosomatic Medicine, 31:1-8, 1969. 28 Traub and Orbach, pp. 55-66. 16
space. She also found that the three subjects in her sample who were
markedly obese underestimated perceived body space, while the sixteen 29 subjects who were extremely thin overestimated perceived body space.
Collett found evidence of inverse relationships between
perceived duration of time and perceived body space and between body
temperature and perceived body space for the males in her sample. These
relations were not significant, however, for the females. Collett's
data revealed no differences between males and females in perceived body 30 space.
While systematic research has not been conducted to determine what factors are related to changes in perceived body space, it seemed
reasonable to expect changes to occur as the actual amount of space an
Individual's body occupies changes.
Articulation of Body Concept
31 Body concept Is a synonym for body image. Articulation of body
concept (or sophistication of body concept, as it 1s often termed) 1s an
Indicator of the extent to which an individual experiences his body as having definite limits or boundaries and the parts within as di-crete 32 yet interrelated and formed Into a definite structure.
^Schlachter, pp. 38-40, 56. 30 Barbara Collett, "A Study of the Relationship Between Variation in Body Temperature, Perceived Duration and Perceived Personal Space" (unpublished PhD dissertation, New York University, 1972), pp. 42-49.
^Witkin and others, Psychological Differentiation, p. 116.
^Witkin, "Psychological Differentiation," p. 319. 17
Articulation of body concept concerns that aspect of body image which deals with body boundary-environment relationships, indicating the extent to which one is differentiated from the environment. It has been repeatedly demonstrated that the more articulated the body concept, the more field independent the individual is.
Articulation of body concept is a developmental process. At the outset of life, it is likely that the child experiences se lf and environ ment as a continuum, but with time, distinctions between self and non- 34 self are made. Thus, boundaries between the body and the environment are formed and awareness of body parts and their interrelatedness develops.3**
Longitudinal studies of articulation of body concept have demonstrated an Increase in articulation through seventeen years of 36 age, with a leveling off thereafter. Specifically, Faterson and
Witkln reported a marked trend toward increasing articulation from eight 37 to fourteen, with a relatively smaller Increase through twenty-four.
^Marie Holley, "Field Dependence-Independence, Sophistication of Body Concept and Social Distance Selection" (unpublished PhD dissertation, New York University, 1972), pp. 47-49; see also Philip E. Vernon, "The Distinctiveness of Field Independence," Journal of Personality, 40:367, 1972; see also Witkln, "Psychological Differenti ation," pp. 319-320.
^Fenlchel, pp. 35-36.
35Herman A. Witkln, "A Cognitive-Style Approach to Cross-Cultural Research," International Journal of Psychology, 2:234, 1967.
36Herman A. Witkin, Donald R. Goodenough, and Stephen A. Karp, "Stability of Cognitive Style from Childhood to Young Adulthood," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 7:299, 1967. 37Hanna F. Faterson and Herman A. Witkin, "Longitudinal Study of Development of the Body Concept," Developmental Psychology, 2:429-438, 1970. 18
However, Holley found no evidence of a relation between age and articu lation of body concept in her subjects, who ranged in age from twenty- 38 one to forty-nine. These data suggest that articulation of body concept Is relatively stable during the young and middle adult years.
There is no evidence, of a difference 1n articulation of body concept between adult males and females,39 including married couples.^
Winstead-Fry's study 1s the first application of articulation of body concept to marital pairs. Her findings revealed a positive, but low, relation in articulation between spouses (r = .27, p <.01
The relationship between body boundaries and the environment has also been studied by Fisher and Cleveland. Using Inkblot stimuli, they developed two indices. Barrier and Penetration, to measure the properties an individual ascribes to his body boundaries. These investigators postulated that the higher the Barrier score, the more definite are the
Individual's boundaries, while the higher the Penetration score, the greater the sense of boundary vulnerability. The Barrier score Is thought to be an Index of persisting attitudes toward and feelings about one's body, while the Penetration score 1s more sensitive to 42 immediate situational conditions.
^Holley, p. 34.
39Holley, p. 47. an Patricia Winstead-Fry, "The Relationship of Self-Actualization and Articulation of Body Concept to the Perception of Dominance and to Actual Dominance in Married Couples" (unpublished PhD dissertation, New York University, 1974), p. 42.
^Winstead-Fry, p. 42.
^Fisher and Cleveland, pp. 101-113, 393. 19
There is a small but inconsistent overlap between articulation of body concept and boundary definiteness. The Barrier score has been found to be positively correlated with articulation of body concept in A O some samples for males but not for females.
As previously noted, investigations of articulation of body concept suggest that this is a relatively stable aspect of body image during the adult years. However, since articulation of body concept determines body boundary-environement relationships, it seemed reasonable to expect changes to occur as changes in this relationship occur.
Pregnancy
Of all the changes which occur during pregnancy, perhaps the most profound and obvious 1s the form and appearance of the woman's body.
Fisher noted:
There are few things that happen 'normally* to the human body that compare 1n magnitude with the changes produced by pregnancy. This is particularly true If one considers the relatively brief time span within which pregnancy grossly alters the body config uration.44
As the body changes 1n form and appearance, 1t occupies more space. Although abdominal enlargement 1s especially noticeable, a 45 generalized Increase in body size occurs. Changes 1n the body are recognized early in pregnancy, but 1t 1s not until the second
4^W1tkin and others, Psychological Differentiation, pp. 131-132. 4 4 Fisher, Female Orgasm, p. 131.
^Louis M. Heilman and Jack A. Pritchard, Williams Obstetrics (14h ed.; New York: Appleton-Century Crofts, 1971), pp. 245-248. 20 trimester that a woman develops a feeling of widened space and an aware ness of generalized increase in body size. By the third trimester, awareness of size increase is intensified and is often accompanied by ambivalent feelings.^6
Although there is general agreement in the literature that pregnancy is associated with a change in body image, there have been few objective investigations of the nature of change. Studies of the attitudlnal dimension of body image suggest that attitudes toward bodily changes vary during the course of pregnancy and are mediated by person ality factors and attitude toward pregnancy.
Carty interviewed a cross section of forty pregnant and post- partal women and found that the degree of dissatisfaction with figure changes Increased as pregnancy progressed, but was most marked during the Immediate postpartum . ^
Using a semantic differential rating of the concept, "My Body",
McConnell and Daston found that women evaluate their bodies more favor ably and regard it as less potent three days after delivery than during the third trimester. These investigators also measured attitude toward pregnancy, using Impartial judges' ratings of Interview material obtained from the twenty-eight multi paras who were subjects. Findings
^Lucle Jessner, Edith Weigert, and James L. Foy, "The Develop ment of Parental Attitudes During Pregnancy," Parenthood. Its Psychology and Psychopathology, ed. E. James Anthony and Therese Benedek (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1970), p. 217; and Reva Rubin, "Cognitive Style in Pregnancy," American Journal of Nursing, 70:505-508, 1970; and Tanner, pp. 295-296.
^Elaine A. Carty, "My, You're Getting Big!" The Canadian Nurse, 66:8:40-43, 1970. indicated that women with positive attitudes toward pregnancy evaluated their bodies positively during pregnancy and negatively after delivery, whereas the reverse held for women who had negative attitudes toward 48 pregnancy.
Venezia used a battery of psychological tests to investigate correlates of change in body attitude during and after pregnancy. He found that in a sample of forty multi paras the extraverted women eval uated their bodies more negatively during pregnancy than did introverted 49 women.
There is some evidence suggesting changes in the perceptual dimension of body image during and after pregnancy. Deutsch suggested that the pregnant woman views her body as a protective container for the 50 fetus and fears disruption to her body caused by delivery. Plotsky and Shereshefsky's observations of and interviews with fifty-seven primigravidas revealed fears regarding body intactness during pregnancy.
Other Investigators have noted the pregnant woman's feeling of vulner- 52 ability as pregnancy progresses, as well as her awareness of her body
AQ McConnell and Daston, pp. 451-456.
^Daniel J. Venezia, "Correlates of Body Attitude Change in Pregnancy" (unpublished PhD dissertation, Washington University, 1972).
SOHelene Deutsch, The Psychology of Women; A Psychological Interpretation, II, Motherhood (New York: Grune and Stratton, 1945), pp. 2n -217.' “ ------^Harold Plotsky and Pauline Shereshefsky, "The Psychological Meaning of Watching the Delivery," Child and Family, 8:260, 1969.
52Arthur D. Colman, "Psychological State During First Pregnancy, American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 39:790, 1969; and Rubin, p. 508. 22 53 as a protective shield for the fetus.
Objective studies support these observations of changes in the
perceptual dimension of body image during pregnancy. Using Fisher and 54 Cleveland's technique of scoring inkblot stimuli, investigators have
studied the relationship between body boundaries and the environment
during and after pregnancy.
McConnell and Daston found evidence of a decrease in the
Penetration scores of their sample of twenty-eight multi paras three days 55 after delivery, but no change in the Barrier scores. Conversely, Fisher
found a decrease in only the Barrier scores of forty-nine women, Includ- 56 ing pr1m1paras and multi paras, one month after delivery. Edwards, however, found decreases 1n both the Barrier and the Penetration scores 57 of his sample of fifty-three primlparas within ten days after delivery.
These findings suggest that pregnant women experience more boundary definiteness and more boundary vulnerability during pregnancy,
indicating that the body is perceived as a vulnerable, yet protective container at this time.
Although these Investigations revealed a pattern of change In body boundary-environment relationships during and after pregnancy, they are limited to the assessment of change from the third trimester of pregnancy to no later than one month after delivery. Thus 1t is not
53Rubin, p. 508. 54 Cf. ante, p. 18. 55 McConnell and Daston, p. 453. 56 Fisher, Female Orgasm, p. 350.
57Edwards, "Psychological Changes", p. 29. 23 clear how the body is perceived earlier in pregnancy or after it has returned more fully to its non-pregnant state.
Researchers have noted changes in cognitive style during 58 pregnancy and have measured these changes objectively. When pregnant and postpartal women were compared with non-pregnant controls, a decrease in interest in social contacts and activities and an increased interest 59 in the self during and after pregnancy were found. However, there is no evidence that the cognitive changes of pregnancy influence a pregnant woman's ability to conserve volume, approximate volume, or estimate body dimensions.®9
These few Investigations suggest that a woman experiences changes in her body image during and after pregnancy, and that these changes Include perceptions of the space occupied by the body and of body boundary-environment relationships. Therefore, It was hypothesized that a woman would experience changes 1n perceived body space and in articulation of body concept during and after pregnancy.
The experience of pregnancy is not limited to the woman. Caplan asserted that it Is more correct to speak of the "pregnant family" than
58Rubin, pp. 502-508.
59A11 Jarrahl-Zadeh and others, "Emotional and Cognitive Changes in Pregnancy and Early Puerperlum," British Journal of Psychiatry, 115: 797-805, 1969; and C. Richard Treadway and others, “A Psychoendocrlne Study of Pregnancy and Puerperlum," American Journal of Psychiatry, 125: 1380-1386, 1969.
60Kay F. Engelhardt, "The Effect of Body Volume Change During Pregnancy on Cognitive Functioning" (unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1972). 24
the "pregnant woman", since all family members are affected by a
p re g n a n c y .H is impression, however, was based on observations rather
than systematic study.
A husband's response to his wife's pregnancy has been the subject
of some studies. Using both retrospective and longitudinal designs,
Trethowan and Conlon found that a greater than chance number of British men experienced symptoms of physical illness, including gastrointestinal disorders, increased or decreased appetite, backache, and toothache, during their wives' pregnancies. The researchers noted that the men did 62 not experience these symptoms at other times.
Other studies, using interview techniques, have found that
American men develop "sympathetic symptons of pregnancy". Including nausea and vomiting, syncope, lassitude, leg cramps, weight gain, and 63 backache, while their wives are pregnant. These symptoms have also 64 been reported by men in other cultures. In addition, Liebenberg
Gerald Caplan, "Emotional Implications of Pregnancy and Influences on Family Relationships," The Healthy Child. His Physical, Psychological, and Social Development, ed. Harold C. Stuart and Dane G. Prugh (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1960), p. 78. fi 9 W. H. Trethowan and M. F. Conlon, "The Couvade Syndrome," British Journal of Psychiatry, 111:57-66, 1965; and W. H. Trethowan, "the Couvade Syndrome--Some Further Observations," Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 12:107-115, 1968.
^Beatrice Liebenberg, "Expectant Fathers," Child and Family, 8:269, 1969; and Robert L. Munroe and Ruth H. Munroe, "Male Pregnancy Symptoms and Cross-Sex Identity in Three Societies," Journal of Social Psychology, 84:13-14, 1971; see also Tom Congdon, "What Goes On In His Head When You're Pregnant?" Glamour, December 1970, p. 172.
^Munroe and Munroe, pp. 15-25; and Robert L. Munroe, Ruth H. Munroe, and Sara B. Nerlove, "Male Pregnancy Symptoms and Cross-Sex Identity: Two Replications," Journal of Social Psychology, 89:147-148, 1973. 25 observed concerns regarding body intactness in the husbands of the 65 pregnant women studied by Plotsky and Shereshefsky.
These symptoms have been labeled the couvade syndrome by
Trethowan and Conlon.^ Couvade phenomena are postulated to be an expression of a man's involvement 1n pregnancy and of his identification with his w ife.^
Colman and Colman commented that a husband's close proximity to his wife Influences his response to her pregnancy. They postulated that the more a husband identifies with his wife, the more Intensely he will experience changes in his own body during the pregnancy. However, they offered little evidence to support this claim, noting only that they found the husbands of women they Interviewed during pregnancy dreamed g o about changes 1n their bodies.
Deutsher's study of ten couples supported his theory that spouses have similar experiences during pregnancy and that both experience physiological and psychological changes as pregnancy pro- 69 gresses. However, the nature of these changes was not reported.
These findings suggest that a husband experiences changes 1n his body Image during pregnancy, and that the greater the Identification with
^Liebenberg, p. 270; and Cf. ante, p. 21.
^Trethowan and Conlon, p. 58.
^Trethowan, p. 113; see also Trethowan and Conlon, p. 59; see also Liebenberg, p. 268; see also Arthur D. Colman and Libby L. Colman, Pregnancy: The Psychological Experience (New York: Herder and Herder, 197T), p p .$ 7 - 1 0 9 . ------
6®Colman and Colman, p. 126.
69Max Deutscher, "First Pregnancy and the Origins of Family--A Rehearsal Theory," American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 39:319-320, 1969. 26 his wife, the more similar will these changes be to those experienced by her. Therefore, it was hypothesized that the husband of a pregnant woman would experience changes in perceived body space and in articu lation of body concept during and after pregnancy. It was also hypothe sized that spouses' patterns of change in perceived body space and in articulation of body concept would be similar, and that the amount of similarity would be mediated by the strength of their identification. C h a p ter 3
METHODOLOGY
The Sample
The sample was comprised of fifty married couples who met the delimitations of the study. This sample size was based upon shrinkage of the multiple correlation coefficient, R. To reduce shrinkage of R to a minimum, a ratio of at least thirty subjects per independent variable is recommended.^
The sample was recruited from prepared childbirth classes
(N ■ 46); the practice of a group of obstetricians (N ■ 6); and through referrals from subjects and other Interested persons (N = 9). Sixty-one couples volunteered to participate 1n the study. Of the eleven couples eliminated from the study, six delivered prior to the second data collection period, two had physical handicaps, one had an acute Illness during the ninth month of pregnancy, one moved without leaving a forward ing address prior to the third data collection period, and one withdrew from the study for unspecified reasons.
All subjects in the sample were Caucasian. All lived in the north-central and northeastern regions of Connecticut. The women ranged
1n age from 17 to 36 years (X = 26.52, sd = 3.89); the men, from 19 to
^Jum C. Nunnally, Psychometric Theory (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1967), p. 164. The formula used to estimate the shrinkage of R is given in Appendix E, Shrinkage Formula.
27 28
41 years (X = 28.66, sd = 4.73). The couples had been married from 1 to
10 years {J = 4.78, sd = 2.85). Twenty-seven couples were expecting their first child; fifteen, their second; seven, their third; and one, their fourth. 2 All five social positions were represented in the sample.
Thirteen couples belonged to Social Position I; thirteen, to Social
Position II; nineteen, to Social Position III; four, to Social Position
IV; and one, to Social Position V.
All couples who volunteered to participate in the study attended
Lamaze preparation for childbirth classes during the third trimester of pregnancy.
The recruitment of subjects for this study was most successful when the Investigator approached couples personally. Verbal presentation 3 of the aims of the study and the credentials of the investigator at prepared childbirth classes, followed by Individual discussion with each couple, resulted in the largest number of participants. To eliminate the reluctance to participate due to the possibility of questions of a 4 sexual nature, found by Winstead-Fry, the Investigator explicitly noted that this study was not concerned with sexual relationships. Couples who did not volunteer explained they either had no Interest in the study or had no time for participation.
^August B. Hollingshead,"Two Factor Index of Social Position*' (New Haven; August B. HolHngshead, 1957), pp. 2-9. (Mimeographed.)
^See Appendix F, Recruitment Letter.
^Winstead-Fry, p. 30. 29
The Instruments
Semantic Differential
The semantic differential was developed by Osgood to measure the
meaning of concepts. The instrument is a combination of controlled
association and scaling procedures, in which the subject is provided with
a concept to be differentiated and a set of bipolar adjective scales
against which to differentiate it. The subject indicates the direction 5 of his association and its intensity on a seven point scale.
Three dimensions, Evaluative, Potency, and Activity, have been
identified by factor analytic techniques as accounting for fifty percent
of the total variance in the meaning of concepts.^
As a measure of meaning, the semantic differential is limited to
face validity.^ It is, however, probably the most valid measure of g connotative meaning available. Test-retest reliability of the instrument g 1s reported to be .85.
The semantic differential provides an objective measure that may be applied to the measurement of identification as a relationship between
individuals' meanings or frames of reference.^ The concepts selected by
^Osgood, Suci, and Tannenbaum, p. 20.
^Osgood, Suci, and Tannenbaum, p. 38.
^Osgood, Suci, and Tannenbaum, pp. 140-143.
^Nunnally, p. 541. g Osgood, Suci, and Tannenbaum, pp. 126-141.
^Lazowick, p. 178. 30
Lazowick as relevant to the measurement of identification were used in this study. These concepts are: myself, mother, father, family, husband, wife, man, woman, pleasant, unpleasant.^
Three bipolar adjective scales were chosen to represent each of the three main dimensions of the semantic differential on the basis of having maximal loading on one factor and minimal loading on the other two, as well as their relevance for the concepts used in this study.
These scales are: Evaluative factor--good-bad, kind-cruel, beautiful- ugly; Potency factor--hard-soft, heavy-light, masculine-feminine; 12 Activity factor--active-passive, fast-slow, hot-cold.
The test booklet was designed so that each concept appeared at the top of a page with the nine bipolar adjective scales listed below.
The order of the scales was randomly determined for each concept to minimize transfer effects. In many studies, the polarities of the scales are also determined randomly. However, Nunnally argued against this 13 practice, since it increases measurement error. Therefore, the 14 polarity remained constant for all scales for all concepts.
The scoring for the semantic differential is on a seven point scale. For the purpose of consistency, the unfavorable pole of each adjective pair was assigned a score of one and the favorable pole, a
^Lazowick, p. 178. 12 Osgood, Suci, and Tannenbaum, pp. 53-57.
^Nunnally, p. 542. 14 See Appendix A, Semantic Differential. 31 score of seven. To determine the similarity between spouses' sets of connotative meanings, or profiles, a D score was computed. The D value operationally defined identification as the semantic similarity between 15 two individuals' frames of reference. D is an index of the similarity
between two profiles and 1s the square root of the sum of the squared differences between coordinate scales for each concept on the two profiles.^ Computation of D is such that the lower the score, the stronger the identification between individuals.
Topographic Device
The topographic device was developed by Schlachter to measure perceived body space and perceived personal space. The device as originally designed was a seven foot square of rr\ylar, covered with con centric circles ranging from eleven to seventy-two inches in diameter.^
A review of the means and standard deviations for perceived body space
1n the studies using the topographic device suggested that a fifty-four
Inch square would be sufficient 1f the device were to be used to measure 18 only perceived body space.
The modified topographic device consists of a fifty-four inch
^Lazowlck, p. 178; see also Osgood, Suci, and Tannenbaum, pp. 89-97.
^®E. D. Lawson, George H. Golden, J r., and Kathy J. Chmura, "Computer Programs for the Semantic Differential," Educational and Psychological Measurement, 32:782, 1972.
^Schlachter, p. 32.
ISSchlachter, pp. 38-39; and Collett, p. 43. 32
square sheet of clear twelve-guage vinyl, covered with a series of
concentric circles, ranging from eleven to fifty-four inches in diameter.
Each circle is one inch larger in diameter than the preceding one and is
identified by a two-digit random number that has no connotation of
distance or size.^9
To determine the relation between measures of perceived body
space obtained by Schlachter's topographic device and those obtained by
the modified topographic device, data were collected from thirty-one
young adult females. Analysis of the data indicated that approximately
thirty-six percent of the variance 1n measurement is shared by the two
instruments (r ** .598, p <.01). The results appear in Table 1.
Table 1
The Relation Between Two Measures of Perceived Body Space
Topographic Mean SD Range r r* Device
Schlachter's 19.13 2.07 12-32 .598* .358 Modifi ed 18.03 4.24 12-27
*p <.01 Two-ta1led test of significance N = 31
Because 1t was assumed that the pregnant woman, with her enlarged
abdomen, would not be able to see those circles closest to her if they were numbered only in the center of the topographic device, and that this
19 See Appendix B, Topographic Device. 33 could bias the selection of a circle to indicate perceived body space, a pilot study was conducted to determine if other modifications in the device would be necessary. Three sets of random numbers were placed on the device, one set along the center of the device and the other two sets at forty-five degree angles to the center. A total of thirty-two subjects were tested. The correlation matrix is presented in Table 2.
Analysis of the data revealed that the three sets of numbers on the topographic device were highly correlated. This finding does not support the assumption that a pregnant woman would, because of her enlarged abdomen, choose a larger measure of perceived body space from the center set of random numbers. Therefore, it was decided that this modification of the topographic device was not necessary.
Table 2
Correlation Matrix for the Three Sets of Random Numbers
Group N Location of Center Right Left Measurement Side Side
Pregnant 14 Center 1.000 .962* .983* Women Right Side 1.000 .991*
Left Side 1.000
Pregnant 32 Center 1.000 .796* .729* and Non- Pregnant Right Side 1.000 .855* Women Left Side 1.000
*p <.01 Two-tailed test of significance 34
Test-retest reliability for the modified topographic device was determined for non-pregnant young adults, pregnant women, and husbands of the pregnant women. The coefficients obtained indicated the reliability of the device was acceptable. The results are presented in
Table 3.
Table 3
Test-Retest Reliability Data for the Modified Topographic Device
Test-Retest Group N r r2 Period
3 Hours Young Adults 23 .890** .792
1 Week Young Adults 26 .742* .551
1 Week Pregnant Women 14 .636* .405
1 Week Husbands of 14 .558* .311 Pregnant Women
1 Week Pregnant Wife- 28 .624** .390 Husband Dyads (14 Dyads)
*p <.05 **p <.01 Two-tailed tests of significance
As a measure of perceived body space, the topographic device has face validity. Schlachter noted that in establishing the validity of the 20 instrument, the primary issue is truthfulness of the subjects' responses.
Therefore, the investigator used the subjects' reports of their perceptions of the amount of space their bodies occupied as the measure
20 Schlachter, p. 33. 35 of perceived body space.
To determine perceived body space, the investigator stood facing the subject thirty inches from the edge of the topographic device and instructed him to stand Inside the center circle on the device. He was then asked to indicate which circle represented the amount of space he perceived his body to occupy. To facilitate understanding, the subject was told to imagine he was encased in a transparent cylinder whose base was one of the circles. The random number code which identified the circle was converted to Inches to obtain the measurement of perceived body space.
Figure Drawing Test
The human figure drawing represents a projection of the body 21 image in relation to the environment. The figure drawing test 1s a paper and pencil test which focuses on body expression and graphomotor 22 projection of the self. The test requires each subject to draw a man 23 and a woman.
The drawings were evaluated by the Articulation of Body Concept
Scale, which gives a global rating of the extent of articulation of the body concept using criteria based upon directly observable characteristics
21 Karen Machover, Personality Projection in the Drawing of the Human Figure (Springfield, 111.: Charles C. Thomas, Publisher, 1949), pp. 5, 3b. 22 H. A. Witkin and others, Personality Through Perception. An Experimental and Clinical Study (1954; rpt. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, Publishers, 1972), p. 235.
23See Appendix C, Figure Drawing Test. 36
of the figures rather than on projective interpretations of the presence
or absence of pathology.2^ Swensen commented that since global ratings
consider all of the drawing behavior in a given drawing, they are the 25 most reliable and useful aspect of evaluation.
The Articulation of Body Concept Scale considers the form level,
identity and sex differentiation, and level of detailing of drawings.
Reliability and stability data for the Scale have been compiled by ?6 Witkin and his associates and are reported below.
Reliability
1. Figure drawings obtained from a group of sixteen male college
students were rated Independently by each of four judges. The judges all were psychiatrists, none of whome had had any extensive experience with
the projective use of figure drawings. Correlations between the ratings of each pair of judges were .83, .87, .88, .91, and .92 (p <.01 in each case).
2. The figure drawing test was administered twice to sixty college students. The 240 drawings were randomized and independently
rated by two judges. The correlations between the four sets of drawings
ranged from .65 to .79 and from .65 to .77 for the two judges.
^Witkin and others, Psychological Differentiation, pp. 118-119.
^Clifford h . Swensen, "Empirical Evaluations of Human Figure Drawings: 1957-1966," Psychological Bulletin, 70:40, 1968.
26H. A. Witkin and others, "Articulation-of-Body-Concept (ABC) Scale for Evaluation of Figure Drawings" (Princeton, N. J.: Educational Testing Service, 1974), pp. 1-3, 27-28. (Mimeographed.). See Appendix C, Articulation of Body Concept Scale. 37
Correlations between raters for the four drawings were .67, .70, .75, and
.71. Ratings assigned to the male and female drawings made by each subject were summed, yielding single scores for each pair of drawings.
The two sets of drawings for each subject correlated .75 and .77 for the two judges. The correlation between the two judges for the first set was
.75 and for the second set was .79.
3. The drawings of ninety-eight women (forty-nine schizophrenics and forty-nine non-schizophrenic PTA mothers) were rated by two psychol ogists. The correlation between the two sets of ratings was .79.
Stability
Figure drawings were obtained from a group of twenty-four male college students at age 21 and again at age 24. Articulation of body concept ratings of the two sets of drawings correlated .86 (p <.01).
The scoring of the Articulation of Body Concept Scale ranges 27 from 5, least articulated, to 1, most articulated. Since the scale ratings are based upon directly observable graphic characteristics of the figure drawings, expertise in projective interpretation 1s not required to rate the drawings. Swensen noted that formal training is not 28 particularly related to success in interpreting the drawings.
In the present study, scoring of the Figure Drawing Test was done by the Investigator. In addition, the first set of drawings obtained from the fifty couples in the sample was rated by a professional artist. Interrater reliability was .92.
*^See Appendix C, Articulation of Body Concept Scale.
^Swensen, p. 39. 38
The Procedure for Collection of Data
Each couple in the sample was seen by the investigator in their own home during the eighth and ninth months of pregnancy and the first and second months of the postpartum.
Each visit was arranged by telephone. During the first visit, the couples were again told that the study was concerned with how wives and husbands perceive their own bodies during and after pregnancy.
They were also told that the scoring methods for each instrument would be explained at the end of the fourth v isit and that the results of the study would be shared with them.
During the first and fourth visits, appropriate sections of the 29 Personal Data Sheet were given to the subjects to complete. In addition, each instrument was administered during each visit. The semantic differential and the figure drawing test were administered first, and the topographic device measurements were taken after these were completed. All subjects cooperated fully in the collection of data, although many were reluctant to complete the Figure Drawing Test. The
Investigator repeatedly assured subjects that this test did not measure drawing talent, but this did not decrease their objections.
^See Appendix D, Personal Data Sheet. C hapter 4
ANALYSIS OF THE DATA
Measures of Central Tendency and Variability
The means, standard deviations, and ranges for perceived body space and articulation of body concept were calculated by computer program BMDOId J The findings are presented 1n Tables 4 and 5.
The medians and ranges for strength of identification scores were 2 computed, since the distribution of D 1s not known. These data are reported 1n Table 6.
Tests of the Hypotheses
3 The data were subjected to trend analysis, using multiple 4 regression techniques. A packaged computer program, BMD03R, was used 5 for the analysis.
lw. J. Dixon, ed., BMP Biomedical Computer Programs (3d ed.; Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973), pp. 6/-7Z.
fc0sgood, Sucl, and Tannenbaum, p. 101.
^Allen L. Edwards, Experimental Design 1n Psychological Research (4h ed .; New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1972), pp. 330-360.
^Fred N. Kerlinger and Elazar J. Pedhazur, Multiple Regression 1n Behavioral Research (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1973), pp. 218-221, 260-265. The coding for the multiple regression analysis and the sample data are presented in Appendix G, Coding of the Data and Sample Data. Dixon, pp. 331-351.
39 Means, Standard Deviations and Ranges for Perceived Body Space of Wives and Husbands During and After Pregnancy j u •r* o z . o z j c s >»J= U n i : s o ■ 4 ■*-» c -M ■M 4-» , ■u a . . ■ua t a c «a c id O C C -M O c - o t - Q
. a U «♦- SI Z J 4-> o o c c o cn
in O > 0) *■— r» —e— r— s: CM * * to in CM lO to *9- CM 10 00 CM o **■ o Q o 3 id CM z: o O CM CM CM cn 0 0 oo to o ua
40 Means, Standard Deviations and Ranges for Articulation of Body Concept for Wives and •r“ c «*- .a T3 . Q T3 O ■M I/I t- c o> (O C M •a C 0) U - i Q) cn u >» 3 •r- c a. Z >t JZ >+-5 E T3 L cn 2: CD x: a. 52! o z . i Z J JC u ; s . Q to •M 4-» ■u ■u a. 4->U •*-»c ■M 4J • o c o in .e (TJ m o o -M Cl
o
o at ) O >»
in o > a> in in CO to o O r— — f CO o CO o CO ID CM lO o - r • C . Q j u n- •r- jr a. n i ■C >l £ f -o E 2 5 2 -*-> t 4-> 4-> -C •M •MO 4-> CX. C 4-1 O 4-> tO c o o t . a CO t- 10 . o <0 u <0 0) u o O -M CO o> C C C CO C c Z o O z s o oo
T3 tO o t in CM LO
Testing each hypothesis required evidence of a pattern of change in the dependent variable for both wives and husbands. Support of each hypothesis required evidence that the curves for the regression of the dependent variable on time for wives and for husbands be of the same form.
The .05 level of statistical significance was required for evidence of a non-zero difference in effects.
Hypothesis One
Spouses' patterns of change in perceived body space during and after pregnancy will be similar.
The pattern of change in perceived body space was analyzed for each spouse. The regression of perceived body space on time for wives yielded evidence of a cubic trend (F = 33.34, df s 1/147, p <.005).
Table 7 presents this finding. The regression of perceived body space on time for husbands yielded evidence of a quadratic trend (F » 7.87, df 8 1/147, p <.01). This finding is reported in Table 8.
Figure 1 illustrates that for the wives In the study sample, perceived body space increased during pregnancy, decreased markedly during the first postpartal month, and then increased slightly during the second postpartal month. Figure 1 also Illustrates that for the husbands 1n the sample, perceived body space increased during pregnancy and decreased during the postpartal period, reaching the lowest level during the second postpartal month. The trend analysis for perceived body space of spouses, reported in Table 9, revealed evidence of a statistically significant difference in the forms of the two curves
( I F ■ 27.40, df = 3/294, p <.005). It was concluded that the pattern of change in perceived body space was different for each spouse. Therefore,
Hypothesis One was not supported. The Regression of Perceived Body Space on Time for Wives Tests for Trend CM cn a- a- > n i in at o o o r— 1^. oo in CM CM •a- m O o - r r— r«. 3 f—*3" in cn co cn cn 00 ja cn f i 00 3 at u • o o in **■ ■r— 00 cn o in cn cn cn o o in U • in i— cn cn i— **- co in in • o o in o •o in in CM cn 00 3 3 - r • oo cn cn cn CM cn oo cn cn cn o cn cn cm o cn I O O —I oo U LU A cn cn cn cn cn cn in in cn if r>» in r*. in cn CM CM o oo X • cn 00 cn CM 00 cn m 4-> o CO r— CO o • O • V f". C O N i - o f— 0 0 CM CM f-* CM CMO cn *♦- C o o i/t i - (O +j t o I . o 0) +j u CO a j TO - r - O u • in in in in in • in to o o in o o o in o a . • o o o o o o • o z • • • • • . z . V V V V V V V in r^» N l f i N o cn o cn in CM (O O lr— in o in u . • • • • • • • • • »— ** 00 co o to cm co cn co CM oC *r to f— u0) «o Q. o 10 in co in co U t N U t CM i— o to • • • • • • r>» n* cn o cn oo co in co r-'. cm cn ■o c cn r— £ 2 **■ *i- cn f" o rv, VO o cn in "SC c 9* C • • •• • > a. rtl ra 1^ r - ** cn •*— at 3 r— ' t cn f—■ at *- VO CO * £ • a» «♦- a. «t <♦- T 3 O C c n> o at ■ r- C cn V I •»“ to k- r— r - r— at ai a «♦- r~ 00 CO CO cn r— k. o ■o a i o> cn •O at CM CO u c •r— o ■M •J— i/t k k. o «o > VI •• £ _j a u 1— •M X X X k- r*— Dyads 50 Husband-Wife k t - •r» 3 --- • i - • • • • • • c * --- •* k. «a 3 k 3 2 : «c 1— — i a o X «—• c «t «c < Ui + J o c in t — to 1 — 48 Hypothesis Two The stronger the identification between spouses, the greater the similarity in their patterns of change in perceived body space during and after pregnancy. Examination of spouses' strength of identification scores for the first data collection period suggested that the sample could be divided into three groups. The distribution of scores and the groups are presented in Figure 2. Group I represents strong identification; Group II, moderate identification; and Group III, weak identification. Patterns of change 1n perceived body space were analyzed for spouses 1n each strength of Identification group. The omnibus £ ratios obtained for wives in all three groups were significant at the .005 level of probability (Group I—£ ■ 8.46, d£ = 3/30; Group II—£ = 34.47, df = 3/72; Group III—£ = 12.42, df = 3/39). However, none of the £ ratios for husbands were significant at the .05 level (Group I—£ = 2.33, df = 3/30; Group II—£ = 1.15, df = 3/72; Group III—£ = 1.55, df = 3/39). Therefore, Hypothesis Two could not be tested. These results are pre sented 1n Tables 10, 11, and 12. Hypothesis Three Spouses' patterns of change in articulation of body concept during and after pregnancy will be similar. The pattern of change in articulation of body concept was analyzed for each spouse. The omnibus £ ratio of 0.21 (df = 3/147) obtained for wives was not significant. The £ ratio of 1.36 (df = 3/147) obtained for husbands also was not significant. Therefore, Hypothesis Three could not be tested. Table 13 presents the results of these analyses. Group I I Group II i Group III Strong I Moderate . Weak Identification 1 Identification I Identification r*“ CM m z CM n n 0 0 O M O CM ^ VO '3- CM CM in CM CM CM CM CO co cn CM O CD m CM co to u o s- CM cn s- CD 3 Distribution of Semantic Differential Scores and Strength of Identification Groups 49 The Regression of Perceived Body Space on Time for Wives and for Husbands Strength of Identification Group I OJ Q) i o (/> (- u n cm oc cn / 5» C/0 C <4- & 03 <0 O E e a to ra S- 3 •<- S- IS O O)4-> o o S- O 3 - r • «/> r>. 8 i/» > V 8 M — WO I— <0- f— <3-CM O VO *3"C\J I X o • OO +■» u «/» CU 3 • lO in WO *3" o o 00 o* CVI CM H f* ■ CO o» 0IO <0 u • CM o o o t- CO in O to O X • • wo H r— CO CO ■wf CM J 4 O Total 1185.73 CO 50 51 in o in o IN. in »t o ro w T3c CO JOl/l 3 0) CNJ cn r—» ro i* . c t- CNI O CO r-^ oo u n ra «• • • •• o oo 00 ro CO in CD CM O CO ID t— ■oc «o I/I qj > * - < *«t ro CNJ Ol ro CNI Ol CM cn CNJ rv. cn I- 3 € £ CD i C O •I- o c 4/> in CM * t CO o> *3“ H- 01 ro o *t oo * t Lf> ■M U *S £ • • •• • C rtj »— ro oo r - Ol 00 o* o CM ° u 3 ro o CM r** CM CM o> •f— c CO 8 ro OO * t Q) 14- o i/> <5T •“ *o CNJ JO O - r - «4- •a IO 4J wa c ai+> m TD t/l TD>*•-' ,01 H- 00 *t IN 00 in CM in 0C oo *8> 5 Ol • r - C oj a> r^. Ol a u ro « t c. -u in CNJ HI in oo Ol CL «4- o l/l 0 o l/l l/l l/l • r - 4-> +J 0) 01 +J U i/i u i/i J- U >0 01 r — H* r — 01 r — cn t- V- •o ro in in CNJ CNJ i/i 10 c m •a 0) x x > in £ 3 CD nz 52 in o in o CM CM in in CM to TJ c to -O r-* o «3" to in in 00 at in Ol oo in *0- r>* c t- • • • • • • ra to o 00 o i t 00 M- at =3 00 in CM CO CO CM *- CM CM S’ •2 TJ C «- o. >♦-.° o 3 t- 0) o in to r— O l CO r-“ CO E -o CO r*. 8 CM co cn •«- c c • •• • • • • CM I - O OJ fO PN. to CM t o Ol m in o> r^. r — CO 4 * CO CM c ■*-» t— o r^. oo to o r™ cn r — at o u- e o o to m 4-t at f-t O to u in 10 u to CL T3 3 C O to to S- x> at to CD > 3 The Regression of Articulation of Body Concept on Time for Wives and for Husbands -a 0 . 4-> c «/* «/» (- o o 3 •»“ fO l/l n cu n i O in *3- 00 00 o in 0) to > CM cn 00 *9- cn IS) 8 CO I X +■> •o in o cn o r** 00 CM cn CO to i/t 3 <0 c VO r— — r CO cn J X CO cn CO 0 • ) O +J 0 3 01 to • • • co 0 0 co vo — r 0 OCM CO t— • CO r— - i 1 10 to — • CO c O H IO J O CO X • CO 8 cn cn CM CO +J O tO • 53 54 Hypothesis Four The stronger the identification between spouses, the greater the similarity In their patterns of change in articulation of body concept during and after pregnancy. The patterns of change in articulation of body concept were analyzed for spouses 1n each strength of identification group. All £ ratios obtained for wives were not significant (Group I—£ = 0.23, df = 3/30; Group II—£ - 1.32, df = 3/72; Group III—£ = 0.60, df = 3/39). The £ ratios for husbands also were not significant (Group I—£ = 1.00, df = 3/30; Group II—£ - 0.21, df - 3/72; Group III— £ = 1.39, df = 3/39). Therefore, Hypothesis Four could not be tested. These results are reported in Tables 14, 15, and 16. Tests Related to the Hypotheses The trend analysis for spouses' perceived body space 1s reported in Table 9.^ The analysis Indicated a non-significant group effect (£ = 1.55, df ° 1/98), a significant time effect (£ = 44.27, df = 3/294, p <.005), and a significant group by time interaction (£ ■ 27.40, df » 3/294, p <.005). Analysis of the components of the Interaction term suggested a similarity 1n the quadratic trend of spouses' patterns of change 1n perceived body space (£ = 2.00, df * 1/294, N.S.). As can be seen in Figure 1,^ both wives and husbands demonstrated an Increasing trend in perceived body space during pregnancy and a decreasing trend during the postpartum. ®Cf. ante, p. 47. 7'Cf. ante, p. 46. 55 CO CO «/» ro o ■o CM o c «0 -O I/) t. .o a t *o c u VO r>. c to to 8 S 8 r>» CM CM <0 • • • 2 Z r - O O CM VI CO at > u o ro o ro ro o ro CO ro g o . y-•I- ou C9 C -o O C C P fo C at «*- l0) / l a. +j t— o *- i n GO CM i n CM CO CO 0 ) 10 *0 i n r— CO i n VO CO r— VO o o w E 3 • • •• •• • « C -r- o o o 1— CO fM. o CO VO a O •*- 1/1 r * CM r o r — t_> X> •4-» V) r a > > C 4 i T } 01 l/l (2O *-<-o h- tt» «♦- »+- o o CM oo vo a: r*» r>» § 5 c o • r- D l C 10 0 t to ro r— L- O 3 +-> VO U CO «*- c c o o l/l o •#— 4-> •c— a/ 4-> a VI U VI l / l a t o I/) t— CO H CO H CO H s* 0£ at i/i ■a c l / l co *r— r • in <0 a> 3 3 r*» CO co in in > QJ CO * <3- CD nin in lO CO JO n • cn ro 4-» l / l . i 3 01 U 3 • • • • " •r— — r CM ” h lO CO z CO o o o o r <0 V) • *3" CM O «ei- n c H CO 0 0 ro CTl X • • H ro 0 0 ro CO UO 4-> O (O Z cn CM in co co n 3 T in cn 3 i/i Examination of the data related to trends in perceived body space for spouses in each strength of identification group revealed a relation between spouses’ strength of identification and the probability level of patterns of change in perceived body space. Although a cubic trend was found for wives in all three groups, the probability that this finding was due to chance was lower in the weak Identification group (Group III). These data are reported in Table 17. The probability level for the quadratic trend in perceived body space for husbands was higher in the moderate identification group (Group II) than 1n the other two groups. The data appear In Table 18. Auxiliary Findings Additional trend analyses were conducted to determine If a pattern of change in perceived body space could be found for groups of the husbands 1n the study sample. A significant quadratic trend was found for the husbands of multigravidas (£ » 5.84, df ■ 1/66, p <.05), while a trend was not evident for husbands of primigravidas. The results of the analysis are presented 1n Table 19. Additional analyses indicated that there was no evidence of a relation between the number of children a couple had and strength of identification (r = -.0236, N.S.), and that of the twenty-three husbands of multi gravidas, five were in the strong identification group; fourteen, in the moderate identification group; and four, in the weak identification group. A significant quadratic trend in perceived body space was also found for husbands in Social Position III (F = 9.12, df = 1/54, p <.005). No evidence of a trend at the .05 level of significance was found for the husbands in other social positions. Table 20 reports the results of 59 Table 17 Probability Levels for the Cubic Trend in Perceived Body Space for Wives' Strength of Identification Groups Strength of N F Ratio for df P Identification Cubic Trend Group o in CM V I 11 6.10 1/30 • II 25 8.07 1/72 <.025 III 14 9.91 1/39 <•005 Table 18 Probability Levels for the Quadratic Trend 1n Perceived Body Space for Husbands' Strength of Identification Groups Strenth of N F Ratio for df P Identi f1 cation Quadratic Group Trend I 11 3.05 1/30 <.1 II 25 2.33 1/72 <.25 III 14 3.24 1/39 <.1 60 to tn to in to o * o » z CO 0 3 c o c o NfOCOr— • • • • CM O in CM C*. 0 3 f— i— r-» ao • • • 131 co co c^ ■o r— c 10 in r-«. 0 CO in 03 CO E 03 • r - - O I— -r- «♦- c o CO 00 r>» CM CO co > •o CVI o CM co 03 C 03 O f~ 0 3 N 03 r — 03 - r - co U 4-3 • • • 03 r — CO 00 a 3 T 3 4T I— t o £ c 10 o> in CO r—- CM 10 CD <4- 03 CO 0 3 r - . r— 00 03 in 0 3 > , - 0 £ O i - • • • • • • • • f— T 3 C h 0 3 0 3 c - 0 00 in 0 3 o CO E 3 10 CM 0 43 - CO in CO 03 <2 * u in O CO 0 3 in in CO o to CO r— OJ- CM co XI X3 03 tc- 03 0 ) T 5 3— > • » - CO • r - > 4-> O) 03 CO O t - 03 in in i - 0 3 3 — o o in 03 •«— a . E CM 3 OC >4- t- o a- ro in CM 0 3 o o QC 00 ■r— 00 0 3 CO CO 2! 0 3 03 C£ 03 *♦- C o o to co 1- 03 -r - 4-3 4-> ra i- u 03 4-* U 10 O CO 03 " O -r— U 03 03 r— 3— 03 1— C 03 X I L. -r - ••” » 03 03 •O 03 - r - 3 3 03 3 i- JO •r— X 4-3 JO • r - J Q U 4-3 O 0 3 3 S. O 3 o tO > to 3— to to to r^ . CO CM CM CO 10 CO to T 3 0 3 T 3 03 C I -O £ I T> a. 03 •r— 'r * 03 •i— *r— 3 -Q E > .a 4-3 > CO ■ r* 0 3 CO i— 03 2 3 >*- t- S. 4 - 3 1- C3 z o a . oi O S 03 61 in to• o i n to • o • o • o O tJ - C M C M CM «4- O r— O • • • • CM CO O CT> r— X> c r f CO 0 0 / a t o i n N ■Qin • • • O I— «d- CO r — r — r*>* O r - w . c I lO o ©> O o «u 4— c o o in in t. «a ■r— ■*-> +J 4 L U at +j u in u m at X3 -r- u <0 0) r— 1— 0 ) r - C IO X I h - i— i_ -r- •«-» n> 3 3 to cn CM c o c— < a +-> X) •r— T— c u in to o o to Q. (Continued) CM i— c > o t o t o t «♦- c ■r- o o to or 3 O •*- The data for perceived body space were also subjected to an 9 analysis using the nonparametric I. statistic. Although this test ignores the question of the significance of change over time, i t provides a measure of the relation between an hypothesized rank order and empirical rankings. The pattern of change in wives' perceived body space was used for the rank order hypothesis against which the rank ordered pattern of change in perceived body space for husbands was tested. For the total group of husbands (N ■ 50), L. was 1276, which was not significant. An L of 690 was obtained for the twenty-seven husbands of primlgravldas, which was not significant. A non-significant 10 of 586 was obtained for the twenty-three husbands of multlgravidas. In order to examine the relationships among the variables in the present study, Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated by computer program BMD02D.^ The correlations between spouses on the Q °The sign of the correlation coefficient is an artifact of the scoring of the semantic differential. Cf. ante, p. 31. Q El 11s B. Page, "Ordered Hypotheses for Multiple Treatments: A Significance Test for Linear Ranks," Journal of the American Statistical Association, 58:216-230, 1963. ^°The tabled values for at the .05 level of significance are: for the total group, = 1284; for the husbands of pririiigravidas, L = 700 and for the husbands of multlgravidas, L = 598. See Page, pp. 220-223. ^Dixon, pp. 73-84. 64 dependent variables are presented in Table 21. Perceived body space of wives and husbands was positively related only during the eighth month of pregnancy (r. = .3008, p <.05). Spouses' articulation of body concept scores were positively related only during the postpartal period (r = .2789, p <.05 for the first postpartal month; r = .3194, p <.05 for the second postpartal month). Investigation of the relation between perceived body space and articulation of body concept for wives and husbands revealed no significant correlations for either spouse during any of the data collection periods. These correlations appear in Table 21. Examination of the relation between perceived body space and subjects' reported weight at the time of each visit revealed significant correlations for husbands during the ninth month of pregnancy (r » .3971, p <.01), the first postpartal month (r = .3366, p <.05), and the second postpartal month (r = .3780, p <.01). However, no evidence of a relation between these variables was found for wives. The correlations are reported in Table 22. The changes in spouses' strength of identification scores over time were investigated, using a two-way analysis of variance with 12 Friedman Rank Sums. The results of the analysis, presented in Table 23, suggested that the scores obtained during the eighth month of pregnancy were significantly different from those obtained during the other data collection periods. Table 6 shows that identification between spouses was weakest during the eighth month of pregnancy, while 12h(yles Hollander and Douglas A. Wolfe, Nonparametric Statistical Methods (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1973), pp. 138-141, 151. 65 Table 21 Correlation Coefficients for Perceived Body Space and Articulation of Body Concept of Wives and Husbands During and After Pregnancy Variables Time* r P Spouses' Perceived 1 .3008 <.05 Body Space 2 .1970 N.S. 3 .1200 N.S. 4 .2394 N.S. Spouses' Articulation 1 .2042 N.S. of Body Concept 2 .1585 N.S. 3 .2789 <.05 4 .3194 <.05 Wives' Perceived Body 1 .0512 N.S. Space and Articulation 2 -.0670 N.S. of Body Concept 3 -.2392 N.S. 4 -.1694 N.S. Husbands' Perceived Body 1 -.0272 N.S. Space and Articulation 2 -.2021 N.S. of Body Concept 3 -.1369 N.S. 4 -.1593 N.S. N = 50 Husband-Wife Dyads ♦Time 1 = Eighth Month of Pregnancy Time 2 = Ninth Month of Pregnancy Time 3 = First Postpartal Month Time 4 = Second Postpartal Month 66 Table 22 Correlation Coefficients for Perceived Body Space and Reported Body Weight of Wives and Husbands During and After Pregnancy Variables Time* r P Wives' Perceived Body 1 .1439 N.S. Space and Reported 2 .0148 N.S. Body Weight 3 -.0127 N.S. 4 .1085 N.S. Husbands' Perceived 1 .2623 N.S Body Space and 2 .3971 <.01 Reported Body Weight 3 .3366 <.05 4 .3780 <.01 N s 50 Husband-Wife Dyads ♦Time 1 *» Eighth Month of Pregnancy Time 2 ■ Ninth Month of Pregnancy Time 3 B First Postpartal Month Time 4 » Second Postpartal Month 67 Table 23 Results of the Analysis of Variance for Strength of Identification Scores Using Friedman Rank Sums Time S' df P rj Eighth Month 166.0 of Pregnancy Ninth Month 112.0 of Pregnancy 27.61 3 <.001 First Post 106.5 partal Month Second Post 115.5 partal Month Multiple Comparisons Ru " Rv p R1 ' R2 54.0 <.0005 59.5 <.0001 R1 " R3 R1 - R4 50.5 <.001 5.5 N.S. R2- R3 3.5 N.S. R2 ’ R4 9.0 N.S. R3 R4 N = 50 Husband-Wife Dyads 68 the scores for the other data collection periods were approximately equal.i 13 The relations between strength of identification, using the scores obtained during the firs t data collection period, and demographic variables were investigated. A positive relationship between strength of identification and number of years married was found (r = -.3029, 14 p <.05). Other correlations are reported elsewhere. 13Cf. ante, p. 42. 14Cf. ante, pp. 58, 63. Chapter 5 DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS This investigation was directed toward exploring the relationship between spouses' strength of Identification and the similarity in their patterns of change in two components of body image during and after pregnancy. The hypotheses for the study were derived from the theoret ical model that conceptualized the family as a living open system. The findings are discussed 1n relation to each hypothesis and the auxiliary findings. Hypothesis One Spouses' patterns of change 1n perceived body space during and after pregnancy will be similar. Hypothesis One was not supported. While there was a highly significant cubic pattern of change in perceived body space for the wives in the study sample, and a significant quadratic pattern of change In this variable for husbands, the forms of the curves were significantly different. The pattern of change in perceived body space for wives suggested that the amount of space a woman perceives her body to occupy changes as the outward form and appearance of her body changes. The increase in wives' perceived body space during pregnancy Is consistent with findings 69 70 that women feel larger as pregnancy advances.^ The increase is also consistent with McConnell and Daston's finding that semantic differential ratings of the concept, "My Body", were isomorphic with reality during 2 pregnancy. Furthermore, this pattern supports the proposition that the body image is modified with growth of the individual in size and shape. The change in perceived body space after pregnancy is not completely consistent with the change in form and appearance of the women's bodies during the postpartum. That the lowest level of perceived body space was reached during the first postpartal month suggested that the women in this study sample underestimated the amount of space their bodies occupied at that time. When the pattern of change in perceived body space was shared with the study subjects at the last data collection period, they volun teered an explantion for the findings. The women commented that they used the size and shape of their abdomens for a reference point as they 4 stood on the topographic device. During pregnancy, they felt they were growing larger, as was Indicated by the increase in perceived body space from the eighth to the ninth month of pregnancy. However, after pregnancy, Wanner, p. 296; and Colman, p. 790. 2 McConnell and Daston, p. 453. 3 Lawrence Kolb, "Disturbances of the Body-Image," American Handbook of Psychiatry, I, ed. Silvano Arieti (New York: Basic Books, Inc., Publishers, 1959), p. 752. 4The pilot study for the modified topographic device indicated that different points of reference did not change estimates of perceived body space. Cf. ante, pp. 32-33. 71 the change in their bodies was so great, as was the desire to feel smaller, that they chose a smaller circle on the topographic device than they might have had they been more objective. The women further explained that by the second postpartal month, they realized they v/ere not as small as they would like to be, and therefore chose a larger circle than they had the previous month. This explanation 1s in agree ment with Fisher's comment that the abrupt change from pregnancy to the postpartum induces a special or "supernormal" feeling state which soon 5 dissipates. The pattern of change in perceived body space for the wives in this study sample may reflect the desire of women to approach an Ideal body image during and after pregnancy. Society sanctions pregnancy and the growth 1n body size and shape accompanying it. However, it 1s also expected that a woman return to her pre-pregnancy state soon after child birth. Carty found that women are more dissatisfied with their figures during the immediate postpartum than at any time during pregnancy.^ Jourard and Secord's findings suggested there 1s less discrepancy between actual size of a body part and satisfaction with that part as the actual size approached an Ideal size.^ This Interpretation of the findings of the present study suggests an Interaction between attitudes toward and ^Fisher, Female Orgasm, p. 351. 6Carty, p. 41. ^Sidney M. Jourard and Paul F. Secord, "Body-Cathexis and the Ideal Female Figure," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 50: 243-246, 1955. 72 perceptions of the body image, contrary to Traub and Orbach's contention g that these are two independent dimensions. The pattern of change in perceived body space found for husbands in the sample suggested that the amount of space a man perceives his body to occupy changes during and after his wife's pregnancy. That a pattern of change in husbands' perceived body space was found is meaningful, since there was no observable change in the outward form and appearance of their bodies, and since the husbands reported no awareness of a change in their perceptions of body space. The couvade syndrome has been characterized as a ". . . psycho- 9 somatic phenomenon that is involuntary and acognitively caused." The findings of the present study suggest that the couvade syndrome may be extended to include changes in husbands' perceived body space. Comparison of spouses' patterns of change 1n perceived body space suggested a difference in the overall pattern, although a trend toward an Increase 1n perceived body space during pregnancy and a decrease after pregnancy was noted. The findings suggest that the husbands' pattern of change in perceived body space Is not as marked as the wives' pattern of change. This apparently smaller effect is consistent with Cheema's find ing of a smaller correlation between attitudes toward childbearing and anxiety for the husbands than for the wives 1n her sample.^ This effect tends to support Cheema's thesis that since women are more directly and ®Traub and Orbach, pp. 53-54. 9 Robert L. Munroe and Ruth H. Munroe, "Psychological Interpretation of Male Initiation Rites: The Case of Male Pregnancy Symptoms," Ethos, 1:492, 1973. ^Sheila Cheema, "An Investigation of the Relationship Between Anxiety, Attitude Toward Childbearing and Occurrence of Conception" (unpublished PhD dissertation, New York University, 1973), p. 65. 73 intimately involved in childbearing than men are, and since the child bearing role is thought of both biologically and culturally as being female in nature, men would not demonstrate as strong an effect as 11 women. The data collection periods in the present study encompassed late pregnancy and the first two months of the postpartum. Studies of the couvade syndrome have found that while male pregnancy symptoms may appear at any time during pregnancy, the peak Incidence is during the third month, following which the symptoms diminish steadily, with a slight secondary rise prior to or during the onset of labor. Symptoms 12 rarely persist beyond the immediate postpartum. This pattern suggests that the times for data collection 1n the present study may not have been those when husbands were experiencing marked changes 1n perceived body space. This suggestion should be viewed with caution, however, since while the couvade syndrome reflects physical responses to pregnancy, perceived body space 1s a psychological phenomenon. The auxiliary findings of the present study indicated that husbands of multlgravidas and husbands 1n Social Position III (lower- middle class) demonstrated a significant quadratic pattern of change in perceived body space. The Influence of parity on the incidence of male pregnancy symptoms cannot be discounted. Trethowan reported that studies showing a higher incidence of couvade were composed of couples having 13 their f ir s t child. However, other investigations of the couvade syndrome ^Cheema, p. 65. 12 Trethowan, “The Couvade Syndrome," p. 80. 13 Trethowan, "The Couvade Syndrome--Some Further Observations," p. 109. 74 have found no differences in incidence between husbands of primigravidas 14 and multi gravidas. Social class may also play a part in the occurrance of the couvade syndrome. The samples in most studies of this phenomenon have been drawn from the middle class, with few subjects from the upper or lower classes. Furthermore, studies reporting psychological changes in husbands of pregnant women have used samples drawn from the middle 15 and upper classes and from couples having their first child. While the small number of subjects in each group in the present study precludes definitive conclusions, taken together with the findings of related investigations, the auxiliary findings support the thesis that a husband's response to his wife's pregnancy 1s mediated by parity and social class. Hypothesis Two The stronger the identification between spouses, the greater the similarity in their patterns of change 1n perceived body space during and after pregnancy. Hypothesis Two could not be tested. There were highly significant patterns of change in perceived body space for wives in all three strength of identification groups 1n the sample. However, there was no evidence of a pattern of change in this variable for husbands in any of the groups. The direction of this hypothesis was strongly influenced by the notion that identification plays a predominant role in the evolution of body image. The analysis of data related to the hypothesis did not support this thesis, but rather suggested that strength of identification had no effect on similarity in spouses' patterns of change in perceived body space. ^Trethowan and Conlon, pp. 61-64; and Munroe and Munroe, "Male Pregnancy Symptoms," pp. 13-14. 15Deutscher, p. 319; and Colman, p. 789; and Liebenber, p. 266. 75 Schilder distinguished between identification and appersonization, implying that identification is associated with the taking in of another's body image in total and the giving up of one's own body image, while appersonization involves the adoption of only a part of the body image of another.^ This distinction raises the question of whether perceived body space is an aspect of body image that might be taken in totally by the husband of a pregnant woman. Furthermore, similarity in aspects of spouses' body images may reflect imitation rather than Identification. Lazowick maintained that imitation is manifested by similar behavior, while identification reflects similar frames of reference.^ The use of Lazowick's semantic differential to measure identifi cation in the present study must be questioned. Validity studies have found little , 1f any, correlation between this tool and other measures 18 of identification. However, because different definitions of Identi fication were measured by different Instruments 1n these studies, con clusions cannot be drawn. The findings related to Hypothesis Two are in agreement with ^Schilder, Image and Appearance of the Human Body, pp. 241, 251-252. ^Lazowick, p. 177. ^®Leon Green, "Relationship Between Semantic Differential Measurement of Concept Meanings and Parent-Sex Identification Phenomenon: A Study of the Construct Validity of the Semantic Differential" Dissertation Abstracts, 25:3100-3101, 1965; and Loring W. McAllister and Charles Neuringer, "A Comparative Investigation of Commonly Used Methods of Measuring the Identification Process," Journal of General Psychology, 80:229-242, 1969. 76 lo 20 those of Riffle and Olgas. These investigators also used identifi cation in their theoretical models relating similarities in body image between family members. While neither study included measurement of identification, the results indicated that the role of identification could not be demonstrated during the period of study. Tests related to Hypothesis Two indicated a significant cubic trend in perceived body space for wives in all three strength of identi fication groups. A quadratic trend, significant at the .25 level, was found for husbands in the moderate identification group, and at the .1 level of significance for husbands in the strong and weak identification groups. These results suggest a curvilinear relation between strength of identification and the probability of a pattern of change in perceived body space for husbands. Examination of the membership of each identi fication group Indicated that group composition might account for the relationship. Each strength of identification group contained husbands who were having their second or subsequent child, or were in Social Position III, or both. As reported elsewhere, husbands of multigravidas and husbands in Social Position III demonstrated statistically significant 21 patterns of change in perceived body space. ^Katherine Riffle, "The Relationship Between the Expressed Body Images of Mothers and Daughters" (unpublished PhD dissertation, New York University, 1972). ^Marya Olgas, "The Relationship Between Parents' Health Status and Body Image of Their Children," Nursing Research, 23:319-324, 1974. ^Cf. ante, pp. 58-63. The findings related to Hypotheses One and Two in the present study suggest the rejection of the theoretical model of identification as the mediator of similar changes in the body images of spouses. Schilder hypothesized that there is a sociological connection 22 between one's own body and the bodies of others. Horowitz proposed that changes in body image occur from one interpersonal relationship to 23 another. These propositions suggest that similarities in body Image are mediated by Interactions between family members. 24 Building upon the work of Bott, Rainwater conceptualized and operationally defined three types of conjugal role relations, based upon the extent of Interaction between husband and wife, Including reciprocal role expectations and shared activity. The types of relationships were 25 identified as joint, segregated and intermediate. In his sample of 257 families, Rainwater found marital relationships showed sharp class differences. The upper-middle class couples were characterized by joint relationships; the lower-middle class couples, by joint or Intermediate 26 relationships; and the lower class couples, by the segregated type. The present study found that lower-middle class husbands were 22Schilder, Image and Appearance of the Human Body, pp. 225-226. 23 Mardi J. Horowitz, "Body Image," Archives of General Psychiatry, 14:456, 1966. ^Elizabeth Bott, "Urban Families: Conjugal Roles and Social Networks," Human Relations, 8:345-384, 1955. ^Lee Rainwater, Family Design. Marital Sexuality, Family Size, and Contraception (Chicago: Aldine Puboishing Company, 1965), pp. 29-31. 26Rainwater, pp. 32-33. 78 more likely to experience a change in body image during and after their wives' pregnancies, as were the husbands of m u lti gravidas. Both of these groups often demonstrate joint conjugal role relationships. Therefore, a study derived from a theoretical model which identifies conjugal role relationships as the mediator of similarities in changes in spouses' body images is suggested. Hypothesis Three Spouses' patterns of change in articulation of body concept during and after pregnancy will be similar. Hypothesis Four The stronger the identification between spouses, the greater the similarity in their patterns of change in articulation of body concept during and after pregnancy. Hypotheses Three and Four could not be tested. There was no evidence of a pattern of change in articulation of body concept for either wives or husbands, whether taken as entire groups or when segregated Into three strength of identification groups. The theoretical framework of this study proposed that since pregnancy is a time of profound change in the body, an alteration in the relationship between an individual's body and the environment, as measured by articulation of body concept, would occur. However, the findings of the study are consistent with reports of the stability of articulation of body concept over time. Witkin and his associates stated, "While the body concept no doubt changes in the course of development, and may undergo alterations in adulthood as well, it also shows stability, 79 27 remaining at various stages 'my body' with unique attributes." Investigations of changes in articulation of body concept have supported 28 the notion of stability. Although theoretical propositions related to body concept state 29 it is synonomous with body image, the question of whether articulation of body concept measured body image, as defined in this study, must be considered. Previous investigations have used articulation of body 30 concept as a measure of field dependence-independence or of psycholog- 31 ical differentiation. These variables are generally considered to be 32 aspects of cognitive style and not explicitly aspects of body image. While both cognitive style and body image are concerned with perception, 33 evidence of shared variance 1s sparse. In the present study, there was 27 Witkin and others, Psychological Differentiation, p. 116. 2®Witkin, Goodenough, and Karp, p. 299; and Faterson and Witkin, pp. 429-438; and Holley, p. 34. Furthermore, there was no evidence of a relation between age and articulation of body concept for the subjects in the present study. ^Witkin and others, Psychological Differentiation, p. 116; and Fisher and Cleveland, p. x. ^Holley, pp. 10-13. ^Winstead-Fry, pp. 3-6; and Mary J. Giuffra, "The Relationship Between a Mother's Ego Strength, Sophistication of Body Concept, and the Accuracy of her Perception of her Child's Developmental Behavior" (unpublished PhD dissertation, New York University, 1973), pp. 22-27. ^David L. Wolitzky and Paul L. Wachtel, "Personality and Perception," Handbook of General Psychology, ed. Benjamin B. Wolman (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1973), p. 840. ^Wolitzky and Wachtel, p. 840; and Witkin and others, Psychological Differentiation, pp. 131-132. 80 no evidence of a relationship between articulation of body concept and perceived body space. The Figure Drawing Test was used to measure articulation of body concept in this study. Although there has been support in the literature for the validity and reliability of this test,^ a question arises regarding what the drawings actually represent. The initial hypothesis 35 that a human figure drawing is a direct projection of the body image has been neither confirmed nor rejected conclusively. Swensen concluded 36 that experimental evidence favors support of the hypothesis. However, Witkin and his associates have maintained that in addition to the body image, a drawing may reflect the self-concept, the idealized self-image, the concept of others in the environment, cultural factors, and drawing 37 skill. These may be confounding variables, especially during and after pregnancy, when the body undergoes extensive changes which may not reflect the ideal self. In support of this notion, Viney and her associates found no differences in the size of the female figures drawn by pregnant and non-pregnant women. The results of their study suggested that human figure drawings reflect a complex network of influences 38 related to both self-concept and body image. ^Swensen, p. 40. ^^Machover, p. 5. ^Swensen, pp. 22-25. ^Witkin and others, Psychological Differentiation, p. 117. ^Linda L. Viney, Murray Aitkin, and Joan Floyd, "Self-Regard and Size of Human Figure Drawings: An Interactional Analysis," Journal of Clinical Psychology, 30:583-585, 1974. 81 Further support of this notion is given by Apfeldorf's findings. Apfeldorf found that drawings by physical education majors, a group presumed to have a specialized interest in the body, were not matched with their photographs. This finding was in contrast to the successful matching of the drawings and photographs of an unselected student group. The investigator speculated that the drawings of the physical education 39 students depicted an ideal body image. It seems reasonable to con clude that a similar situation occurred with the female subjects in the present study, since pregnant women are also presumed to have a special- 40 ized interest in their bodies. Contrary to the notion that drawings may not reflect the actual body image during and after pregnancy, since this is not a time when the body is viewed as ideal, Brodsky found no difference in self 41 acceptance between pregnant and non-pregnant women. Furthermore, Fisher found no difference in the general amount of body awareness between women during pregnancy and the postpartum and non-pregnant women.^ The use of the Articulation of Body Concept Scale to score the ^Max Apfeldorf, "The Projection of the Body Self in Task Calling for Creative Activity (unpublished PhD dissertation, University of North Carolina, 1953), cited by Max Apfeldorf and Walter J. Smith, "The Representation of the Body Self in Human Figure Drawings," Journal of Projective Techniques and Personality Assessment, 30:286, 1966. 40Rubin, pp. 505-508. Stanley L. Brodsky, "Self-Acceptance in Pregnant Women," Marriage and Family Living, 25:483-485, 1963. ^^Fisher, Female Orgasm, p. 350. drawings must also be questioned. Many studies of body image using human figure drawings have used projective scoring techniques, rather than the global system used in this study. The results of these inves tigations suggest some differentiation is possible among pregnant women 43 and among others who experience a change in body image. Perhaps a study using projective scoring of human figure drawings would reveal changes in body image during and after pregnancy. Auxiliary Findings Analysis of the strength of identification scores for each data collection period indicated that spouses' identification was weakest during the eighth month of pregnancy. The scores for that period were significantly different from those obtained at all other times. This pattern of change supports the notion that as a mutual task becomes more critical or obvious, identification increases. That childbirth was perceived as a mutual task by the couples in this study sample is supported by the fact that all attended Lamaze preparation for childbirth classes, and that all husbands planned to be with their wives during labor and delivery. Furthermore, many cf the husbands actively partici pated 1n the care of the newborn during the postpartal period. The change in strength of identification scores also suggests that this may be a labile measure. Heise concluded that since the semantic differential measures an individual's reaction to a stimulus 43 Anthony Davids and Spencer DeVault, "Use of the TAT and Human Figure Drawings in Research on Personality, Pregnancy, and Perception," Journal of Projective Techniques, 24:362-365, 1960; and Viney, Aitkin, and Floyd, pp. 583-585; and Fisher and Cleveland, pp. 31-35. 83 at a given time, temporal changes in scores reflect changes in the individual.44 However, in a study of identification also using the semantic differential, DeWolfe found that the "all or none" (dispropor tionate uses of extreme and middle ratings) and social desirability 45 response tendencies were decreased in a second testing. DeWolfe's finding supported Howard's claim that in a repeated testing situation, the first profile is atypical/® Perhaps a longitudinal study of pregnant and non-pregnant couples would clarify the meaning of the changes in identification scores found in this study. The semantic differential used in the present study was composed of several concepts. Since scoring was over all adjective scales for all concepts, the analysis did not take changes in selected concepts into account. Lazowick found some differences in semantic similarity among the concepts.4^ Further analysis of the semantic differentials completed by the subjects In the present study seems indicated. 440avid R. Heise, "Some Methodological Issues in Semantic Differential Research," Psychological Bulletin, 72:411-412, 1969. 45DeWolfe, pp. 259-263. Afi Kenneth I. Howard, "The Effect of Repeated Testing on the Differentiation of Individuals," American Psychologist, 17:359, 1962. ^Lazowick, p. 106. Chapter 6 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary The family is a living open system characterized by pattern and organization. While the rate of change in pattern and organization varies throughout the life cycle of the family, few periods involve the rapid and extensive repatterning and reorganization present in pregnancy. Empirical evidence suggests that changes in body image occur during and after pregnancy in both wives and husbands. Identification has been postulated to mediate changes in body image among family members. On the basis of this theoretical model, four hypotheses were formulated: 1. Spouses' patterns of change in perceived body space during and after pregnancy will be similar. 2. The stronger the identification between spouses, the greater the similarity in their patterns of change in perceived body space during and after pregnancy. 3. Spouses' patterns of change in articulation of body concept during and after pregnancy will be similar. 4. The stronger the identification between spouses, the greater the similarity in their patterns of change in articulation of body concept during and after pregnancy. The study designed to test the hypotheses used a sample composed of fifty married couples who attended Lamaze preparation for childbirth classes. Each couple was visited in their own home during the eighth and ninth months of pregnancy and the first and second postpartal months. 84 85 Strength of identification was operationally defined as the extent of similarity between spouses' frames of reference and was measured by a semantic differential. Perceived body space was measured by a topographic device, and a figure drawing test was used to measure articulation of body concept. The data were analyzed by trend analysis, using multiple regression techniques. Hypothesis One was not supported. A cubic trend in perceived body space significant at the .005 level was found for the wives in the study sample. A quadratic trend in perceived body space significant at the .01 level was found for the husbands in the sample. No evidence of similarity in spouses' patterns of change in perceived body space could be found. Perceived body space Increased during preg nancy and decreased during the postpartum for both spouses; wives, however, demonstrated a slight secondary rise in perceived body space during the second postpartal month. Hypothesis Two could not be tested. Significant patterns of change in perceived body space were found for wives in the three strength identification groups. However, the pattern of change 1n husbands' perceived body space was not significant 1n any of the strength of identi fication groups. Hypotheses Three and Four could not be tested. No changes in articulation of body concept were found for either spouse. Additional trend analyses for subsets of the sample indicated significant quadratic patterns of change in perceived body space for husbands of multigravidas and for husbands belonging to the lower-middle class. In the present investigation, strength of identification could 86 not be demonstrated to be a mediator of change in body image. An alternate theoretical model, using conjugal role relationships as the mediator, was proposed. Conclusions For married couples who attend Lamaze preparation for childbirth classes, it may be concluded that: 1. Perceived body space changes in wives during and after pregnancy, 1n a pattern generally consistent with changes in the form and appearance of their bodies. 2. Perceived body space changes in husbands during and after their wives' pregnancies, increasing during pregnancy and slowly decreasing after the pregnancy. Changes in perceived body space were most evident In husbands of multigravidas and in husbands in the lower-middle class. 3. Articulation of body concept does not change in either spouse during and after pregnancy. 4. Identification does not appear to be a mediator of changes in spouses' body Images. Recommendations Additional studies should be conducted which replicate the present one, with the following changes: (1) extend the data collection period to include the first and second trimesters of pregnancy; (2) stratify the sample to include adequate numbers of subjects in each 87 social class and parity group and in various method of childbirth groups; (3) include a control group of non-pregnant married couples; (4) eliminate articulation of body concept as a variable; (5) include a measure of the attitudinal dimension of body image; (6) include another measure of body boundary-environment relationships, such as inkblot stimuli; (7) include a measure of ideal body image; and (8) include a measure of actual body space. 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Howard, Kenneth I. "The Effect of Repeated Testing on the Differentiation of Individuals," American Psychologist, 17:359, 1962. Iffrig, Sr. Mary Charltas. "Body Image in Pregnancy. Its Relation to Nursing Functions," Nursing Clinics of North America, 7:631-639, 1972. Jarrahi-Zadeh, All, and others. "Emotional and Cognitive Changes in Pregnancy and Early Puerperium," British Journal of Psychiatry, 115:797-805, 1969. Jourard, Sidney M., and Paul F. Secord. "Body-Cathex1s and the Ideal Female Figure." Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 50:243- 246, 1955. Kagan, Jerome. "The Concept of Identification," Psychological Review, 65:296-305, 1958. King, Elisabeth. "The Pregnant Father," Bulletin of the American College of Nurse-Midwifery, 13:19-25, 1968. Lawson, E. D., George H. Golden, J r ., and Kathy J. Chmura. "Computer Programs for the Semantic Differential," Educational and Psychological Measurement, 32:779-784, 1972. Lazowick, Lionel M. "On the Nature of Identification," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 51:175-183, 1955. Leonard, Roger F. "Evaluation of Selection Tendencies of Patients Preferring Prepared Childbirth," Obstetrics and Gynecology, 42:371- 377, 1973. Lerner, Burton, Raymond Raskin, and Elizabeth B. Davis. "On the Need to be Pregnant," International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 48:288-297, 1967. Llebenberg, Beatrice. "Expectant Fathers," Child and Family, 8:265-278, 1969. Loesch, John G., and Nahman H. Greenberg. "Some Specific Areas of Conflicts Observed During Pregnancy: A Comparitive Study of Married and Unmarried Pregnant Women," American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 32:624-636, 1962. 96 McAllister, Loring W., and Charles Neuringer. "A Comparative Investi gation of Commonly Used Methods of Measuring the Identification Process," Journal of General Psychology, 80:229-242, 1969. McConnell, Owen L., and Paul G. 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"The Relationship Between Parents' Health Status and Body Image of Their Children," Nursing Research, 23:319-324, 1974. Osgood, Charles E. "Behavior Theory and the Social Sciences," Behavioral Science, 1:167-185, 1956. . "The Nature and Measurement of Meaning," Psychological Bulletin, 49:197-237, 1952. Page, Ellis B. "Ordered Hypotheses for Multiple Treatments: A Significance Test for Linear Ranks," Journal of the American Statistical Association, 58:216-230, 1963. Pierce, Lillian M. "Usefulness of a Systems Approach for Problem Conceptualization and Investigation," Nursing Research, 21:509-513, 1972. Plotsky, Harold, and Pauline Shereshefsky. "The Psychological Meaning of Watching the Delivery," Child and Family, 8:254-264, 1969. "'Pregnancy' Among Husbands Quite Common," Today's Health, 44:6, 1966. 97 Rubin, Reva. "Coqnitive Style in Preqnancy," American Journal of Nursinq, 70:502-508, 1970. Sanford, Nevitt. "The Dynamics of Identification," Psychological Review, 62:106-118, 1955. Schaefer, George. "The Expectant Father," Nursing Outlook, 14:46-48, 1966. Slater, Philip E. "Toward a DueliStic Theory of Identification," Merrill- Palmer Quarterly of Behavior and Development, 7:113-126, 1961. Swensen, Clifford H. "Empirical Evaluations of Human Figure Drawings: 1957-1966," Psychological Bulletin, 70:20-44, 1968. Tolman, Edward Chace. "Identification and the Post-War World," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 38:141-148, 1943. Traub, Arthur C., and J. Orbach. "Psychophysical Studies of Body Image. I. The Adjustable Body-Distorting Mirror," Archives of General Psychiatry, 11:53-66, 1964. Treadway, C. Richard, and others. "A Psychoendocrlne Study of Pregnancy and Puerperlum," American Journal of Psychiatry, 125:1380-1386, 1969. Trethowan, W. H. "The Couvade Syndrome--Some Further Observations," Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 12:107-115, 1968. ______, and M. F. Conlon. "The Couvade Syndrome," British Journal of Psychiatry, 111:57-66, 1965. Uddenberg, Nils, and Margareta Hakanson. "An1se1kon1c Body Perception 1n Pregnancy," Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 16:179-184, 1972. Vernon, Philip E. "The D1st1nct1veness of Field Independence," Journal of Personality, 40:366-391, 1972. Viney, Linda L., Murray Aitkin, and Joan Floyd. "Self-Regard and Size of Human Figure Drawings: An Interactional Analysis," Journal of Clinical Psychology, 30:581-586, 1974. Wainwright, William H. "Fatherhood as a Precipitant of Mental Illness," American Journal of Psychiatry, 123:40-44, 1966. Waterbor, Robert. "Experiential Bases of the Sense of Self," Journal of Personality, 40:162-179, 1972. Witkin, Herman A. "A Cognitlve-Style Approach to Cross-Cultural Research," International Journal of Psychology, 2:233-250, 1967. . "Psychological Differentiation and Forms of Pathology," Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 70:317-336, 1965. 98 , Donald R. Goodenough, and Stephen A. Karp. "Stability of Cognitive Style From Childhood to Young Adulthood," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 7:291-300, 1967. Yelen, Donald R. "Identification: The Acquisition of Evaluative Connotations," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 12:328-332, 196^ ------ Unpublished Sources Cheema, Sheila. "An Investigation of the Relationship Between Anxiety, Attitude Toward Childbearing and Occurrence of Conception." Unpublished PhD dissertation, New York University, 1973. Collett, Barbara. "A Study of the Relationship Between Variation in Body Temperature, Perceived Duration and Perceived Personal Space." Unpublished PhD dissertation, New York University, 1972. Edwards, Kenneth Robert, Jr. "Psychological Changes Associated with Pregnancy and Obstetric Complications." Unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Miami, 1969. Engelhardt, Kay Frances. "The Effect of Body Volume Change During Pregnancy on Cognitive Functioning." Unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1972. Gluffra, Mary J. "The Relationship Between a Mother's Ego Strength, Sophistication of Body Concept, and the Accuracy of Her Perception of her Child's Developmental Behavior." Unpublished PhD dissertation, New York University, 1973. Holley, Marie. "Field Dependence-Independence, Sophistication of Body Concept and Social Distance Selection." Unpublished PhD dissertation, New York University, 1972. Hollingshead, August B. "Two Factor Index of Social Position." New Haven: August B. Hollingshead, 1957. (Mimeographed.) Lazowlck, Lionel M. "A Qualitative Investigation Into the Nature of Identification." Unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Illinois, 1953. Pedhazur, Elazar. "Coding Subjects in Repeated-Measures Designs." (Mimeographed.) Riffle, Katherine. "The Relationship Between the Expressed Body Images of Mothers and Daughters." Unpublished PhD dissertation, New York University, 1972. 99 Schlachter, Louise. "The Relation Between Anxiety, Perceived Body and Personal Space and Actual Body Space Among Young Female Adults." Unpublished PhD dissertation, New York University, 1971. Venezia, Daniel J. "Correlates of Body Attitude Change in Pregnancy." Unpublished PhD dissertation, Washington University, 1972. Winstead-Fry, Patricia. "The Relationship of Self-Actualization and Articulation of Body Concept to the Perception of Dominance and to Actual Dominance in Married Couples." Unpublished PhD dissertation, New York University, 1974. Witkin, H. A., and others. "Articulation-of-Body-Concept (ABC) Scale for Evaluation of Figure Drawings." Princeton, N. J.: Educational Testing Service, 1974. (Mimeographed.) APPENDIX A SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL 100 101 Code Number QUESTIONNAIRE DIRECTIONS One purpose of this study is to measure the meanings of certain concepts to wives and husbands by having them judge the concepts against a series of descriptive scales. In taking this test, please make your judgments on the basis of what these concepts mean to you. There are no "right" or "wrong" answers. On each page of the booklet you will find a different concept to be judged and beneath it a set of scales. You are to rate each concept on each of these scales in order of presentation. Here is how you are to use these scales: If you feel that the concept at the top of the page is very closely related to one end of the scale you would place your check mark as follows: Fair x :___ :___ :___ :___ :____ :___ Unfair or Fair ___ :___ :___ :___ :___ : : x Unfair If you feel that the concept Is quite closely related to one or the other end of the scale, you should place your check mark as follows: F a ir : x :___ :___ :___ :____ :___ Unfair or F a ir :___ :___ :___ :___ : x :____ Unfair If the concept seems only slightly related to one side as opposed to the other side of the scale, you should place your check mark as follows: F a ir :____: x : ___ :___ :____ :___ Unfair or Fair ___ :___ :___ :___ : x :___ :___ Unfair The direction toward which you check, of course, depends upon which of the two ends of the scale seems most characteristic of the concept you are judging. If you consider the concept to be neutral on the scale, both sides of the scale equally associated with the concept, or if the scale is completely irrelevant, unrelated to the concept, you should place your check mark as follows: Fair : : : x : : : Unfair 102 IMPORTANT 1. Place your check marks in the middle of spaces, not on the boundaries: THIS NOT THIS : x : : : x : 2. Be sure you check every scale for every concept—do not omit any. 3. Never put more than one check mark on a single scale. 4. Do not look back and forth through the pages or the scales. Do no try to remember how you checked previous concepts. Mark each scale and each concept separately, making a separate and Independent judgment for each scale for each concept. 5. Work at a fairly high speed through the pages. Do not worry or puzzle over individual Items. It 1s your first Impressions, the immediate "feelings" about the Items that are wanted. On the other hand, do not be careless, because your true impressions are wanted. 103 MYSELF Beautiful ___ :___ :___ :___ :___ :____ :---- F a st :___ :___ :___ :___ :____ :__ slow Hard : ___ :___ :___ :___ :____ :___ Soft Masculine : ___ :___ •___ :___ :-----*-----Feminine Kind ___ :___ :___ :___ :___ :____ ’•___ Cruel Active ___ :___ :___ :___ :___ :____ :___ Pass1ve Heavy ___ :____: ___ :___ :___ :------:----Light Good : ___ :___ :___ :___ :____ :___ Bad Hot :___ :___ :___ ' ___ :____ :___ Cold 104 MOTHER Kind ___ :___ :___ :___ :___ *•___:___ c™el H ot :___ :___ :___ :___ :___:___ Cold Hard ___ :___ :___ :___ :___ :___:___ Soft Heavy ___ :____: ___ :___ :___ •___•___ Light Fast ___ :____: ___ :___ :___ :___ :___ slow Beautiful ___ :____ :___ •___ :___ :----*----- Good ___ :___ :___ :___ :___ :___:___ Bad Masculine ___ :____: ___ •'___ :___ :___:____ Feminine Active : : . : Passive FATHER Heavy :___ :___ :___ :___ :___ :___ Light K^d ___ :____ :___ :___ ;___ :___ .___ cruel Masculine ___ :___ :___ :___ ;___ ;___ ;___ Feminine Hard : ___ :___ :___ :___ :___;___ soft Good ___ :____ :___ ;___ ;___ :___;___ Bad Active ___ :____ :___ :___ ;___ :___:____ Passive PasL ___ :____ :___ :___ :___ :___ :___ Slow Beautiful ___ :____ :___ ;___ ;___ ;___;___ Ugly 106 FAMILY Kind ___ :___ :___ :____ :___ :___ :___ Cruel Hot :___ :___ :____ :___ :___ :___ Cold Hard : ___ :___ :____ :___ :___ :___ Soft Heavy :___ :___ :____ :___ :___ :___ Light Beautiful ___ :____ :___ :____ :___ :___ :___Ugly Fast ___ :____ :___ :____: ___ :___ :___Slow Good ___ :____ :___ :____ :___ :___ :___Bad Masculine : ___ :___ :____ :___ :___ :___ Feminine Active : : : : : : Passive 107 HUSBAND Good : : : : : : Bad Masculine :::::: Feminine Active :::::: Passive Hot :::::: Cold Heavy ___ :___ :___ :___ :___ :___ :____ Light Kind :::::: Cruel Beautiful ___ :___ :___ :___ :___ : :____ Ugly Fast :::::: Slow Hard :::::: S o ft 108 WIFE Masculine : ___ :___ :___ :___ :___ :____Feminine Hard ___ :___ :___ :___ :___ :___:___ Soft Active :___ :___ :___ :___ :___ :____Passive Good ___ :___ :___ :___ :___ :___:___ Bad Heavy :___ :___ :___ :___ :___:___ Light Kind ___ :____: ___ :___ :___ :___:___ Cruel Beautiful ___ :___ :___ :___ :___ :___:___ Ugly F a st :___ :___ :___ :___ :___ :___ Slow Hot :::::: Cold Masculine : : : : : : Feminine Active :___ :___ : : : : Passive Good :::::: Bad Fast :::::: Slow Beautiful ___ :___ :___ :___ :___ :___ :____ Ugly Kind :::::: Cruel Heavy :___ :___ :___ :___ :___ :____ Light 110 WOMAN Hard : ____ :___ :___ :___ =__ :___ Soft Masculine : ___ :___ :___ :___ :___ :— Feminine Active :____ :___ :___ :___ :---:— Passive Kind ___ :____ :___ :___ :___ :__ :-----Cruel Beautiful ___ :____ :___ :___ :___ :__ :— Good ___ :____ :___ :___ :___ :__ :___ Bad Fast ___ :____ :___ :___ :___ :__ :____ slow Hot :___ :___ :___ :___ :__ :-----Cold H eavy :____ :____ :____ :____ :----:— L ight I l l PLEASANT Kind ___ :____: ___ :___ :___ :___ :___ Cruel Fast ___ :____: ___ :___ :___ :___ :___ Slow Hot ___ :____: ___ :___ :___ :___ :___ Cold Active ___ :____ :___ :___ :___ :___ :___ Passive Good ___ :____ :___ :___ :___ :___ :___ Bad Heavy :___ :___ :___ :___ :___ :___ Light Hard ___ :____: ___ :___ :___ :___ :___ Soft Beautiful ___ :____ :___ :___ :___ :___ :___ Ugly Masculine : : : : : : Feminine 112 UNPLEASANT Active :___ :___ :___ :___ :___ :___ Passive Hot :___ :____: ___ :___ :___ :___Cold Kind ___ :___ :____ :___ :___ :___ :___ Cruel Masculine : ___ :___ :___ :___ :___ :____ Feminine Beautiful ___ :___ :____ :___ :___ :___ :___Ugly Good ___ :___ :____ :___ :___ :___ :___Bad Heavy :___ :____ :___ :___ :___ :___Light Fast ___ :___ :____ :___ :___ :___ :___Slow Hard :::::: S o ft APPENDIX B TOPOGRAPHIC DEVICE 113 114 Schematic Representation of the Topographic Device APPENDIX C FIGURE DRAWING TEST ARTICULATION OF BODY CONCEPT SCALE 115 116 Code Number ______ Date ______ I. On this page, please draw a person (a whole person, not just a head), Please do this even if you feel you cannot draw. Please do no£ draw "stick" figures ( ^ ). 117 Code Number ______ Date ______ II. If you have just drawn a man on the previous page, please draw a woman here. If you have just drawn a woman on the previous page, please draw a man here. 118 ARTICULATION-OF-BODY-CONCEPT (ABC) SCALE FOR EVALUATION OF FIGURE DRAWINGS ADULT VERSION1 Characteristics of Drawings Reflecting Level of Articulation A. Form Level The most differentiating indicator of articulation of form level is the general body shape, but also form level in terms of good inte gration of reasonably shaped body parts and articulation in the representation of the head and facial features, ranging from childish circle-oval head and eyes-nose-mouth, to a more differentiated and integrated head contour with subtlety of facial expression and features. B. Identity and Sex Differentiation The differentiating indicator of identity and sex is the level of sex differentiation. The higher the level of articulation, the more superior the integration of emphasized differentiating sex characterlsites, and/or roles. C. Level of Detailing The level of detailing overlaps with the preceding two categories and 1s the most differentiating one 1n the evaluation of drawings. This indicator of articulation considers appropriate and Imaginative detailing, usually evidenced by shading to Indicate facial expression, clothing detail, and/or musculature. Rating of 5 This group consists of the most primitive drawings; these drawings characteristically manifest most of the following signs of absence of differentiation (reflecting either complete lack of development and extreme immaturity, or disintegration of a depressive nature). A. Primitive integration 1) body parts stuck on to each other (head, neck, rump, limb), appendages stuck on to torso or superimposed upon body out line (i.e ., transparencies of limbs). H. A. Witkin and others, "Articulation-of-Body-Concept (ABC) Scale for Evaluation of Figure Drawings" (Princeton, N. J.: Educational Testing Service, 1974), pp. 25-28. (Mimeographed.) 119 Rating of 5 (Continued) 2) disintegration of figure or appendages, i.e., discontinuing of body and/or appendages, fading out into confused scribbles or nothingness. 3) arms (and/or feet) abruptly ended by claws. 4) sex characteristics and other features arbitrarily super imposed, e.g., square representing female torso with two circles for breasts or dot for bellybutton; circles on limbs representing joints, etc. 5) scribbled hair, or hat, stuck on to the top of head outline. B. Primitive forms, shape 1) circle or oval heads, with no attempt at shaping hairline, etc. 2) facial features represented by ovals, circles, dots, with no attempt at expression. 3) no, or very poor, attempt to approximate human shape, pre dominant use of rectangles and circles or ovals, representing all body parts. Unarticulated use of scribbles, sticks, for limbs. C. No attempt at realistic or symbolic representation by means of detailing 1) empty drawings, bare outlines 2) no representation either of clothing or of nude body, or inconsistency in representation (e.g., buttons, but no other Indication of clothing, no neckline, cuffs, etc.). 3) gross body outlines, representation of barest essentials, I.e ., head, torso, appendages, with all minor and many major omissions. 4) barest essentials of facial features, I.e., eyes, nose, mouth, often eyebrows, occasionally ears, all represented by primitive forms. D. Unmodulated, uncontrolled line 120 Rating of 4 This group consists of slightly less primitive drawings. While still quite undifferentiated in nature and quality, drawings in this group show a markedly higher level of integration of body parts (all subjects at least attempt to integrate arms, legs, neck, and head, though some succeed very poorly). Some attempt at representation of the human body shape is manifest, with either some indication of clothing or some isolated basic detail of the bare body. Facial features are generally more detailed, a bit less primitive, with some drawings in this group showing definite facial expression. There are no omissions of basic features (all figures have ears, neck, hands, or at least a somewhat rationalized omission of only one of these features). Lines are more consistent and deliberate. Rating of 3 This group consists of drawings which are Intermediate in all the areas evaluated in the primitlvity-art1culation scale. Character istically, these drawings are adequate 1n level of Integration, form, detailing, and individual facial expressions. These produc tions manifest no relatively outstanding articulation or complexity on the one hand, nor signs of extraordinary lack of differentiation or of disintegration on the other. Rating of 2 This group contains drawings which, while not superior in all areas of the rating scale, show a relatively high degree of articulation in one or several aspects. The level of Integration is good and the attempt at representation of the human shape and of realistic proportions 1s marked; there Is an emphasis on detailing and facial expression. However, the end product appears less deliberate, the lines less decisive, the drawings less skillful and 1n particular the head treatment is less articulated than that of drawings placed in Group 1. Rating of 1 This group consists of the most articulated drawings. These drawings are characterized by great emphasis on detail of head, face, expression, as well as clothing and/or body features, shape, and sex characteristics, (often excessively narcissistic), combined with not only an attempt a t, but very skillful achievement of rational, consistent Integration of body parts, clothing, and accessories, decisively and purposefully drawn. APPENDIX D PERSONAL DATA SHEET 121 122 Code Number PERSONAL DATA SHEET AGE: NUMBER YEARS MARRIED: SEX: BIRTHPLACE: ETHNIC ORIGIN: OCCUPATION: EDUCATION: HIGH SCHOOL NUMBER OF YEARS DIPLOMA COLLEGE NUMBER OF YEARS DEGREE _ GRADUATE SCHOOL NUMBER OF YEARS DEGREE VISION: GLASSES: YES NO OTHER (PLEASE DESCRIBE): PHYSICAL HANDICAP(S): YES NO IF YES, PLEASE DESCRIBE: ACUTE ILLNESS: YES NO IF YES, PLEASE DESCRIBE: CHRONIC ILLNESS: YES NO IF YES, PLEASE DESCRIBE: WEIGHT: FIRST VISIT: SECOND VISIT: THIRD VISIT: FOURTH VISIT: PRE-PREGNANCY WEIGHT: HEIGHT: FRAME: SMALL MEDIUM LARGE NUMBER OF PREGNANCIES (INCLUDING THIS ONE): NUMBER OF CHILDREN: EXPECTED DATE OF DELIVERY: DO YOU PLAN TO ATTEND PREPARATION FOR CHILDBIRTH CLASSES? YES NO HOW DO YOU FEEL ABOUT BEING PREGNANT? Code Number POSTPARTAL (FOURTH) VISIT DATE OF DELIVERY: SEX OF BABY: COMPLICATIONS DURING PREGNANCY: YES ______NO___ _ IF YES, PLEASE DESCRIBE: LABOR: AWAKE ASLEEP ____ MEDICATION: YES ____ NO____ COMPLICATIONS: YES NO______ IF YES, PLEASE DESCRIBE: DELIVERY: AWAKE ASLEEP____ MEDICATION: YES ____ NO____ COMPLICATIONS: YES NO_____ IF YES, PLEASE DESCRIBE: COMPLICATIONS DURING POSTPARTUM: YES ______NO___ _ IF YES, PLEASE DESCRIBE: DID YOU ATTEND PREPARATIONS FOR CHILDBIRTH CLASSES? YES _ IF YES: LAMAZE OTHER (PLEASE DESCRIBE) ______ NUMBER OF WEEKS: HOW DO YOU FEEL NOW THAT YOUR PREGNANCY IS OVER? APPENDIX E SHRINKAGE FORMULA 124 125 SHRINKAGE FORMULA The formula used to estimate the shrinkage of the multiple correlation coefficient, R, was:* R1 2 = 1 - (1 - R2)(N - 1/N - k) where R' = unbiased estimate of population multiple correlation R = multiple correlation found in sample of size N k = number of independent variables In the present study, the regression of perceived body space on time for wives and husbands yielded an R of .8764 (R2 = .7680). The population multiple correlation was estimated to be .8662 (R2 = .7504). In this study, the regression of articulation of body concept on time for wives and husbands yielded an R of .8968 (R2 = .8042). The population multiple correlation was estimated to be .8884 (R2 « .7893). ^Jum C. Nunnally, Psychometric Theory (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1967), p. 1677 APPENDIX F SUBJECT RECRUITMENT LETTER 126 127 Would you like to be a vital part of an Important nursing research project? I am conducting a study to determine wives' and husbands' mental Images of their own bodies during and after pregnancy. Participation in the study requires only that I v isit you In your home, at your convenience, during the eighth and ninth months of pregnancy and the first and second months after your baby 1s bom. Each visit takes no more than one-half hour. During each v isit, you will be asked to respond to two written question naires and one simple perceptual test. All information will be held 1n confidence, and you will remain anonymous. I hope you will decide to participate 1n this unique and Interesting study. If so, or If you would like more Information, please fill out the attached postcard and mall It to me. I will then call you to arrange the first visit. Thank you very much. Jacqueline Fawcett, R.N. Ph.D. Candidate 1n Nursing New York University Formerly, Instructor University of Connecticut School of Nursing APPENDIX G CODING OF THE DATA SAMPLE DATA 128 129 CODING OF THE DATA The coding of the data for the multiple regression analysis was carried out as follows: Variable Number Variable Name 1 Subject ID 2 Perceived Body Space 3 Articulation of Body Concept 4 Vector for Group Membership 5 Vector for Linear Trend^ 6 Vector for Quadratic Trend 7 Vector for Cubic Trend 2 8 Vector for Subjects (Perceived Body Space) 9 Vector for Subjects (Articulation of Body Concept) Orthogonal coefficients for unequal intervals were calculated according to the procedure described by Roger Kirk, Experimental Design: Procedures for the Behavioral Sciences (Belmont, Calif.: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, 1968), pp. Si3-517. The Intervals for the four data collection periods 1n the present study were: Yi = Start (Y' i = 0); Y, = 26.1 days (V , = 1); Y, = 76.2 days (Y', = 3); Y- = 107'days (t'4 - 4). 2 4 ^Subjects were coded 1n a single vector composed of each subject's total score across time. See Elazar Pedhazur, “Coding Subjects in Repeated-Measures Designs," pp. 6-7. 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