Chulanova, Tatiana Ph.D., August 2020 Translation Studies

CHULANOVA, TATIANA PH.D., AUGUST 2020 TRANSLATION STUDIES

THE POLITICS OF PARATEXTS: FRAMING TRANSLATIONS IN THE SOVIET

JOURNAL INOSTRANNAIA LITERATURA

Dissertation Advisor: Brian James Baer

The role of translation in periodicals has recently attracted the attention of Translation

Studies scholars (e.g., Baer 2016; Lygo 2016, and Bollaert 2019). However, there has not been a comprehensive study of the role of paratexts in framing translations published in

Soviet periodicals during the post-Stalinist periods referred to as the Thaw, Stagnation, and Perestroika. Drawing on paratext theory (Genette 1997), narrative theory, frame analysis (Baker 2006), and thematic analysis (Braun and Clarke 2006), the present study investigates the role played by paratexts in framing the translations published in the

Soviet thick journal Inostrannaia Literatura between 1955 and 1991. Analysis of the 777 paratexts reveals that the journal played an important role in acquainting Soviet readers with foreign works in translation and in shaping the readers’ view of the other countries, in particular, the countries of the West. The analysis of the thematic content of the corpus shows that the representation of the West changed from a negative to a more positive one and that coverage of the author’s political engagement decreased over time, whereas coverage of translation-related issues increased. The analysis of the framing strategies used by the journal in its paratexts, such as selective appropriation, temporal and spatial framing, labelling, and repositioning of participants, allowed for the inclusion of foreign works that might otherwise have been banned by censors.

THE POLITICS OF PARATEXTS: FRAMING TRANSLATIONS IN THE

SOVIET JOURNAL INOSTRANNAIA LITERATURA

A dissertation submitted

to Kent State University in partial

fulfillment of the requirements for the

degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Tatiana Chulanova

August 2020

Tatiana Chulanova

B.A., Voronezh State Pedagogical University, Russia 2000

M.A., Kent State University, USA, 2008

Ph.D., Kent State University, 2020

Approved by

______, Chair, Doctoral Dissertation Committee Dr. Brian James Baer

______, Members, Doctoral Dissertation Committee Dr. Joanna Trzeciak Huss

______Dr. Judy Wakabayashi

______Dr. Andrew Barnes

______Dr. Martha C. Merrill

Accepted by

______, Chair, Department of Modern and Classical Language Studies Dr. Keiran Dunne

______, Interim Dean, College of Arts and Sciences Dr. Mandy Munro-Stasiuk TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... v

LIST OF FIGURES ...... x

LIST OF TABLES ...... xii

DEDICATION ...... xiii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... xiv

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1

1.1 Introduction ...... 1

1.2 Significance of the Study ...... 5

1.3 Research Questions ...... 6

1.4 A Note on Transliteration and Translation ...... 6

1.5 Organization of Dissertation ...... 7

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 8

2.1 Narrative Theory and Framing in Translation Studies ...... 8

2.1.1 Narratives in the Social Sciences ...... 8

2.1.2 Narratives in Translation and Interpreting Studies ...... 14

2.1.3 Framing ...... 19

2.2 Paratexts in Translation Studies ...... 21

2.2.1 Genette’s Concept of Paratext ...... 21

2.2.2 Paratexts in Translation Studies Research ...... 25

2.3 Periodical in Translation Studies ...... 29

2.3.1 Background ...... 29

2.3.2 The Journal as Agent ...... 31

2.3.3 ‘Thick’ Journals ...... 33

2.3.4 Conclusion ...... 36

2.4 Inostrannaia Literatura and Its Predecessors...... 36

2.4.1 Vestnik inostrannoi literatury (Herald of Foreign Literature) ...... 37

2.4.2 Literatura mirovoi revolutsii (Literature of the World Revolution)...... 41

2.4.3 Internatsional’naia literatura (International Literature) ...... 42

2.5 Soviet and Translated Literature in the Context of Socialist Realism ...... 45

2.5.1 Translation and its Contexts ...... 45

2.5.2 Socialist Realism: History and Governing Principles ...... 50

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY ...... 55

3.1 Introduction ...... 55

3.2 Positioning the Researcher ...... 55

3.3 Managing Subjectivity in Qualitative Research ...... 59

3.4 Periodization ...... 62

3.5 Quantitative Data Analysis ...... 67

3.6 Qualitative Data Analysis ...... 68

3.6.1 Paratexts as a Site of Framing Translations ...... 69

3.6.2 Framing Strategies ...... 71

3.6.3 Thematic Analysis ...... 73

CHAPTER 4 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS………………………………...76

4.1 Introduction ...... 76

4.2 Data Collection Method and Instruments ...... 76

4.3 Discussion of the Findings of the Quantitative Data Analysis ...... 79

4.3.1 Total Number of Works with and without Paratexts ...... 79

4.3.2 Types of Paratext ...... 82

4.3.3 Addressers of the Paratexts ...... 84

4.3.4 Length of the Paratexts ...... 85

4.3.5 Source-Text Languages ...... 90

4.3.5.1 Source-Text Languages and Their Corresponding Countries ...... 91

4.3.5.2 Source-Text Countries and Languages Across the Three Historical

Periods ...... 93

4.3.5.3 Some Reflection on the Editors and Changes in Paratextual

Practice ...... 97

4.4 Conclusion ...... 99

CHAPTER 5 THEMATIC ANALYSIS OF THE PARATEXTUAL DATA……...102

5.1 Introduction ...... 102

5.2 Data Analysis Methods and Instruments ...... 102

5.3 Thematic Analysis: Overview ...... 103

5.3.1 Choice of Themes ...... 103

5.3.2 Six Phases of Thematic Analysis ...... 107

5.3.3 Overview of the Themes ...... 109

5.4 Thematic Analysis: General Trends and Discussion ...... 129

vii

5.4.1 The Changes in Thematic Coverage Across the Three Historical Periods:

General Trends ...... 129

5.4.2 Reflective Analysis of the Changes in the Thematic Content of the

Paratexts ...... 134

5.4.2.1 The Structure of the Paratexts ...... 135

5.4.2.2 Authorship of the Paratexts and Its Influence on Thematic Content

...... 138

5.4.2.3 Length of the Paratexts and Its Influence on Thematic Content

...... 140

5.4.2.4 Conclusion: The Major Changes in the Thematic Coverage ...... 142

CHAPTER 6 FRAMING STRATEGIES USED IN THE PARATEXTUAL DATA ..

...... 150

6.1 Introduction ...... 150

6.2 Framing Strategies: Overview and Analysis ...... 150

6.2.1 Selective Appropriation of the Textual Material ...... 151

6.2.1.1 Macro-level Patterns of Selectivity...... 151

6.2.1.2 Micro-level Patterns of Selectivity ...... 156

6.2.2 Temporal and Spatial Framing ...... 157

6.2.3 Labelling ...... 162

6.2.4 Repositioning of Participants ...... 168

6.3 Conclusion ...... 173

CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION ...... 174

viii

7.1 Summary of Findings ...... 174

7.2 Limitations and Future Research ...... 177

REFERENCES ...... 180

APPENDIX A The List of the Source Languages from which the Translations

Accompanied by Paratexts Were Performed (with the number of paratexts per language) ...... 196

APPENDIX B Top Ten Languages of the Source Texts and their Corresponding

Countries (with the number of paratexts per country) ...... 199

APPENDIX C The List of Translated Countries According to the Three Historical

Periods (with the number of paratexts per country) ...... 202

APPENDIX D Number of Paratexts per Year by Addresser ...... 207

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. A Sample of the Microsoft Excel Table Used for the Paratextual Data Input and

Analysis ...... 77

Figure 2. Filtering by Paratext Author and Paratext Type ...... 78

Figure 3. Total Number of Foreign Works Published in the journal in Each Historical

Period ...... 80

Figure 4. Number of Foreign Works Published in the Journal with and without Paratexts

...... 81

Figure 5. All Foreign Works vs. the Works Accompanied by Paratexts Across the Three

Historical Periods ...... 82

Figure 6. Number of Paratexts per Paratext Type ...... 83

Figure 7. Percentage of Paratexts per Addresser ...... 85

Figure 8. Length of Paratexts ...... 86

Figure 9. Relationship Between the Type of a Paratext and its Length ...... 88

Figure 10. Relationship between a Paratext’s Length and Addresser ...... 89

Figure 11. Top Ten Languages of the Source Texts with the Corresponding Number of

Paratexts ...... 91

Figure 12. A Sample of the Microsoft Excel Table Used for Thematic Analysis ...... 105

Figure 13. Themes and their Occurrence in the Corpus ...... 106

Figure 14. The Changes in the Themes’ Coverage in the Corpus Across the Three

Historical Periods ...... 130

Figure 15. “Socio-Political and Socio-Historical Context” and “Author’s Political

Engagement”: The Changes in the Themes’ Coverage Across the Three Historical

Periods ...... 132

Figure 16. “Translation” and “Translation Process”: The Changes in the Themes’

Coverage Across the Three Historical Periods ...... 134

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Shorter vs. Longer Paratexts: Number and Percentage ...... 87

Table 2. The List of Countries with English as a Source Language with the Number of

Paratexts per Country ...... 92

Table 3. Number of Paratexts in Each Historical Period ...... 93

Table 4. Number of Translated Countries and Languages in Each Historical Period ...... 94

Table 5. Number of Paratexts per Country across the Three Historical Periods ...... 95

Table 6. Number of Paratexts per Source Language across the Three Historical

Periods ...... 96

Table 7. Number of Paratexts Published under Different Editors ...... 97

Table 8. Number of Paratexts per Editor and Source Text Country: Four Examples ...... 98

Table 9. List of Themes ...... 103

Table 10. The Thematic Analysis of the Paratexts ...... 110

Table 11. Themes and Sub-Themes with Examples of their Corresponding Passages in the Paratexts ...... 113

Table 12. List of Labels Used to Describe the Authors of the Source Texts ...... 162

xii

DEDICATION

To my husband, Israel, for his love, support, and patience, and to my parents, Natalia and

Alexander.

xiii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The writing of this project has been one of the greatest academic challenges I have faced and without the support and guidance of the people who helped me during such a difficult and exciting journey, this research work would not have been possible. It is to them I owe my deepest gratitude.

First and foremost, I am greatly indebted to my advisor, Dr. Brian James Baer, who accepted me as his Ph.D. student and guided me from the very early stage of this research. I would like to thank him for his patience, enthusiasm, and constructive feedback throughout the entire dissertation process. I would also like to thank him for giving me the moral support I needed even during the most difficult times when other people stopped believing in me. Without him my dissertation would not have been written.

I am also grateful to my committee members, Dr. Judy Wakabayashi, Dr. Joanna

Trzeciak Huss, Dr. Andrew Barnes, and Dr. Martha C. Merrill, for generously offering their time to review my dissertation. Your valuable feedback helped me to see the weaknesses of the project and make the necessary improvements. I also want to thank them for letting my defense be an enjoyable and unforgettable moment.

In addition, I would like to acknowledge the invaluable help of the librarians of

Voronezh Regional Universal Scientific Nikitin Library in providing me with access to the archival materials.

xiv

Most importantly, I would like to thank my husband for his encouragement during my long dissertation journey. Only he really knows how challenging this journey was for me.

Lastly, I am greatly indebted to my parents for their continued love, prayers, and support.

Tatiana Chulanova

Kent, Ohio

July 7, 2020

CHAPTER 1

Introduction

1.1 Introduction

Literature, and translated literature in particular, has always played an important part in

Soviet culture, and translated literature in particular, as in the Soviet Union, where translation was considered “a key way in which a foreign ‘other’ can be represented to a domestic audience” (Lygo 2018: 442). However, literary translation does not exist in a vacuum; it is influenced by many factors, politics being one of them. The interplay between politics and translation is an extremely interesting area of research in any country. However, the Eastern Europe represents an especially “valuable vantage point” for studying the relationship between literary translation and politics (Popa 2018: 424; see also Baer 2011). That relationship was especially dynamic and complex within “an historical context marked by the rise of undemocratic regimes, such as those claiming to be communist in this part of the European continent, as well as by the Cold War” (Popa

2018: 424). As recent studies have shown, in such contexts the censorship of foreign literature does not just perform a repressive function but can also function as a productive force, providing “fertile ground for the creative manipulation and appropriation of texts”

(Inggs 2011: 78).

As Popa points out, scholarly literature on communism and Eastern Europe has largely overlooked translation issues (425). However, in the domain of Translation

Studies, there have been some in-depth studies devoted to this particular historical

1 context. One of such studies is the volume Contexts, Subtexts and Pretexts: Literary

Translation in Eastern Europe and Russia (2011) edited by Brian James Baer. This volume of collected essays is an important contribution to the role of translation in

Eastern Europe, which has been overlooked to date. The volume adds to the body of research that challenges “the hegemony of Western identity” (Baer 2) by “introducing in the discussion Europe’s internal other – the cultures of Eastern Europe and Russia” (Baer

1). The book includes contributions from such countries as Bulgaria, Croatia, Latvia,

Poland, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Slovenia, and Ukraine. In 2016, Slavic & East

European Journal published a cluster of articles curated by Baer. The three articles written by Sergey Tyulenev, Susanna Witt, and Baer demonstrate how “translation can serve as an especially productive point of entry into the literary culture of the Soviet

Union” (Baer 2016: 6) and give a new perspective on the role of translation in Russian and Eastern European societies (4). Another collection of contributions Translation in

Russian Contexts: Culture, Politics, Identity edited by Baer and Witt in 2018 is the first large-scale study of its kind that addresses topics of translation in Russian contexts from the perspectives of Slavic Studies and Translation Studies.

With the increasing interest in the various contexts of translation and the extra textual factors shaping translation practices, it becomes essential for translation research to go beyond exclusively textual approaches. Popa argues that translation, as a subject of study in its own right in this historical context, can contribute to multidisciplinary work on political regimes in Soviet bloc countries. However, a study of translation practices in undemocratic regimes cannot rely solely on the methods used in social and political

2 sciences and requires inclusion of methods from other disciples (Popa 425). The present study is a partial response to the call for a more multidisciplinary approach to research on translation in the context of undemocratic regimes. Moreover, a focus on context

“challenges the traditional conception of translation as a simple ‘carrying over’ of a text” as it also involves “the weaving of that text into a different cultural fabric” (Baer and Witt

2018). The present study combines methods from the following research areas: paratextual analysis proposed by Genette (1997), thematic analysis elaborated by Braun and Clarke (2006), and the narrative theory and framing strategies suggested by Baker

(2006).

The relationship between translation and politics in totalitarian regimes is a vast topic, which represents a challenge for any research. How does a researcher narrow down such a topic and still provide novel findings? One way is to choose a site of translation and study how the politics influence translation across different historical periods in that particular site. In the context of the Soviet Union, an important site of translation is periodicals, in general, and ‘thick’ journals, in particular1.

Even though periodicals have traditionally been considered a rich object of study in such disciplines as history and literary studies (Guzman 2019: 169), the topic of translation in periodicals has only recently become an object of sustained research interest. The journal Translation and Interpreting Studies (2019) devoted an entire issue to the topic of translation in magazines and journals. The issue, titled Translation and/in

1 ‘Thick’ journals are monthlies dedicated to literature, art, society, and politics that occupy an important part in Russian literary history. Compared to ‘thin’ journals, ‘thick’ journals consist of one or two hundred pages per issue and are usually published across many decades (Philpotts 2010: 55). 3

Periodical Publications, highlights the importance of the topic in Translation Studies research. Some translation scholars have studied the role of translation in periodicals and the role of periodicals for translation (e.g., Cherfas 1986, Safiullina 2009; Sherry 2012;

Baer 2016; Lygo 2016, and Bollaert 2019); however, much more work still needs to be done in this area of research. Including more countries, more time periods, and more periodicals will add to the existing body of research on the role of periodicals in translation and may provide new insights on the role of translation in various socio- political and socio-historical contexts.

Periodicals, in their turn, can be viewed as sites where translations are framed.

The current study looks at how the translations published in the journal Inostrannaia

Literatura between 1955 and 1991 were framed through paratexts. An analysis of 777 paratexts accompanying the translations published in three historical periods, 1955–1964,

1965–1984, and 1985–1991, will be presented to show what characteristics of the source- text culture were introduced as important and controversial, and, therefore, worth clarifying or framing for the target-language readers, and how those views of the source- language culture shifted across the three historical periods. The dissertation will try to show how an image of the West was constructed through translation paratexts and how that image changed over time.

1.2 Significance of the Study

The existence of censorship in the USSR allowed the authorities to control how foreign countries and cultures are presented to the target language readers (Lygo 2018: 453). As translation became “a site for the negotiation of political ideology” (453), the paratexts accompanying those translations became a valuable source of information on the representation of the West in the Soviet Union and on how that representation was framed according to the political and cultural attitudes of the USSR toward other countries.

Even though there have been some impressive studies investigating translation in

‘thick’ journals (i.e., Safiullina 2006; Sherry 2012, Lygo 2016, Bollaert 2019) and the role of paratexts in translation (see Chapter 2), so far there has been no comprehensive study of the framing strategies used in the paratexts accompanying translations in ‘thick’ journals that would cover three major periods in Soviet history: the Thaw, Stagnation, and Perestroika. The present study will attempt to fill that gap.

This study aims to contribute to the growing body of research on translation in periodicals, on translation in totalitarian regimes, and on framing translations through paratexts. Moreover, the contributions of the present research go beyond the field of

Translation Studies. Due to its multidisciplinary approach, the findings of the study will benefit scholars working in such fields as literary studies, periodical studies, historical sociology, and cultural history. The Soviet Union with its communist regime provides a rich context for observing the complex relationship between literary translation and politics. Examining such relationship enriches “our historical and sociological

5 understanding of the functioning of communist regimes, as well as of translation as a social practice” (Popa 2018: 437).

1.3 Research Questions

In order to develop the topic of the dissertation, the following research question was posed:

What was the nature of the paratexts that accompanied the translations, and did it

change across the three periods in Soviet history: 1955–1964, 1965–1985, and

1986–1991?

To answer the question, the study will present quantitative analysis to determine the source countries and languages of the translated works accompanied by paratexts in the journal and to document shifts across the three historical periods under consideration.

The study will then present qualitative analysis of the themes covered in the paratexts and document whether that thematic coverage changed over the three periods.

1.4 A Note on Transliteration and Translation

Transliteration of Russian names, places, institutions, and titles adheres to the Library of

Congress system without diacritical marks. Translations into English from primary and secondary sources are mine unless otherwise indicated.

1.5 Organization of Dissertation

The dissertation is organized into seven chapters. Chapter 1 introduces the research problem, outlines the research questions, and explains the significance of the study.

Chapter 2 reviews the literature on paratexts and periodicals in Translation Studies and describes the major theoretical frameworks that have been applied during the analysis, such as narrative theory and framing. Chapter 3 discusses the methodology used to analyze the paratextual data. It explains the periodization applied in the study, methods of data collection, and quantitative and qualitative approaches employed in the data analysis. Chapter 4 presents the major findings of the quantitative analysis of the paratexts. Chapter 5 discusses the results of the thematic analysis of the data, presenting an overview of the themes found in the paratexts, discussing the changes in the coverage of the themes across the three historical periods, and providing a reflective analysis of the thematic content. Chapter 6 presents and discusses the framing strategies employed in the paratextual data. Finally, Chapter 7 summarizes the major findings of the research, outlines its limitations, and suggests future directions.

CHAPTER 2

Literature Review

2.1 Narrative Theory and Framing in Translation Studies

In recent decades, there has been an increased interest in applying theories from various disciplines and fields of research to Translation Studies. One such theory is narrative theory and the notion of framing. It was Mona Baker (2006) who first applied concepts from narrative theory to translation and interpreting in her book Translation and Conflict:

A Narrative Account. However, before describing Baker’s approach to narrative, let me briefly outline how the concept of narrative is understood in the social sciences.

2.1.1 Narratives in the Social Sciences

The notion of narrative has been studied and applied in various disciplines, including literary studies, linguistics, sociology, psychology, and communication studies, to name just a few. Baker (2006) draws on social and communication theory, rather than literary studies and linguistics, to elaborate her definition of narrative and to apply it to translation and interpreting. She stresses that many scholars regard narrative as “an optional mode of communication” with the focus on its internal structure (2006:8). By contrast, social studies and communication theory view narrative as “the principal and indispensable mode by which we experience the world” (9, emphasis in original). The advantage of such an approach for Translation and Interpreting Studies is that such a

8 view of narrative means that it “cuts across and underpins all modes of communication” and includes all genres (9).

Bruner in his article “The Narrative Construction of Reality” (1991) stresses the

“paradigm shift” that happened in 1981 with the appearance of a collection of essays On

Narrative” by W.J.T. Mitchell, when scholars proposed that narrative can not only represent but also constitute reality. What is new in Bruner’s work is his concern not with how narrative as text is constructed (which has been already done in literary studies), but how “it operates as an instrument of mind in the construction of reality” (6). Bruner proposes ten features of narrative:

1. Narrative diachronicity—a narrative is an “account of events occurring over

time” (6);

2. Particularity—narrative particulars are embedded in a more generic story;

3. Intentional state entailment—narratives are about people acting in a setting

and what happens to those people must be relevant to their intentional states

(7);

4. Hermeneutic composability—the part-whole textual interdependence in

narrative, which can be seen in its (narrative) construction and

comprehension;

5. Canonicity and breach— not all stories are worth telling. For a story to

become worth telling, an implicit canonical script must be violated (11);

6. Referentiality—whether a narrative is “true” or not, is judged by “its

verisimilitude rather than its verifiability” (13);

7. Genericness—narrative genre is not only a way of constructing “human

plights,” but also a way of telling that predisposes us to use our minds in a

particular way (15);

8. Normativeness—as a breach presupposes a norm, narrative is necessarily

normative (15);

9. Context sensitivity and negotiability—people assimilate narratives on their

own terms; they do so by taking the teller’s intentions into account but based

on their own background knowledge. It is “the very context dependence of

narrative accounts that permits cultural negotiation which, when successful,

makes possible such coherence and interdependence as a culture can achieve”

(18);

10. Narrative accrual—accrual of “stories of happenings of the past into some sort

of diachronic structure that permits a continuity into the present (19–20).

It should be noted that Baker (2006) combines the above-mentioned features of narratives proposed by Jerome Bruner (1991) with those outlined by Somers and Gibson

(1994) in order to account for the specific context of Translation and Interpreting Studies research. She distinguishes four core features of narrative, as proposed by Somers and

Gibson, namely, temporality, relationality, causal emplotment and selective appropriation, whereas, the rest of Bruner’s features are covered by Baker in a separate chapter. Therefore, I found it important to outline the list of Bruner’s features to have a better understanding of his approach. Baker regards Bruner’s focus on narrative as an instrument of mind, rather than simply text, as a drawback for translation and interpreting

10 research and, therefore, suggests combining the approaches developed in the social sciences with micro- and macro-analysis of text (2006:20).

Looking at the narratives that operate in a legal context, Ewick and Silbey (1995) in their article “Subversive Stories and Hegemonic Tales: Toward a Sociology of

Narrative” suggest that narratives may play a very important role in social research as the object, method, or product of inquiry (201). They point out that narratives are “socially organized phenomena which, accordingly, reflect the cultural and structural features of their production” (200). It means that stories are shaped by particular historical, institutional, and interactional contexts, and told with particular motives in mind (206).

Therefore, Ewick and Silbey identify four dimensions of the social organization of narrative – “the when, what, how, and why of narrative” (210). These dimensions operate simultaneously to produce different results.

1) The When of Narrative. These are various circumstances in which a story is

expected, demanded, or disallowed.

2) The What of Narrative. Social norms and conventions govern the content of

narratives. Various cultural and institutional settings have their content rules that

define “what constitutes an appropriate or successful narrative” (207).

3) The How of Narrative. Because stories are not produced in a vacuum, the society

specifies rules of participation. These rules assign the roles of storyteller and

audience, as well as define “when and by whom a narrative might be interrupted,

interrogated, or elaborated upon” (208).

4) The Why of Narrative. Narratives are used strategically. Stories are told with a

purpose in mind: “to entertain or persuade, to exonerate or indict, to enlighten or

instruct” (208).

Bearing those purposes in mind, people produce narratives according to norms and conventions of a particular contextual setting.

However, it is important to note that Ewick and Silbey (1995), as well as Baker

(2006, 2007), stress that narratives are not simply constructed “within social contexts;” narratives are produced “interactively with a social context” (211, emphasis in original).

They argue that “narratives are social practices, part of the constitution of their own context” (211). Compared with previous applications of narrative in other disciplines, this is a very important step forward, as it suggests that narratives are not just an optional mode of communication, but are social practices that are “constitutive of, not merely situated within, social contexts” (211). This view of narrative as a social practice has advantages not only for sociological research but also for Translation and Interpreting

Studies research as it links narratives to dominant cultural meanings and power relations.

Ewick and Silbey (1995), as well as Baker (2006, 2007), state that narratives do not simply reflect those dominant meanings and power relations; they participate in “the very production of those meanings and power relations” (211, emphasis in original).

Baker (2006) claims that narrative “both reproduces the existing power structures and provides a means of contesting them” (23, emphasis in original). Along the same lines, Ewick and Silbey (1995) argue that, bearing the marks of existing social inequities

12 and ideology, narratives can contribute to hegemony, but they can also be subversive.

Hegemonic narratives can

- function as a means of social control (saying what is expected and what

happens in case of nonconformity);

- colonize consciousness with “well-plotted but implicit accounts of social

causality” (222);

- efface the connections between “the particular persons and the social

organization of their experience” (222).

Subversive narratives, by contrast, make visible the connection between the particular and the general; they are narratives that “emplot the connection between the particular and the general by locating persons and events within the encompassing web of social organization” (223).

To summarize, on the one hand, social theories of narrative present an advantage for Translation and Interpreting Studies research as they emphasize a shift from regarding narrative just as an optional means of communication and argue that narrative participates in the construction of reality; on the other hand, a social sciences approach has to be complemented by textual analysis to account for translator and interpreter choices. Even though a method of textual analysis is widely used in linguistics and literary studies research, the definition of narrative in those studies, as Baker puts it, is far too

“restrictive” (2006:20) as narratives in those disciplines are mostly restricted to textual material and more emphasis is put on narratives’ structure than on their power and function (19).

2.1.2 Narratives in Translation and Interpreting Studies

By applying concepts from narrative theory, sociology and the study of social movements to translation, Baker shows that translators and interpreters are not simply passive conveyers of ideas but rather active participants in “the construction of social and political reality” (2007:151). As such, translators have the power and the means to frame and re-frame political conflicts.

Baker argues that narrative theory can address some of the shortcomings of previous translation theories, in particular:

1) The notion of norms, with its focus on repeated, abstract, systematic behavior,

underestimates individual attempts to challenge dominant beliefs and does not

take into account the existence of tension and constant negotiation between

dominance and resistance. Moreover, the concept of ‘norms’ assumes little

attention to political and social context.

2) Venuti’s dichotomy of foreignizing and domesticating strategies does not take

into account “the shifting positions of translators within the same text” (152).

Therefore, Baker chooses narrative theory as “a framework that recognizes the varied, shifting and ongoingly negotiable positioning of individual translators in relation to their texts, authors, societies and dominant ideologies” (152). She provides the following strengths of narrative theory:

1) It acknowledges the ever-changing positionality of translators and interpreters. By

studying the narratives to which translators and interpreters subscribe, we can

move beyond the focus on “supposedly inherent cultural differences” (152) and

focus on how individual translators behave in the real world. Baker points out that

we should take into consideration the influence of cultural, racial or religious

setting on our behavior; however, at the same time we need to be ready to

acknowledge that that influence is “neither inevitable nor predictable” (153).

2) Narrative theory helps us to see translators and interpreters as “real-life

individuals” rather than a set of variables a researcher needs to assess or explain

their behavior (153).

3) Narrative theory helps us to explain agents’ behavior in “dynamic rather than

static terms” (154). Even when translators and interpreters constantly reflect and

question the narratives they come in contact with, they cannot be fully objective

as they are always embedded in “crisscrossing, even competing, narratives” (154).

4) Narrative theory admits the power of social structures but at the same time does

not exclude the ability of groups and individuals to question and undermine that

power (154).

5) Narrative theory allows the researcher to put the choices made by translators and

interpreters into a broader perspective. It helps to account for both individual and

socially motivated decisions made by translators and interpreters.

Baker defines narratives as “stories that we come to subscribe to – believe in or at least contemplate as potentially valid – and therefore shape our behavior towards other people and the events in which we are embedded” (2007:154-155). Drawing upon works by

Somers and Gibson (1994), Baker summarizes four interdependent core features of narratives:

- Temporality

- Relationality

- Selective appropriation

- Causal emplotment

Some of these core features overlap with those proposed by Bruner (1991).

Temporality

This feature is a constitutive feature of narrative rather than an optional one. There is always “some sequence” in which the elements of a narrative are placed, and “the order in which they are placed carries meaning (Baker 2006: 51). Baker makes a very important remark regarding temporality: narratives always “project some chronological end;” therefore, narratives “guide behavior and action” (54).

Relationality

As Baker argues, we cannot “make sense of isolated events or of a patchwork of events that are not constituted as a narrative” (Baker 61). It is not possible to isolate parts of a narrative and interpret them without relating them to our own narratives. Baker observes that, sometimes, translators and interpreters do not use a direct semantic equivalent of an item in the ST when that TL equivalent is a part of negative narratives in the target culture (64). As an example, she gives the translations of the Arabic word shaheed and all its derivatives as martyr, an English “equivalent” that invokes associations with Islamic fundamentalism, terrorism and suicide bombing (66). Shaheed in the source text does not

16 necessarily refer to an act of violent resistance, but its standard translation does.

Therefore, relationality can play a double role: a constraint and a resource for creating new narratives (66). Rationality of the narrative allows the translator to accentuate some meanings circulating in the larger narrative of the target culture and to downplay those circulating in the source culture.

Causal emplotment

Emplotment allows us to “weigh and explain events rather than simply list them” (67).

For example, in the case of two competing narratives, proponents may agree on individual events, but disagree on how those events are related to each other and what motivates the participants in those events (67).

Selective appropriation

For a narrative to be coherent, some elements should be excluded and others included.

According to Baker, this feature is very important, as it has an immediate impact on the world. Baker argues that the choice of the elements does not just depend on the theme or central subject of the narrative but also on “our location in time and space, and our exposure to a particular set of public, conceptual and meta-narratives that shape our sense of significance” (72).

As mentioned above, Baker points out that linguistic and textual analysis approaches to narrative are too restrictive; therefore, her research is based mostly on social science approaches. However, Harding (2012), for example, combines narratological and sociological approaches, proposing an intratextual model of analysis and a new emphasis on the importance of narrators in the (re)configuration of narratives

(286). Harding’s study is an example of the application of Baker’s approach aimed to test the applicability of narrative theory to a sample of online media reportage. Harding’s study is based on the hostage-taking of School No.1 in Beslan, Southern Russia, in which she undertakes a detailed textual analysis by examining online reporting published by three very different Russian-language news websites. Harding provides a revised typology of narratives and elaborates an intra-textual model for the analysis of text. She concludes that socio-narrative analysis of materials related to Beslan seems “a fruitful means of exploring notions of security, terrorism, counter-terrorism, ethnic conflict and human rights as narrated by and enacted in the Russian government and judicial system”

(303).

Even though Harding’s research model is an interesting one and largely follows

Baker’s approach, for the purposes of my research, it is too narrow, as Harding’s intratextual model of analysis is applied to comparing and contrasting primary narrative texts.

Her focus on particular narratives and their links to a generic story may, however, prove to be fruitful for my study. Harding stresses that personal2 and local3 narratives are embedded within larger, general, meta-narratives4 and a core part of her work consists in exploring how local narratives are appropriated or framed into meta-narratives. Applied to my research, it would be interesting to see how local narratives (the paratexts published in the journal Inostrannaia Literatura) are framed within a meta-narrative

(Socialist Realism). This brings us to the notion of framing.

2 Personal narratives – narratives that “individuals construct about the self” (292). 3 Local narratives – narratives “relating particular events […] in particular places at particular times” (293). 4 Meta-narratives – the master narratives (291). 18

2.1.3 Framing

Baker (2006) applies the definition of frame from the literature on social movements rather than from linguistics and literary studies as the latter focus more on questions of interpretation rather than looking at framing as an active, interventionist strategy. She stresses that the literature on social movements treats framing as “an active process of signification,” which involves “setting up structures of anticipation that guide others’ interpretation of events, usually as a direct challenge to dominant interpretations of the same events in a given society” (Baker 2007: 156; emphasis in original).

Translators and interpreters, according to Baker (2007), have a wide range of linguistic and non-linguistic resources to (re)frame the narratives for their target audience

(158). Such resources include paralinguistic devices (e.g., intonation, typography, visual resources) and linguistic devices (e.g., tense shifts, deixis, code switching, the use of euphemisms). Translators and interpreters can also make use of features of narrativity

(temporality, relationality, selective appropriation and causal emplotment) to frame or reframe a text (2007:158).

Baker (2006) outlines the following framing strategies:

1. Temporal and spatial framing

This strategy involves placing a text in a different temporal and special context,

which “accentuates its narrative and projects it onto anew setting” (Baker 2006:

113). This strategy does not typically require any changes to the text itself;

however, it may be combined with the use of linguistic devices.

2. Selective appropriation of textual material

This strategy involves intervening in the text itself and is implemented through

omission and/or addition. Such intervention allows the translator to suppress or

accentuate specific aspects of the narrative of the source text (114).

3. Framing by labelling

By labelling Baker means intentional application of terms or phrases to name key

elements and/or participants of a narrative.

4. Repositioning of participants

This strategy is aimed at changing the relationality that exists between the

participants and events of the source text in the translated text. This repositioning

can be done 1) through paratextual commentary or 2) within the text or utterance.

The first site is very relevant to my research, as it concerns paratextual materials

published in Inostrannaia Literatura. Using introductions, prefaces, footnotes and

glossaries, translators can reposition themselves, their readers and other

participants in time and space.

Baker provides an interesting example of Hong Kong Collage: Contemporary

Stories and Writing (Cheung 1998), which is a collection of 23 short stories, essays and excerpts from novels by Hong Kong writers in English translation (133). The translator in her introduction positions Western writers as outsiders, whereas she positions herself in the same space as the writers in the volume. Therefore, the translator attempts “to resist and undermine the grand, reductive narratives of Hong Kong promoted by outsiders”

(133). Her five-page introduction, then, is used as a framing device, where she and the

20 people of Hong Kong are positioned together, on the opposite side of those typically representing them (133).

As shown above, frames, carefully chosen by translators, interpreters or editors, can guide our understanding of a narrative. The power of framing is in its ability for

“selecting and highlighting some features of reality while omitting others” (Enthman

1993). Therefore, analysis of paratexts that frame translations in Inostrannaia Literatura may tell us a great deal not only about individual or local narratives (those published in the journal) but also about meta-narratives circulating in Soviet society at that time, as individual narratives do not exist in isolation.

2.2 Paratexts in Translation Studies

2.2.1 Genette’s Concept of Paratext

There has been a growing interest among translation scholars in the role of paratexts in translation. To be precise, it was in 1996 that Kovala in Translations, Paratextual

Mediation and Ideological Closure first applied the work of Genette (1997) to

Translation Studies research. Since then, Translation Studies have seen many articles and books devoted to the importance of paratextual data in translation research (e.g., Dimitriu

2009; Watts 2000; Tahir-Gürçağlar 2002; Kos 2007; Al-Herthani 2009; McDonough

2009; Alvstad 2012; McRae 2012; Hassen 2012; Buendia 2013; Pellatt 2013; Kung 2014;

Summers 2014, Haroon 2017; AlKroud 2018; Bikmaniene 2018; Celik 2019; Li 2019;

Lovett 2019; O’Connor 2019; Tahir-Gürçağlar 2019).

First, let us outline the contribution made by Genette and define what a paratext is. Genette (1997), referring mainly to literary works, points out that a work consists

“entirely or essentially, of a text” and a number of other “productions,” such as an author’s name, a title, a preface, and illustrations, that belong to the text, “surround it and extend it, precisely in order to present it, […] to make present, to ensure the text’s presence in the world, its “reception” and consumption” (1, original emphasis). Genette calls these “accompanying productions” the work’s paratext (1, emphasis in original).

Therefore, “the paratext is what enables a text to become a book and to be offered as such to its readers and, more generally, to the public” (1). Rather than being a boundary or a border, Genette claims that it is a “threshold,” a zone “between the inside and the outside,” “a zone not only of transition but also of transaction: a privileged place of a pragmatics and a strategy, of an influence on the public, an influence that […] is at the service of a better reception for the text and a more pertinent reading of it” (2, original emphasis).”

Genette distinguishes five features that allow us to “define the status of a paratextual message” (1997, 4). These features describe the spatial, temporal, substantial, pragmatic, and functional characteristics of a paratextual message (4).

Characteristic Question Examples

Spatial Where? (location) 1) Peritext—within the same volume, e.g., the title, the

preface, notes (5)

2) Epitext—messages located outside the book, e.g.,

interviews, conversations, letters, diaries (5)

Temporal When? (the date of 1) Prior paratexts—those paratexts that appear before

appearance/disapp public production, e.g., prospectuses, announcements of

earance) forthcoming publications (5)

2) Original paratexts—those paratexts that appear at the

same time as the text (5)

3) Later paratexts—those that appear later than the text,

e.g., a paratext to a second edition (5)

4) Delayed paratexts—paratexts to a more remote new

edition (6)

5) Posthumous paratexts—those that appear after the

author’s death (6)

6) Anthumous paratexts—paratexts produced during the

author’s lifetime (6)

Substantial How? (mode of 1) Textual, e.g., titles, prefaces, interviews

existence) 2) Iconic, e.g., illustrations

3) Material—“everything that originates in the sometimes

very significant typographical choices that go into the

making of the book” (7)

4) Factual—a paratext that consists not of “an explicit

message (verbal or other) but of a fact whose existence

alone, if known to the public, provides some

commentary on the text and influences how the text is

received,” the author’s age and sex, membership in an

academy (7)

Pragmatic From whom? To The sender:

whom? (sender 1) Authorial paratext—the sender is the author

and addressee) 2) Publisher’s paratext—the sender is the publisher

3) Allographic paratext—the sender is a third party (9)

The addressee:

1) The public paratext—a) the public in general (e.g., the

title, an interview); b) readers of the text (e.g., the

preface); c) critics; d) booksellers

2) The private paratext—addressed to ordinary individuals

3) The intimate paratext – addressed to oneself

The degree of responsibility:

1) The official— “any paratextual message openly accepted

by the author or publisher or both—a message for which

the author or publisher cannot evade responsibility” (10)

2) The unofficial (or semiofficial)—most of the authorial

epitext (e.g., interviews, conversations, confidences) and

allographic prefaces

Functional To do what? (the A paratextual element can communicate:

functions that its 1) Information

message aims to 2) Intention, or an interpretation

fulfill) 3) Can convey a decision

4) Can involve a commitment

5) Can give a word of advice

6) Can have a performative power (11)

However, Genette points out that “the functions of the paratext

cannot be described theoretically” (12); they (the functions)

“constitute a highly empirical and highly diversified object that

must be brought into focus inductively, genre by genre and often

species by species” (13).

2.2.2 Paratexts in Translation Studies Research

Applying Genette’s model to the study of the paratexts of translations, Kovala (1996:

134-135) distinguishes between ‘macro-functions’ (to inform and to influence the reader) and ‘micro-functions’ (identification, metatextual function, placing, giving background information, illustration, reference to reader, advertising, and the artistic and legal/bibliographic functions). However, these functions are very study-specific and cannot be applied unchanged to the present study.

In addition to the valuable insights into the nature and importance of paratexts made by Genette (1997), there are some important drawbacks for Translation Studies research noted by Kovala (1996), Watts (2000), and Tahir-Gürçağlar (2002), among others. First, Genette does not talk about translated literature, which is a special case that involves two different languages and two cultures and where “the need for mediation is naturally much more urgent than in the case of original literature” (Kovala 1996: 120).

Second, Tahir-Gürçağlar (2002) takes issue with Genette considering translation itself as paratext. Genette (1997) points out that, in his study, he left out “three practices whose paratextual relevance seems […] undeniable, but investigating each one individually

25 might demand as much work as was required here in treating this subject as a whole”

(405). These three practices are translation, serial publication and illustration. According to Tahir-Gürçağlar (2002), some implications of regarding translation as a ‘paratext’ are as follows: translation “will serve only its original” (46), the perspective ignores the fact that translations can be initiated by the target culture, and it does not leave space for such phenomena as pseudotranslation (47). Finally, Watts (2000) mentions that Genette’s study is synchronic. Genette (1991) himself points out that he is dealing with “a synchronic and not a diachronic study: an attempt at a general picture and not a history of the paratext,” because “it is right to define objects before studying their evolution” (270).

However, applied to translation research, the synchronic perspective means that a reader is presented as a sort of “cultural universal, a reader out of time and place” (Watts 2000,

31). However, translation research is interested in what paratexts may tell us about readers and “the changing context in which they read” (31). Therefore, it may be said that

Genette’s work can be taken as a starting point for Translation Studies research, but that it needs to be enlarged and elaborated upon to account for translation related issues and the specificity of translated texts.

Within Translation Studies, the influence of paratexts on the readers of translations was first studied and elaborated upon by Kovala (1996), who argues that the paratexts of translations are especially interesting because of their influence on “the readers’ reading and reception of the works in question” (120). Dealing with Anglo-

American literature translated in Finland in 1890-1939, Kovala looks at how the paratexts of translated works “manifested tendencies towards ideological closure” (121). By

‘closure’ he means “the delimitation of the plurality of possible interpretations” (121).

This notion of ‘ideological closure’ is very valuable for this study, as translations of foreign works during the Soviet period were often subject to censorship due to various reasons, one of them was to abolish ambiguity (Plamper 2001). Therefore, besides interventions in the translations themselves, paratexts can be considered as important sites of framing foreign works in translation published in Inostrannaia Literatura.

The importance of paratexts for historical translation research was first studied by

Tahir-Gürçağlar (2002), who does not concentrate on ideology, like Kovala (1996), but rather focuses on how paratexts are used in “detecting a culture’s divergent definitions of translation and original” (47). Gürçağlar compares paratexts to translations commissioned by the state-sponsored Translation Bureau to those published by private publishers and finds major differences: translations published by the Translation Bureau “emphasized the source text and the source author, restricted the translator’s visibility in a number of ways, and made explicit the intended function of educating the readers” (59); in sum, the paratexts of the works published by the Ministry of Education reveal “the ‘conventional’ definition of translation held by the state-sponsored Translation Bureau” (59). The paratexts of translated popular literature often did not make the text’s status as a translation explicit, positioning translated works “in a grey area between translation and original writing” (56). Rather than educating the reader, translations of popular fiction were intended to attract the reader.

The findings outlined by Tahir-Gürçağlar (2002) are very valuable for the present research. Talking about the translations commissioned by the Translation Bureau and

27 published by the Ministry of Education, Tahir-Gürçağlar points out that the comments of translators and critics on translation reflect “a canonical view of translation” (48), as they are published in a state-sponsored journal. By analogy, it may be said that the paratexts written for the works translated in Inostrannaia Literatura (a state-sponsored journal) may reflect a canonical view of translation in the Soviet Union. Second, according to her research, the books published by the Translation Bureau were often accompanied by prefaces written by significant political figures of the time. Those prefaces did not just inform or present the text, they introduced “an ideological angle, placing the text within the general project of modernization” (52). The same may be said about the paratexts of the translations published in Inostrannaia Literatura: the paratexts, especially the paratexts of controversial texts, were intended to contextualize the work in question within the realm of Social Realism and guide the readers’ interpretation.

Tahir-Gürçağlar (2002) stresses the importance of paratexts for translation history research, as an analysis of a translated text itself is insufficient to contextualize this text within the general cultural system (58). The present study is another attempt to show how much paratextual elements can say not only about the target culture’s attitudes toward translation in a particular country at a particular period of time, but also about the target culture’s attitude toward the source culture as well as about the expectations of target language readers. The present study, following Kovala (1996), Watts (2000) and Tahir-

Gürçağlar (2002), does not consider a paratext to be always subordinate to its text, as suggested by Genette (1997), but rather a major element in the translation process, which,

28 in some cases, “may be formed before the texts themselves, and guide not only the reception but also their translation/writing” (Tahir-Gürçağlar 2002, 58).

2.3 Periodicals in Translation Studies

2.3.1 Background

In their article “The Rise of Periodical Studies,” Latham and Scholes (2006) state that, due to the cultural turn in departments of language and literature, the humanities have seen the emergence of Periodical Studies as a field (517). Periodicals provide literary and historical disciplines with new sources of information that cannot be derived from books; moreover, Latham and Scholes encourage to view periodicals not as “literary” or

“journalistic” objects but as “cultural” objects (519). Besides being a source of information for various disciplines, periodicals should be seen as an “autonomous object of study” (518) with its own “typological descriptions and scholarly methodologies”

(519).

There have been several studies that look at the role periodicals play in the exchange between literatures with relation to translation. Among those studies are the ones carried out by Mus (2009), Vandemeulebroucke (2009), and Ramicelli (2009). Mus

(2009) analyzed the image of English literature in avant-garde francophone and Dutch literary magazines published in Belgium during the interwar period. He found that “there was no or very little interaction between the Francophone and Flemish magazines” and that “Flemish periodicals couldn’t develop a structural dialogue with foreign literatures”

(117). In terms of translation, Mus points out that contributions on foreign literature in the avant-garde periodicals were “quite occasional, whereas those in more conservative magazines [...] were more structural” (116). For example, the conservative magazine

Vlaamsche Arbeid published a series of successive articles on English literature written by André de Ridder. Vandemeulebroucke (2009) looked at the presence and treatment of

English poetry in 19th-century Belgian literary periodicals and observed that “in comparison with other ‘foreign literatures’, the space contributed to English literature remains rather limited” in those journals (133). Translations of English poetry were in most cases literal, and the original texts were not always provided. Therefore,

Vandemeulebroucke concluded that “the collaborators of these periodicals emphasized their own literature” rather than English literature and resorted to French literature as a model (ibid.).

If we can see little interaction between the periodicals analyzed by Mus and

Vandemeulebroucke and foreign literatures, we observe a completely different picture in

Ramicelli’s study of the role that Revue Britannique played for the first Brazilian fiction writers. Ramicelli (2009) showed that the journal acted as an “agent of translation of

British ideas and cultural forms for Brazilians” (43). Moreover, “due to particular conditions of periodical production and circulation of texts, [...] translation constituted a means of cultural contact of special complexity” (ibid., 44).

Despite the fact that so much attention has been paid to periodicals in literary and historical disciplines, it seems that Translation Studies until only recently has largely

30 neglected periodicals as a source of research. Van Doorslaer (2011) in his chapter called

“The Relative Neglect of Newspapers in Translation Studies Research” shows that

“translated newspaper texts or translation selection procedures in newspapers can offer interesting new insights and materials for Translation Studies” (52). Van Doorslaer analyzed translations into German of the Flemish author Cyriel Buysse performed by the translator Georg Gartner and found only seven translated books of Buysse in German, based on the information provided by translation bibliographies. However, when he analyzed periodicals, it turned out that 24 unknown translations of that author had been published in journals and newspapers, moving Buysse from the rank of an author who was moderately translated to one of the most translated Flemish authors of that time (47).

Therefore, qualitative and quantitative data provided by periodicals can enrich

Translation Studies research, providing new insights and perspectives.

2.3.2 The Journal as Agent

By establishing Periodical Studies as a separate field of research with its own typologies and methodologies, an important shift has been made toward considering journals as an object of study in their own right. This idea of a literary journal being not just a compilation of texts but rather a unity, suggested by Latham and Scholes (2006), was further developed by Parker and Philpotts (2009) and Philpotts (2010, 2012). Parker and

Philpotts (2009) in their book Sinn und Form: The Anatomy of a Literary Journal describe an extensive history of the journal Sinn und Form and give the first systematic

31 analysis of this cultural institution. The authors argue that “journals demand to be viewed not so much as neutral vessels for the publication of pieces by various authors, but rather as institutions in cultural life processing shared generic properties, distinct form books on the one hand and newspapers on the other” (Parker and Philpotts 2009: 3).

Philpotts (2010) goes even further suggesting that the journal should be seen “as a dynamic agent in its own right” (55). In his analysis of journals and their role in the literary field, Philpotts adopts Pierre Bourdieu’s theorization of the cultural field and argues that not only can the journal’s editor be viewed as an agent with a habitus, but a literary journal itself can be characterized by what Philpotts calls (2012) “its own

‘common habitus,’ the defining ethos which unites the members of its ‘nucleus’ and which acts as “unifying” principle for its cultural practice” (42). Therefore, a journal is no longer viewed as a passive conveyer of ideas, but rather as an agent, “participating in the cultural field in the acquisition and exchange of capital in its various forms: literary, economic, and social; material and symbolic” (Philpotts 2012: 42).

What perspective does the idea of agency give to the present study? It can be said that the literary journal Inostrannaia Literatura was not a passive vessel, a compilation of translations by Western and Soviet authors and critical essays, but rather an agent with the power and authority to shape the values of the Soviet literary and cultural field of its time. It was an agent, which, despite the control of the Party and Soviet censorship was able to publish “heterodox material” at the same time as it (the journal) “ensured the exclusion of the most politically sensitive or inappropriate content” (Sherry 2013, 757)

Therefore, Inostrannaia Literatura, as a literary periodical, can provide Translation

Studies researchers with valuable information regarding the cultural and literary practices of the time, Soviet attitudes toward Western literature and show how the journal, as an agent of the cultural field, helped to shape those attitudes.

2.3.3 ‘Thick’ journals

Separate attention should be paid to the specific type of journal known as ‘thick’ journals, especially in Eastern European context. Philpotts (2010) points out that in the Russian context, the ‘thick journal’ (tolstyi zhurnal) “occupies a readily recognizable place in literary history” (56). Thick journals in Russia, with their “compendium-like structure that accommodated the literary, the more broadly cultural and also the political,” often encyclopaedic, dominated the Russian cultural field in the mid-nineteenth century

(Philpotts 2010: 56). Or as Brown (1995) puts it, “such journals have been the life-blood of Russian literature for over two hundred years” (151).

In Russia, ‘thick’ journals are monthly publications, several hundred pages long, with sections containing fiction, poetry, essays, and criticism on a wide variety of topics written by Russian and, in some journals, by foreign authors (in translation). Some examples of the most influential thick journals of the Soviet period are Molodaia gvardiia (Young Guard, 1922–), Novy mir (New World , 1925–), Znamia (Banner, 1931–

), Druzhba narodov (People's Friendship, 1939–), Inostrannaia Literatura (Foreign

Literature, 1955-), and Nash sovremennik (Our Contemporary, 1964–). Discussing the role of ‘thick’ journals in the Soviet Union and Russia, Brudny (1991) identifies the following characteristics: “(a) well recognized means of shaping public opinion, (b) accepted arenas of permitted socio-political debate, and (c) important institutional bases of informal groups of politically like-minded members of the intellectual elite” (154).

In his “Introduction” to the book Literary Journals in Imperial Russia (Martinsen

1997), Maguire (1997) says that the thick journal in Russia is “a cast on a grand scale with a range of departments that speak to a variety of intellectual, cultural, and literary interests, and with a more or less discernible ideology” (1). However, the main focus of these publications is on belle-lettres (i.e., prose fiction and literary criticism) (1). As

Maguire puts it, it is through thick journals that Russian literature found its public (1). By the same analogy, it may be said that it is through the journal Inostrannaia Literatura, devoted solely to foreign literature, that translations of many new and controversial foreign writings found their public and were introduced to the Soviet reader for the first time.

But what makes the ‘thick’ journal thick? How is it different from ‘thin’ literary journals? Philpotts (2010) provides a very useful typological distinction between these two forms of literary journals. Philpotts suggests that thinness and thickness apply to literary periodicals across multiple dimensions: (i) physical; (ii) temporal; (iii) conceptual, and (iv) functional (57). Physical dimension—thick journals are works that typically consist of one to two hundred pages. Temporal dimension—thick journals

34 usually circulate for several decades. Conceptual dimension—thick journals are broad in their conceptual scope, “integrating a wide range of cultural discourses and often going as far as to make claims to be representative in their publishing programme” (Philpotts

2010, 55). Functional dimension—thick journals are viewed as “more conservative and established forms of publication, self-consciously embedded in a sense of tradition” (55).

For a journal to be called ‘thick’, it has to possess all the above-mentioned dimensions; moreover, as Philpotts argues, a journal’s thickness should be conceived as “an accumulation of cultural and symbolic capital,” and a literary thick journal should be viewed as “an institution in the cultural field with an anatomical structure through which it acquires and dispenses capital” (57).

Notwithstanding the growth of interest in periodical research, there has been a lack of theoretical and typological studies of literary journals as an object of inquiry.

Therefore, the anatomical structure with its six elements proposed by Philpotts and applied to the study of the journal Sinn und Form is very useful for the present study and may be used as a starting point in describing the journal Inostrannaia Literatura as a cultural institution. The above-mentioned elements are: “(i) core ethos; (ii) institutional infrastructure; (iii) editors; (iv) contributors; (v) text and composition; and (vi) readership” (57). Each element contributes to the reserves of cultural capital residing in the good name of the journal (57).

2.3.4 Conclusion

The ‘thick’ journal Inostrannaia Literatura should be approached from an interdisciplinary perspective – taking into account the methodologies developed by

Periodical Studies, Literary and Cultural History Studies as well as Translation Studies.

Moreover, the journal should be viewed not just as a source of information for the purposes of the present research (i.e., source of paratextual data) but also as a cultural institution, as an agent in its own right.

2.4 Inostrannaia Literatura and its predecessors

Inostarnnaia Literatura (Foreign Literature), a monthly ‘thick’ journal devoted to translated literature, was founded in 1955 and was intended to be “an organ for Soviet readers alone,” compared to its predecessor, Internatsional’naia Literatura, designed for

“a world-wide readership” (Brown 1995: 176). During the Soviet period, it was “[t]he officially recognized vehicle for the publication of foreign literature” (Balina 2013: 343) and “the only official source of foreign literature” for Soviet readers (344). Discussing

‘thick’ and ‘thin’ journals, Philpotts (2010) points out that, while thin journals may cease to exist after a short period of time, thick journals “usually enjoy greater longevity, sometimes sustaining themselves across many decades” (55). This is exactly the case of

Inostrannaia Literatura. If we want to trace the history of the journal Inostrannaia literatura (Foreign Literature), we should start with its predecessors: Vestnik inostrannoi literatury (Herald of Foreign Literature; 1891-1917, 1928-1930), Literatura mirovoi

36 revoliutsii (Literature of the World Revolution; 1931-1932), and Internatsional’naia literatura (International Literature; 1933-1943).

2.4.1 Vestnik inostrannoi literatury (Herald of Foreign Literature; 1891-1917, 1928-

1930)

In 2002, Inostrannaia Literatura started publishing a series of articles devoted to the history of the journal and its “predecessors” or “ancestors” (“Vestnik” 2002). The first one in this series of literary journals is Vestnik inostrannoi literatury (Herald of Foreign

Literature) which was founded in Saint-Petersburg in 1891. The history of the journal can be divided into two periods: 1891-1917 (pre-revolutionary) and 1928-1930 (Soviet). In the introductory essay to its first issue, the editorial board addressed the readers and laid down its goals and values. According to the editors, the journal’s aim was to offer

Russian readers the finest Western literary works in translation. As for the choice of authors, the journal claimed that it would always publish works by critically acclaimed authors as well as works written by promising new writers. Moreover, the journal set itself the goal of becoming “a mediator between Western thought and Russian readers”

(“Vestnik” 2002). Even though the aims of the journal were very ambitious, in reality, the journal was too cautious at times in its choice of authors and works compared with its competitors (Panteon literatury (Literary Pantheon), Vestnik Evropy (The Herald of

Europe), Russkaia mysl’ (Russian Thought), to name but a few). However, it would be wrong to say that Vestnik inostrannoi literatury did not bring anything new to Russian readers. It published interesting works of such contemporary authors as Anatoly

Vasserman, Rudyard Kipling, Jerome K. Jerome, Guy de Maupassant, and August

Strindberg, as well as classic works of literature. At the end of its first year of existence, the editorial board tried to summarize its initial achievements and pointed out that the main goal for the journal was to be not just a compilation of various materials but “a serious journal, guided by a single overarching principle” (“Vestnik” 2002). In reality, the journal failed to have such an “overarching principle,” or, to be more precise, it had one, but it could not be called very progressive. The critical essays published in the journal were more informative in nature than critical, and it can be said that the journal did not actively participate in heated discussions about politics and culture of the time.

The next ten years of the journal’s existence saw some changes. Even though the journal was true to its promise to publish the best of Western literary works, it expanded its publications and, by the end of 1900, started publishing “Foreign Chronicles,” a section about major political and cultural events happening abroad, as well as outstanding scientific discoveries. Starting in 1904, the articles published in the “Foreign Chronicles” section were accompanied by illustrations when necessary. In 1906, the editorial board, in an introductory essay, placed emphasis on the importance of searching out new talent and new literary forms; in reality, however, the journal was not very tolerant toward new trends in Western poetry and prose. At the same time, in the period from 1901 to 1908,

Vestnik inostrannoi literatury published many new foreign works, some of which were published in Russia before they appeared in France or elsewhere. It is interesting to point out that, even though the number of foreign works published in the journal was constantly increasing, the translators remained largely in the shadows. Even in a journal

38 devoted to foreign literature such as Vestnik inostrannoi literatury, the translators very often gave only their initials or did not sign at all. Moreover, the quality of the translations published in the journal was far from perfect. At the same time, the journal published translations of poetry done by such prominent Russian poets as Konstantin

Balmont, Apollon Korinfskii, Mikhail Chekhov. In this case, the poet-translators were

‘visible’ as they had a high status in the target literary system.

The last period of the journal’s pre-Revolutionary existence (1904-1916) was marked by some changes; however, those changes were not significant enough to save the journal, which ceased to exist in 1916. According to the editorial board, the journal, over the years of its existence, managed to find its direction and was successful in familiarizing Russian readers with the best literary works by Western writers (“Vestnik”

2004). The journal was proud that it was bound neither by political constraints nor by contracts with foreign writers (“Vestnik” 2004) and, as a result, was able to publish works that were truly worth Russian readers’ attention and were representative of social and cultural life in the West. On the one hand, the journal published such famous writers as Joseph Conrad, Eça de Queiroz, Blasco Ibáñez, Edgar Allan Poe, Eliza Ozheshko,

Selma Lagerlöf, and Gerhart Hauptmann. On the other hand, the quality of the translations published in the journal was not high, and, more importantly, the journal lacked its own critical perspective, was too neutral in its discussion of political and socio- cultural events and, as a result, did not publish influential or controversial articles

(“Vestnik” 2004). The journal’s function was more of an informative type, which is why it largely managed to avoid censorship, which became a real problem for many

39 periodicals after the Revolution of 1905. However, World War I changed the position of the journal to some extent: it could no longer remain neutral. The journal started publishing articles about the war and tried to provide substantial coverage of military matters. However, it could not compete with newspapers or illustrated weeklies, which provided much more recent information; moreover, the press’s access to military information was limited due to censorship. According to Zhdanova (2017), “the military authorities strictly limited publications’ opportunities to receive reliable information, while the military censors restricted their ability to publish it” (1). The publications in the existing periodicals “concentrated on the ideological basis for Russia’s participation in the war and the image of ‘German atrocities’” (Zhdanova 2017: 2). Vestnik inostrannoi literatury was not an exception. The journal portrayed Germans as barbarians, and all articles about the war aimed at creating an image of Germany as an enemy. The war did not help the journal to develop and evolve; instead, due to inflation and the paper shortage, in 1916 the pre-revolutionary version of Vestnik inostrannoi literatury ceased to exist.

The Soviet period of the journal’s existence started in 1928, when the journal was published again under the same name, Vestnik inostrannoi literatury. In November 1927, the First International Conference of Proletarian and Revolutionary Writers took place and was attended by writers from fourteen countries. To assist the efforts of “the struggle for the hegemony of revolutionary literature in every country,” an International Bureau of

Revolutionary Literature (IBRL) was created (Murphy 38) and, as a result, the ‘new’ journal became the cultural organ of the International Organisation of Revolutionary

Writers (Mezhdunarodnaia organizatsiia revoliutsionnykh pisatelei). The goal of the journal was to acquaint readers with the finest examples of foreign literature, including non-Western authors, as well as with major literary and socio-cultural events happening abroad. This goal does not seem to differ much from the one proclaimed by the journal’s pre-revolutionary predecessor; however, what really changed was the journal’s position.

As mentioned above, in its pre-revolutionary period, Vestnik inostrannoi literatury lacked a clear overarching principle. The new Soviet version of the journal seemed to address that gap. To be a member of the International Organization of Revolutionary Writers

(IORW), a writer was expected to call for “a continued struggle against imperial wars, and to oppose fascism and the White terror” (Homberger 1986: 132). Therefore, the author’s political position was one of the main reasons for including an author’s work in the journal. As Safiullina (2009) points out, the journal mainly published foreign writers who “openly sympathised with the Soviet Union” (23). However, the journal also published authors such as John Galsworthy, Ambrose Bierce, and Erich Maria Remarque.

What was initially seen as the journal’s advantage (“the rejection of the class-based approach in the assessment of foreign literature, publication of some works by apolitical writers”) very soon came to be considered by the Party’s functionaries to be a drawback

(Safiullina 2009: 24).

2.4.2 Literatura mirovoi revolutsii (Literature of the World Revolution)

In 1928, the International Organization of Revolutionary Writers (IORW) was reorganized into the International Union of Revolutionary Writers (IURW) and by the

41 time of the Khar’kov congress in 1930 it consisted of 350 members. The new union

(IURW) founded a new journal in 1931 devoted to world proletarian literature, Literatura mirovoi revolutsii (Literature of the World Revolution), which existed from 1931 to

1932. It proclaimed to be ‘international’ and was positioned itself as the only journal in the USSR that showed the cultural life of Western, Eastern European, and Asian countries and was devoted to “proletarian and revolutionary literature and arts” (Mikheev

2005). The journal was published in four languages—Russian, German, English, French, and, for a time, Chinese. The chief editor was Bruno Jasieński, a Polish poet and leader of the Polish futurist movement. The International editorial board was represented by such authors as Martin Andersen Nexø, Henri Barbusse, John Roderigo Dos Passos, Upton

Sinclair, Maksim Gorky, Anatoly Lunacharsky, and Alexander Serafimovich.

Notwithstanding the journal’s ambitious goals, in reality it started publishing less well- known Western writers; moreover, the ideological views of the authors became more important than the literary qualities of the published works. In any case, this

“ultrarevolutionary” journal did not survive long, and in 1933 it was replaced by a journal named Internatsional’naia literatura (International Literature).

2.4.3 Internatsional’naia literatura (International Literature)

Internatsional’naia literatura (International Literature) was published from 1933 to 1943.

In 1933-34, the journal was a bi-monthly and, starting in 1935, was issued monthly. The editor-in-chief was Sergei Dinamov, a literary critic and scholar who specialized in

Shakespeare. As with other publications produced in the USSR from the mid-1930s

42 onward, “Internatsional’naia literatura was produced by a government body and its contents were subject to ideological and aesthetic control” (Lodder 2013: 1314). In the journal’s inaugural issue, it was proclaimed that Internatsional’naia literatura was “the only journal devoted to foreign literature and neighboring arts,” and its goal was to publish “the most outstanding works of foreign revolutionary writers,” “works of new proletarian and revolutionary foreign writers,” “works of those left-bourgeois writers who depict the reality of the capitalist world,” and those outstanding works that might be of interest to Soviet readers due to their content and form (Mikheev online). However, not all works allowed for publication in the journal were chosen based on strict ideological principles or their potential value for Soviet readers. The journal’s liberal publishing policy was part of the state propaganda apparatus. By giving the journal some leeway in its choice of authors and works, the regime sought to present “a civilized, tolerant, and cultivated image to the world and to attract Western intellectuals” (Lodder 2013: 1315).

Even though the journal was subject to a complex and multilayered system of censorship (Glavlit5, the Communist Party and the Comintern, or the Communist

International), it managed to publish such authors as Aldous Huxley, Ernest Hemingway,

Luigi Pirandello, Lion Feuchtwanger, Heinrich Mann, William Saroyan, André Maurois and even James Joyce, publishing portions of his modernist classic Ulysses (see Toll

1990). It is interesting to assess the foreign literary contribution to the journal against the backdrop of Socialist Realism, the aesthetic policy governing all Soviet literary

5 Glavlit (Glavnoye upravlenie po delam literatury i pechati, the Central Board for Literature and Press Affairs) was the main organ of censorship in Russia, which was established in 1922. Glavlit’s censorship functions were abolished at the Congress of the Film Makers’ Union in 1986 (Marsh 1995: 14). 43 production of the time. After the dissolution of all independent artistic organizations in

1932 and the elaboration of the theory of Socialist Realism in 1934 at the First All-Union

Congress of Soviet Writers, “poets and novelists could only be published if they followed the precepts of the new style” (Lodder 2013: 1315). However, the foreign works published in translation in Internatsional’naia literatura did not follow the principles of

Socialist Realism (see Safiullina 2012 and Safiullina and Platonov 2012). Therefore, the journal was a window into less controlled literary practices and provided information about social and cultural life in the West.

However, as Safiullina (2009) points out, in the late 1930s and the early 1940s, the journal entered a period of decline (30). According to Safiullina, the reasons for this decline include the following: the repression of editors and translators associated with the journal, increased censorship, and the growing cultural isolation of the Soviet Union (30).

As a result, the editorial board of the journal struggled to publish outstanding works of contemporary authors, and the majority of works published at that time are not familiar to a contemporary reader (Safiullina 2009: 31). In 1941, the USSR entered the war with

Germany, which dramatically changed the content and ideological position of the journal.

“The struggle against fascism” (was no longer propaganda, but a reality (Mikheev online). The international orientation of the journal was no longer as important as it had been before, as the national struggle against the enemy preoccupied the country. At that time, the journal published predominantly “contributions from Soviet writers dealing with the heroics of battle” (Lodder 2013: 1317). The journal ceased publication in 1943 due to World War II. In 1955 as the journal Inostrannaia literatura (Foreign Literature)

44 was founded upon the instruction of the second congress of the Soviet Writers’ Union.

The main goal of the new journal was to acquaint Soviet readers with the best examples of foreign literature in translation.

2.5 Soviet and Translated Literature in the Context of Socialist Realism

2.5.1 Translation and its Contexts

Translation does not happen in a vacuum; on the contrary, it is always a part of a wider historical and cultural context involving at least two languages and cultures, and “being situated within a particular network of power relations” (Sherry 2012: 1). With the emergence of “a sociological turn” in Translation and Interpreting Studies, a greater emphasis has been placed on the agency of translators and interpreters, as well as on “the social factors that permeate acts of translation and interpreting” (Angelelli 2014: 1).

Talking about the “sociology of translation” and briefly mentioning various “turns” witnessed by Translation and Interpreting Studies, Michaela Wolf (2014) points out that

“the cultural turn” has been one of the most significant changes that the discipline has undergone, as it “enabled the inclusion of historical perspectives and contextual information” in translation and interpreting research, “thus foregrounding the macro- context of translation” (9). Citing André Lefevere’s seminal book

Translation/History/Culture: A Sourcebook (1992), Wolf argues that, even though the vision of translation by the authors as “a doubly contextualized activity” was groundbreaking for the discipline at the time of its publication, today we should foreground “the dynamic surroundings which shape the translation procedure” (10). That

45 being said, it is important to bear in mind that “translations always reflect the historical and cultural conditions under which they have been produced” (10).

In the Soviet Union, translation was deeply embedded in Soviet history, culture and politics, with its “freezes” and “thaws.” Therefore, a brief overview of Soviet cultural practices is important for understanding how translated literature was approached and treated in the Soviet Union. It was after Stalin’s consolidation of power, during the early

1930s, that the centralization of cultural production occurred. The conditions under which literature operated changed: such functions as “agitational” and “propagandistic” were imposed by the government; private publishing houses were monopolized by the state, and the state assumed complete control over literature (Dobrenko 2011: 97). Moreover, the very composition of Russian literature changed as well: the term “Russian literature’ ceased to exist, and the term “Soviet literature’ was adopted instead (97). It was in April

1932 when Stalin declared “a single ‘artistic method’ for literature and culture, obligatory for all writers: Socialist Realism” (99). A legitimate question arises: How is the method of Socialist Realism, as applied to Soviet literature, related to the analysis of translated literature?

Safiullina (2009) and Sherry (2012) in their dissertations seem to agree that the canons of Soviet literature were heavily applied to the evaluation of foreign writers in the

Soviet Union. In her dissertation Censorship in Translation in the Soviet Union in the

Stalin and Khrushchev Eras, Sherry (2012) claims that the paratexts published in

Inostrannaia Literatura were used to manage readers’ interpretation of those works that might be considered “problematic and ambiguous” (240). Even though the focus of

Sherry’s study is not paratexts, but censorial practices and the agents involved in the censorship of foreign works published in Inostrannaia Literatura, she analyzes a sample of five paratextual elements (forewords and afterwords) written by translators and literary critics and comes to the conclusion that the structure and vocabulary of those paratexts resemble the editorial reviews available in the archives explored by Sherry. She concludes that those paratexts “make oblique references to the tropes of socialist realism, and they present the work in relation to Soviet literary practice” (250). Sherry studied the paratexts of the following translated works: Kingsley Amis’s Lucky Jim (published in IL in 1958), J. D. Salinger’s Catcher in the Rye (published in Inostrannaia Literatura (IL) in

1960), Compton Mackenzie’s Rockets Galore (published in IL in 1958), John Steinbeck’s

The Winter of Our Discontent (published in IL in 1962), and Mitchell Wilson’s Meeting at a Far Meridian (published in IL in 1961).

As for the structure of those paratexts, Sherry shows that they usually begin with a focus on the Soviet context and use ideologemes reflecting Soviet ideological norms; then they typically highlight negative traits of the works, not from an artistic point of view, however, but from a political one. So, in general, those paratexts to the translated works are positive, but at the same time they ensure that “the difference between these texts and Soviet literature is stressed” (Sherry 2012: 251). Moreover, Sherry stresses the paratexts’ performative dimension as “a means to allow texts through, by framing them within the terms of Soviet authoritative discourse” (251). She goes on to note that the examples mentioned in her study are few but informative, and she calls for further study

47 of paratextual elements and their potential to control the readers’ understanding and interpretation of translated texts.

Safiullina’s study (2009), The Translation of Western Literature and the Politics of Culture under Stalin, looks at the complex position of translated literature in the Soviet

Union and shows that the cultural atmosphere under Stalin was not “monolithic and largely isolationist” (3) but rather heterogeneous, allowing for the inclusion of foreign elements into the system. An important part of Socialist Realism was the canonization of

Soviet as well as foreign writers. In Safiullina’s understanding, the term canonization refers to “the process of transforming a writer into an exemplar for others to emulate”

(52). It is interesting to note that, even though the process of canonization of Soviet writers was somewhat similar to that of foreign authors, the latter process was different in that it was predominately motivated by political considerations (i.e., the author’s support of the Soviet Union and his/her “demonstration of ‘faith’ in the ideals of socialism”) (78).

Therefore, over a relatively short (1932–1936) period of time, such pro-socialist foreign authors as Henri Barbusse, André Gide, and Romain Rolland were canonized. It is very interesting to see how the Soviet authorities used honoraria in regard to those foreign authors who supported the Soviet Union (Safiullina 2009: 70). Analyzing the data from

RGALI (Russian State Archive of Literature and Art), Safiullina finds that the journal

Internatsional’naia Literatura created a special system of honoraria based on the author’s

“sympathy towards the Soviet Union, membership in the Communist Party” and the author’s “role in attracting other authors to the Soviet cause” (70). Even though this process of canonization was very short-lived, according to Safiullina, I argue that it may

48 be still valid, at least to some extent, for the analysis of the paratexts to the translated texts published in Inostrannaia Literatura after 1955.

As multiple scholars have pointed out (e.g., Friedberg 1977; Safiullina 2009;

Sherry 2012; and Lygo 2016), even after Stalin’s death foreign authors continued to be viewed and assessed through the prism of Soviet literary practices. One of the expectations that arose after Stalin’s death was the abolition of censorship. However, such hopes very soon faded, and Soviet literature saw “even more censorship, not less”

(Friedberg 1977, 25, emphasis in original). For example, the choice of texts published in

Inostrannaia Literatura from the mid-1950s to the mid-1960s was still guided by political and ideological considerations – the majority of the authors chosen for translation were either members of communist parties or had “left-leaning views” and wrote on social themes (Sherry 2012: 105). Sherry’s analysis of editorial reviews shows that inclusion of foreign texts was very often dictated by the norms of Soviet discourse – texts were suitable for publication as long as they adhered to Soviet ideological norms

(116). Sherry mentions such qualities as “the treatment of class issues” and “the portrayal of workers” as making a work desirable for inclusion (117). However, it is important to bear in mind that Soviet authoritative discourse, either in the form of editorial reviews or paratextual materials, had a performative aspect as well. Adhering to Soviet norms and censorship practices, in fact, made possible the introduction of new texts and discourses into Soviet culture (Sherry 2012: 120-21).

As Socialist Realism was the dominant aesthetic of the years analyzed in both studies (1930s–1960s), it may be said that foreign works of that time were assessed

49 against the backdrop of Socialist Realism. Therefore, a short overview of the practices and principles of Socialist Realism is necessary for the analysis of the paratexts chosen in the current study. As Gillespie (1998) puts it, between 1955 and 1991 Russian literature experienced “thaws, freezes, and wakes” (59). Even though Socialist Realism, which had dominated almost all areas of Soviet culture in the 1930s and 1940s, saw a decline during the years following Stalin’s death and was no longer the “basic method” by as early as

1962, it remained “a valid cultural concept” as late as 1984 (59).

2.5.2 Socialist Realism: History and Governing Principles

The very existence of Socialist Realism was made possible by the dissolution of independent writers’ organizations, as laid out in the Central Committee directive “On the Restructuring of Literary-Artistic Organizations” in 1932 (Lahusen 2005: 666), and by the formation of the single Union of Soviet Writers. Following this, the “literary polycentrism” of the post-Revolutionary years ceased to exist, and, from then on, writers had to share identical political views and “adhere to a single aesthetic principle: Socialist

Realism” (Dobrenko 2011: 99). The term “socialist realism” was first introduced in 1932, in a speech made by Gronskii, the president of the Writers’ Union’s Organizational

Committee (Clark 1998: 55). However, for some time the principles of Socialist Realism were not clearly defined. It was in 1934, when Gor’kii and Zhdanov gave their speeches at the First Congress of the Writers’ Union, that Socialist Realism became “the official method of Soviet literature and criticism” (Lahusen 2005: 665) and acquired “a canonical formulation” (Clark 1998; 55).

According to Dobrenko (2011), Socialist Realism was based on the following guiding principles:

1) ‘Ideological commitment’: art should always reflect some kind of political

ideas, and Soviet literature, in particular, should be “the ‘most ideologically

committed in the world’” (101). Thus, Soviet art was contrasted to bourgeois

art, where the latter was ‘unideological’ and lacked commitment (emphasis in

original).

2) ‘Party-mindedness’ (partiinost’): this principle was considered the basis of

any art, and ‘Communist party-mindedness’ was the foundation of Soviet art.

As Dobrenko explains, art, according to Socialist Realism, must “openly

follow party leadership, be directed by the party, and serve the party’s

political goals” (101).

3) ‘Popular spirit’ (narodnost’): this concept is not easy to define as it is multi-

valent, signifying the following: “organicity and wholeness,” “an objective or

atemporal ideal,” “simplicity and comprehensibility,” the battle against the

decadent, a popular folkloric style, dissociation from any elements that are

‘against’ the people (antinarodnye) or ‘foreign’ to someone’s own culture

(101).

4) ‘Historicism’: Socialist Realism required literature to “reflect ‘life in its

revolutionary development’” (101). As Dobrenko explains it, “the past,

present, and future all had to be depicted in accordance with the ‘laws of

historical development’ revealed by Marxism” (101).

5) ‘Typicality’: the fact that Socialist Realism was against any form of non-

realism meant that ‘life must be depicted in the forms of life itself.’ However,

it was not realism per se, but rather “a particular kind of verisimilitude” (101),

because everything that the Party considered ‘atypical’ did not serve the

Party’s principle of ‘revolutionary development and so was simply not

published.

As one can see, most of the principles are ideological in nature, especially ‘partiinost’, which was considered one of the cornerstones of Socialist Realism doctrine. According to

Clark (1998), this ideological prescription meant “the radical reconception of the role of the writer” (56). Before Socialist Realism, the writer was “an original creator of texts,” whereas after Socialist Realism was proclaimed the single method of Soviet literature, the writer became an “engineer of human souls” (to use Zhdanov’s term). Literature became an instrument in the Party’s hands, one that was used to generate a certain way of thinking in the masses.

The socialist realist writer was seen as “a trained professional working for the government,” who was obliged to follow specific guidelines. The writer had to “provide legitimizing myths for the state” (Clark 1998: 56), and heroism was an important part of those myths, as the hero is “the builder of a new life,” one who overcomes obstacles and defeats enemies (Dobrenko 2011: 103). This brings us to another principle (mentioned by

Dobrenko as a part of the particularities of Soviet Realism, which he refers to as “heroic spirit”), the “positive hero,” which was ideological in nature as well. A typical hero of

52 early Socialist Realism was “idealized, selfless, and capable of overcoming obstacles”

(Dobrenko 2011: 107).

In order to guide the writer, every Writers’ Congress presented exemplary works that became canonical works, works that determined the shape of all subsequent socialist realist works. This process is similar to what Safiullina (2009) mentions in her study in relation to translated literature – the foreign works that were written in accordance with the socialist realist canon were canonized, and those works were translated, published and highly acclaimed. Soviet writers did not just look at canonical works as an example, they organized their plots according to a single “masterplot,” which was “a synthesis of the plots of several model novels” (Clark 1998: 56). To the extent that “original” Soviet writing and criticism under Socialist Realism was subject to clichés, it can be assumed that translated literature and its evaluation in Soviet Russia would be similar in that respect.

If Socialist Realism “was a propaganda tool of the Soviet state and its Communist

Party” (Lahusen 2005: 665, emphasis in original), how could it allow through so many foreign works that did not correspond to the principles of Socialist Realism? As multiple studies have shown, Soviet culture was not “monolithic,” to use Clark’s term (2011).

Along the same lines, Lahusen (2005) argues that the cultural system of Socialist Realism was “anything but static” (673), and that readers were able to read between the lines

(667). The Soviet writer could use the proper language and syntax but play with the ideas coded in the very clichés of Socialist Realism because of “the variety of potential meanings for each of the clichés” (Clark 1998: 59). As long as the code was not violated,

53 as least on the surface, a work could be published. Similarly, if the editor of Inostrannaia

Literatura wanted to publish a translation of a progressive work that did not adhere to the canon, he could frame it with a foreword or an afterword that was written in the spirit of

Socialist Realism. Therefore, despite its rigidity, Socialist Realism provided some room for flexibility in literary expression even in periods of strict control and censorship.

CHAPTER 3

Methodology

3.1 Introduction

To answer the research questions outlined above, the present study required a combination of qualitative and quantitative analysis. Quantitative research “involves measuring variables and testing relationships between variables in order to reveal patterns, correlations, or causal relationships” (Leavy 2017: 9). To put it in simpler words, quantitative research produces findings arrived at by some means of quantification

(Hansen 2010: 196). Qualitative research is generally characterized by “inductive approaches to knowledge building aimed at generating meaning” (Leavy 2017: 9).

However, because qualitative data cannot always be categorized and counted, and because quantitative data and results have to be interpreted and explained, “both qualitative and quantitative aspects will always be present in any translation research investigation” (Hansen 2010: 196).

3.2 Positioning the Researcher

Before the researcher embarks on the journey that is a dissertation, he or she should have some area of interest in mind, something that the researcher is curious and passionate about. As Marshall and Rossman (2006) put it, “[t]he researcher begins with interesting, curious, and anomalous phenomena that he observes, discovers, or stumbles across,” and

55 then, like Sherlock Holmes, explains, describes, explores, and/or critiques the phenomenon chosen for the study (24). However, research does not happen in a vacuum, and quite often research interests may be shaped by a multitude of factors, both personal and professional. As a researcher who has engaged in qualitative research in general and in interpretive thematic analysis in particular, I understand that my position is an important element of the research process. In qualitative research, the main instrument of data collection and interpretation is the researcher him or herself. Therefore, the researcher’s “beliefs, political stance, cultural background (gender, race, class, socioeconomic status, educational background) are important variables that may affect the research process” (Bourke 2014:2). Just as the translated works and their paratexts are influenced by cultural, political, and social contexts, so too is the researcher.

My interest in the journal Inostrannaia Literatura started when I was a high- school student. At that time, foreign books in translation were hard to find and too expensive for many families to afford. This is exactly why the journal was a valuable source of foreign literature in translation for many people in the Soviet Union. I did not have a subscription to the journal but could easily borrow it from a library nearby. I remember waiting for a new issue to be published and reading it with curiosity and interest. For me, the journal was not just any other journal, it was a chance to “meet” foreign authors and an opportunity to “see” different countries and continents without leaving my home. I continued reading the journal when I was a university student in

Russia, even though at that time (after Perestroika) the journal was not the major source of foreign literature in translation. My next encounter with Inostrannaia Literatura took

56 place in the United States, when I was working on a paper for one of my PhD courses

(Histories of Translation). I wanted to study something that occupied an important place in the field of translated literature in Russia and something I could trace over time. And suddenly it occurred to me that the journal Inostrannaia Literatura would be a perfect choice for such a project. For the paper, I analyzed what languages and countries of the source texts were chosen for translation in the journal after perestroika. Later, when I started thinking about a topic for my dissertation, I decided to continue the research on the journal that I had started in my class, but instead of looking at just what was translated in Inostrannaia Literatura, I decided to look at how those translations were framed for the Soviet readers.

Reflecting on my research process, I can say that various aspects of my positionality may have affected the present research in several ways. First, I was looking at the paratexts from the position of a researcher who knows the journal, who had read it before, and who is Russian. As a Russian student studying in the United States, I anticipated that I would see references to the tense relationship between the Soviet Union and the United, especially taking into consideration that the period under study overlaps with the Cold War period. If I was a student in a translation studies program from a different country, I might have looked at the journal and the paratexts from a different perspective. Second, I see the research questions through the lens of my discipline (i.e.,

Translation Studies). Therefore, in my research I expected to see more paratexts written by translators about translation. Much to my surprise, I did not see many translator’s paratexts, especially in the first historical period. I found out that the majority of the

57 paratexts were written by an editor or a literary critic. However, if I were investigating the paratexts from the perspective of digital media studies, I would have probably looked at such paratexts as examples of authorship and co-authorship. Because authors have a more direct influence in digital paratexts than in printed paratexts, I may have paid more attention to the paratexts produced by the authors than to those written by translators.

Having said that, it does not mean that in my analysis of the paratexts, I looked only at the portrayal of the United States from a Soviet perspective or at the paratexts written by translators. My research was primarily guided by my research questions, the theoretical framework and the methodological approaches chosen for the study. Even though it is almost impossible to completely avoid subjectivity in data collection and analysis, the researcher can minimize its influence and stay open to new insights obtained from the data.

I agree with Peshkin (1988) that “subjectivity operates during the entire research process” (17). It starts with the selection of a research topic, then data selection and continues during the process of data interpretation and analysis. However, subjectivity in qualitative research is not necessarily a bad thing. Subjectivity can be seen as a strength of a qualitative study as “it is the basis of researchers’ making a distinctive contribution, one that results from the unique configuration of their personal qualities joined to the data they have collected” (Peshkin 1988: 18). As important as it is for the researcher to stay as objective as possible in his or her research, it is equally important that the researcher accept his or her subjectivity and make it clear to the readers.

3.3 Managing Subjectivity in Qualitative Research

Thematic analysis is a method for capturing patterns (“themes”) that emerge from the data and then become the categories for analysis (see section “Thematic Analysis”). As

Roberts et al. note, “The process involves the identification of themes with relevance specific to the research focus, the research question, the research context and the theoretical framework” (Roberts et al. 2019). After themes have been identified, the data is both described and interpreted for meaning. As with any qualitative research method, thematic analysis has its strengths and weaknesses. Flexibility of thematic analysis, being one of its major strengths, is also considered its weakness as it raises questions of subjectivity and trustworthiness. Such constructs as reliability and validity, central for assessing rigor in quantitative research, pose problems for qualitative researchers due to its subjective nature (Donmoyer 2008: 714). However, reliability and validity are two important factors that “any qualitative research should be concerned about while designing a study, analyzing results, and judging its quality” (Cypress 2017: 257).

To enhance reliability and validity of the present study, the following techniques were used:

1) I performed multiple readings of the paratexts to verify that all relevant

themes were found and included in the analysis. Such thorough investigation

of the data is important to ensure that the coding process is inclusive and

comprehensive and that all relevant extracts for each theme have been

collected. By approaching the data in such a way, the researcher shows that

“themes have not been generated from a few vivid examples” (Braun and

Clarke 2006: 96) but are the result of a comprehensive coding process.

2) I did not invent the codes (themes) but used ones proposed by other

researchers who had undertaken similar studies (e.g., Hosseinzadeh 2015, Xia

and Sun 2015, Haroon 2017, and Gharehgozlou 2018).

3) I supported my application of themes and interpretations with examples.

Using the quotes from the paratexts increases the validity of findings by

“directly connecting the researcher’s interpretations” with what the paratexts’

authors actually say (Guest et al. 2012: 100). The quotes improve the

transparency of the data so that other researchers have enough information to

judge the findings. One of the criteria of a good thematic analysis, according

to Braun and Clarke (2006), is that the researcher is positioned as “active in

the research process; themes do not just ‘emerge’” (96, italics in the original).

By explaining his or her positionality, the researcher acknowledges his/her

influence on the research process and enhances the validity of his/her work.

4) I reflected on my role in the data interpretation (see “Positioning the

Researcher”). I regularly questioned my analytical judgements for traces of

bias—was I tagging the data to produce the results I wanted?

One specific issue in terms of reliability is the calculation of inter-rater and intercoder reliabilities. Intercoder agreement is “the most commonly discussed element of reliability in qualitative research” (Guest et al. 2012: 89). Generating themes is not an easy task. Once generated, their credibility can be enhanced through an inter-reliability

60 test (Ahmad 2017). However, not all qualitative research must undergo inter-rater and inter-coder reliability checks. In the context of a reflexive thematic analysis, such checks may present several challenges. First, paratexts are not interviews; they represent rather structured pieces of opinion on the translated works published in the journal. Therefore, inter-coder reliability in the context of the present study is an important issue but not to the point of significantly decreasing the validity of the research. Moreover, the codes I was using were largely descriptive rather than evaluative. For example, I was interested in whether translation was discussed at all by the author of the paratext as opposed to whether s/he thought the translation was good or bad. Second, the purpose of the study was not to produce a coding book that can be used by other researchers in similar studies

(however, that might be a suggestion for future research). Finally, it may not be easy to find independent researchers who are both knowledgeable and willing to dedicate themselves to coding of the lengthy paratexts.

To improve the validity and reliability of the present research, the following steps may be undertaken in the future:

1) Use of multiple data sources. Data from archival materials of the journal can help

to shed some light on how the decisions of inclusion/exclusion of particular

foreign works were made, what guided those decisions, and what themes were

proposed for inclusion in the paratexts accompanying the works chosen for

publication. Data from translators’ interviews may also be included as a source of

thematic content.

2) Use of multiple coders and intercoder agreement checks. Use of multiple coders

enhances coder reliability “by providing checks on individual biases and variance

in interpretation of code definitions” (Guest et al. 2012: 100).

3) External and/or peer review of coding.

4) Developing a precise codebook. Such a code book would facilitate data

comparison if used in a different study, improve intercoder reliability, and provide

easy access to code meaning for internal reviews (Guest et al. 2012: 100).

3.4 Periodization

The periodization used in the study is based on the division of the history of Soviet censorship into the six distinct periods proposed by Herman Ermolaev (1997) in his book

Censorship in Soviet Literature, 1917–1991. Ermolaev starts his periodization with the establishment of censorship and divides the history of censorship in the Soviet Union into six periods: 1917–1931, 1932–1945, 1946–1953, 1953–1964, 1965–1984, 1985–1991, marked by significant shifts in the nature of censorship by the Soviet state. As my study of the framing of the translations in Inostrannaia Literatura covers the period between

1955 and 1991, the Soviet period in the journal’s history, my periodization includes the following: 1955–1964, 1965–1984, and 1985–1991. Let me briefly explain why such a periodization was used in a study that is not directly related to censorship.

In “Literary Policies and Institutions,” Maria Zalambani (2011) points out that literature always played “a central role in Russian culture” (251) and so literature, being

“the basis of the whole Soviet cultural system, exploited its secular literature-centric

62 experience and conveyed the values and directives of the Soviet state until the latter’s collapse in 1991” (251). Soviet literature was “a complex sociopolitical institution completely governed by the field of power (the Party, the state)” (251). Within the Soviet system of cultural institutions, literary journals played an important role, particularly the

‘thick journals,’ which represented a space where theoretical issues were debated and where a new literature and literary criticism arose (252-253). However, the literary centrism of the system, that is, the ideological importance of literary works, led to “a tightening of censorship” (252). The main censorial institution during the Soviet era was the Chief Administration of Literary and Publishing Affairs (Glavlit), whose mission was to ensure that the Party’s principles were implemented. According to Zalambani, Soviet censorship had two major functions: exclusion (self-censorship and ‘preliminary censorship’) and limitation of the means of expression, which meant “pre-establishing the possibilities of invention that were available” (252). The result was the long-lasting domination of Socialist Realism (see Chapter 2 for a more detailed discussion of Socialist

Realism and its influence on translated literature in the Soviet Union). Therefore, it may be concluded that, as literary journals and foreign works translated in those journals were part of the Soviet cultural system, they, just like “original” Soviet literary works, were subject to censorship. Thus, the shifts in censorial practices across the three historical periods represent an important factor affecting the journal’s policies as a whole, and the process of framing the translations published in the journal in particular. Below, I provide a brief description of each period.

The period of 1955–1964. This period includes the years of Nikita Khrushchev’s leadership, which allowed for “the first relaxation of censorship since its emergence”

(Ermolaev xiv). This period is also known as the Khrushchev Thaw. Even though the period is described as a ‘thaw’ and it is widely recognized that it brought about changes to Soviet cultural life, “in reality, only superficial changes were made in these years, never affecting the essence of Stalinist cultural policies” (Zalambani 2011: 261). The

Thaw was a period of adjustment characterized by “continuous oscillations, like a pendulum swinging from one extreme to the other” (262). On the one hand, Khrushchev relaxed censorship to gain the support of intelligentsia for his anti-Stalinist policies, while on the other hand, he often attacked writers and artists whom he did not completely trust

(262). In terms of censorship, it is interesting to note that more responsibility was shifted from “official censorship to editorial boards of publishers” (144) and the senior editors had easier access to the Party hierarchy and could make “a stronger challenge to censorship” than before (145). This is confirmed by Samantha Sherry’s study of censorship in the journal Inostrannaia Literatura called Discourses of Regulation and

Resistance: Censoring Translation in the Stalin and Khrushchev Soviet Era (2015).

The 1950s and 1960s saw “an unprecedented opening of the Soviet Union to the outside world, especially to the West” (Kozlov and Gilburd 2013: 46). During the Thaw, the Soviet Union “actively sought cultural connections with the West” (Mikkonen 2016:

170); therefore, it was not surprising that the Soviet Union became a frequent participant in international exhibitions, film festivals, and book fairs (Kozlov and Gilburd 2013: 46).

The international contacts between the Soviet Union and the West during the Thaw

64 increased: more foreign visitors travelled to the USSR and more Soviet travelers went abroad (Sherry 2012: 20). The Thaw was a period in the history of translated literature in the Soviet Union that Maurice Friedberg (1977) named “a decade of euphoria.” The impressive expansion in the publication of translations of Western writing in the Soviet

Union from 1954-1964 affected “the variety of titles and authors represented” (Friedberg

329). In general, the Thaw is characterized by a more open and positive attitude toward the West. As for the treatment of the West in literary works, it may be said that it was more positive than during the Stalin’s period.

The period of 1965–1984. This period deals with censorship under Brezhnev,

Andropov, and Chernenko and corresponds to what is called the era of Stagnation. The official cultural policy during this historical period was based on the thesis that “thanks to the inspirational leadership of the Party, the adverse effects of the cult of Stalin did not deter the Soviet people from attaining their socialist goals” (Ermolaev 181). One of the effects of this thesis was the glorification of the Party’s accomplishments (181). The process of censorship during this period displays a growing role of “the Party Central

Committee and the editorial board of periodicals and publishing houses” (Ermolaev 182).

The period is characterized by a “hardening of the anti-Western stance and the tightening of the controls over literature and other arts” (Ermolaev 182). As Lygo (2016) puts it, during the Thaw the USSR “had opened up to the West, but in the time of Brezhnev, it is widely considered to have closed the door again” (48). The capitalist West was viewed as hostile to the Soviet Union and any peaceful ideological coexistence was rejected.

Despite its increased severity, however, censorship during the era of Stagnation

“lacked strict consistency” (Ermolaev 184). Western writers had “more leeway in their works” than Soviet writers who were suffering from “harsh censorship and ideological control” (Lygo 2016: 53). As Lygo’s study shows, translated literature during the

Brezhnev era was not affected by stagnation. Lygo points out that the translations published in the journal Novyi mir during the Brezhnev period were “not subject to stagnation in any straightforward way” (57). Such a paradox may be explained by the fact that, even during the period of stagnation, the editors were trying to find a balance between political and pragmatic constraints in their decisions to publish a variety of literature in translation.

The period of 1985–1991. These are the years of the disintegration of censorship during Gorbachev’s perestroika. The year 1991 was a major turning point in Russian history and culture (Gillespie 1998: 63). The writer was no longer “the moral guide or teacher of his people” and, just like western writers, now had to compete with various forms of popular entertainment for the attention of readers (Gillespie 1998: 63). At the beginning of perestroika the erosion of censorship was slow, and, a year after the inauguration of glasnost, “people were still sent to prison for disseminating works judged to contain deliberate slander of the Soviet social and state system” (Ermolaev 1997: 225).

Nevertheless, it was during perestroika that “the first appreciable relaxation of censorship in literature” occurred (259). The dominant feature of the perestroika period was an explosion in the publication of writings of both Soviet and émigré writers whose works had been rejected in the previous decades. As for the attitude toward the West, glasnost

66 allowed both “condemnation and admiration” of Western values (251). On the one hand, the West was depicted as promoting immorality and as ruled by the power of money; on the other hand, a contrast was often drawn between “the freedom-loving, revolutionary

West and the slavish, repressive Russia” (251).

As one can see from a short description of the three historical periods, Soviet censorship, even during its stricter times, was not monolithic, which allowed the editors of the journal, with the help of paratextual framing, among other tools, to include translations of foreign works that otherwise might have been excluded from publication in Inostrannaia Literatura.

3.5 Quantitative Data Analysis

The data for descriptive statistical analysis consists of 777 paratexts to the translations published in the journal between 1955 and 1991. The corpus of the first historical period

(1955–1964) is represented by 126 paratexts, of the second period — by 468 paratexts, and of the third period — by 183 paratexts. The study will present the data on the languages, countries, and the authors published in translation in Inostrannaia Literatura during that period of time. This quantitative data will provide an insight into the “high- level patterns of selectivity,” namely “inclusion or exclusion of specific texts, authors, languages or cultures” (Baker 2006: 114) and will help to answer the first research question.

To collect the data, I visited the Nikitin Regional Universal Scientific Library in

Voronezh, Russia, where I took pictures of the tables of contents as well as all paratexts

67 accompanying the translations published in Inostrannaia Literatura between 1955 and

1991. As the phone creates a name for each picture in a number format, after uploading the pictures to the computer, I had to name each file to specify the year and the journal issue for future analysis. An example of such a file name is: 1955_1_Paratext_1, where

‘1955’ is the year of publication, ‘1’ is the issue number, and ‘Paratext_1’ is the first paratext appearing in that issue. Some issues had no paratexts, some only one paratext, while others had two or more paratexts. After naming the files, I printed each paratext for future analysis: quantitative (descriptive statistical analysis) and qualitative (thematic).

As 777 paratexts represent a large amount of data, I had to use some sort of instrument to input and analyze the data. The main instrument used in the quantitative analysis of the paratextual data was Microsoft Excel. More information on the process of quantitative data analysis and examples is included in the Chapter “Quantitative Analysis of the Paratextual Data.” Once entered into the Excel spreadsheet, the data can be easily transformed into an Excel table. Moreover, such quantitative data can be easily communicated as graphs and charts to make comparisons.

3.6 Qualitative Data Analysis

The qualitative data for the study consists of paratextual frames accompanying the translations published in Inostrannaia Literatura between 1955 and 1991.

The qualitative analysis combines three theoretical frameworks:

1) Genette’s (1997) notion of ‘paratext’, considered here as a site of framing

2) Baker’s (2006) narrative approach to translation, in particular, framing

narratives in translation.

3) Braun and Clarke’s (2006) thematic analysis.

More information on the process of qualitative data analysis and examples is included in the Chapter “Thematic Analysis of the Paratextual Data.”

3.6.1 Paratexts as a site of framing translations

Genette’s (1997) classification of paratexts is very detailed; however, the purpose of the present study is not to provide a detailed typology of paratexts but rather to show how the paratexts were used as a framing technique to present the translations published in

Inostrannaia Literatura. Therefore, I need to specify and define the types of paratexts analyzed in this study.

The paratextual elements presented in this dissertation fall into the group of

‘peritexts,’ as they are situated around the text within the same volume (Genette 1997,

4), rather than located outside the book. The type of peritexts I analyze can be further classified as prefaces, defined by Genette as “every type of introductory (preludial or postludial) text, authorial or allographic, consisting of a discourse produced on the subject of the text that follows or precedes it” (161). Genette distinguishes between authorial (written by the author him/herself) and allographic (written by a third person) prefaces. However, when it comes to paratexts accompanying translations, Genette

(1997) mentions that it represents a special case, because if a translator comments on

69 his/her translation, he/she does not act as a third party anymore (allographic preface), but as an author (authorial preface). Along the same lines, Tahir-Gürçağlar (2002) argues that, depending on how we view a translator’s status, these prefaces can be called

‘authorial,’ if we think of the translator as the author, or ‘allographic,’ if we think of the translator as “an intermediary loyal to the original author and believe that the source text has been rendered into the target language free of any manipulation” (52).

However, for the purposes of this study, the translator’s paratexts are examined as a separate category rather than part of ‘authorial’ or allographic’ paratexts for the following reasons:

1) Calling a preface written by a translator ‘authorial’ or ‘allographic’ creates

confusion for two reasons: first, in the corpus of 777 paratexts, there are

already paratexts written by authors, editors and critics; second, I consider

a translator to be a special kind of mediator, not exactly an author, but at

the same time not a publisher or an editor, who are more detached from

the text than a translator

2) Moreover, Genette points out that “the functions of the allographic preface

overlap with, but at the same time add some specificity to, the functions of

the original authorial preface (to promote and guide a reading of the

work)” (1997, 264-265). Along the same lines, it can be said that the

functions of the translator’s paratexts overlap with, but at the same time

add some specificity to, the functions of the authorial and allographic

paratexts.

Therefore, the paratexts chosen to be analyzed for this study will be divided into three groups:

1) Authorial paratexts

2) Allographic paratexts

3) Translator’s paratexts

In addition, the three types of paratexts in the study are further divided into three groups: forewords, afterwords, and notes. Even though Genette mentions more paratextual devices that help to mediate a book for the reader (both outside and inside the book), such as titles and subtitles, pseudonyms, forewords, dedications, epigraphs, prefaces, intertitles, notes, epilogues, and afterwords (xviii), this study views all the paratexts preceding the translations in the corpus as forewords and those following the paratexts in the corpus as afterwords. The reasons for such a simplified classification are twofold: a) the purpose of the study is not to document the various types of paratext, but rather to show the trends in paratextual framing of translations published in the journal over time; and b) such a division of the paratexts in the corpus into just two major types makes the quantitative analysis more informative.

3.6.2 Framing strategies

According to Enthman (1993), framing involves “selection and salience” (52, emphasis in original). Enthman further specifies that to frame is “to select some aspects of a perceived reality and make them more salient in a communicating text, in such a way as

71 to promote a particular problem definition, causal interpretation, moral evaluation, and/or treatment recommendation for the item described” (52, emphasis in original). The paratextual frames surrounding the translations published in Inostrannaia Literatura are used to do exactly this: they present information about the translated text in such a way that some information gets highlighted for the readers (elevated as “salient” in Enthman’s terms), whereas other elements are downplayed by editors and translators in order to guide the readers’ interpretation of the translated works.

Baker (2006) points out that translators and interpreters always face “a basic ethical choice”: “to reproduce existing ideologies” encoded in the text they translate or

“to dissociate themselves from those ideologies, if necessary by refusing to translate the text or interpret it in a particular context at all” (105). However, translators and interpreters can also resort to various strategies “to strengthen or undermine particular aspects of the narratives they mediate” (105, emphasis mine). Baker suggests the following four strategies (described in greater detail above in the Chapter “Paratexts and

Paratextual Framing”), which I will apply to my analysis of paratextual frames (the three types of paratexts mentioned above):

1) Temporal and special framing

2) Selective appropriation

3) Framing by labelling

4) Repositioning of participants

3.6.3 Thematic Analysis

Thematic analysis is a widely used qualitative data analysis method in many disciplines and fields. Within Translation Studies, there have been some studies that used thematic analysis as a qualitative research method in the study of paratexts (i.e., Hosseinzadeh

2015, Xia and Sun 2015, Gharehgozlou 2018). We believe that thematic analysis has great potential in Translation Studies research and that more studies should be done using this method. As Kathryn Batchelor (2018) points out, identifying thematic patterns for

“the key paratextual elements specific to translation and matching them to the functions

[…] carries a number of benefits for translation research: it deepens our appreciation of what paratexts do; it allows us to note changes in patterns of theme and function over time, or across cultures” (161).

In this study, we applied the thematic analysis method elaborated by Braun and

Clarke (2006). According to Braun and Clarke, thematic analysis is “a method for identifying, analyzing and reporting patterns (themes) within data” (79). But what counts as a theme? It is an important question as thematic analysis is a type of qualitative analysis, which means that there is “no hard-and-fast answer to the question of what proportion of your data set needs to display evidence of the theme for it to be considered a theme” (82). Nevertheless, Braun and Clarke provide some guidance on how to identify a theme by pointing out that the ‘keyness’ of a theme does not necessarily depend on quantifiable measures. They argue that for a theme to be considered a theme it should capture “something important about the data in relation to the research question, and represents some level of patterned response or meaning within the data set” (82, italics in

73 original). It is a very important clarification, because, as my analysis shows, some subthemes appear only in relatively small data sets; however, they capture important information in relation to the research question and, therefore, are considered as subthemes.

Method of thematic analysis

Thematic analysis can be conducted in two ways: inductive or deductive. In an inductive approach, coding and theme development are directed by the content of the data (a data- driven, ‘bottom-up’ approach). In this approach, the themes identified are strongly linked to the data themselves and are not driven by the researcher’s theoretical interest in the area or topic (Braun and Clarke 83). Therefore, inductive analysis is “a process of coding the data without trying to fit it into a preexisting coding frame, or the researcher’s analytic preconceptions” (83, italics in original). In contrast, “a ‘theoretical’ thematic analysis would tend to be driven by the researcher’s theoretical or analytic interest in the area and is, therefore, more explicitly analyst-driven” (84). In this type of analysis, the researcher maps the data onto some predetermined theoretical framework. This is the form of the analysis used in the study.

Applied to the current research, it means that the researcher will be interested in what the paratexts say about the source text, the target text and the socio-political context across the three historical periods and so will focus on those particular themes in his/her coding of the data. This would then result in a number of themes and sub-themes around the themes of source text, target text, and context, which may include, or expand on the

74 themes proposed by other researchers (i.e., Hosseinzadeh 2015, Xia and Sun 2015, and

Gharehgozlou 2018).

CHAPTER 4

Quantitative Analysis of the Paratextual Data

4.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the findings of the quantitative analysis of the corpus consisting of

777 paratexts to the translations published in the journal Inostrannaia Literatura between

1955 and 1991. It provides an overview of the data collection method and reports on the types of paratexts, their addressees, lengths, source texts’ languages, and countries. The discussion of the paratexts’ content will be presented in the following chapter. This chapter briefly discusses the shifts in the representation of the paratexts’ source texts’ countries and languages across the three historical periods.

4.2 Data Collection Method and Instruments

As mentioned in Chapter 3 on methodology, the main instrument used in the quantitative analysis of the paratextual data is Microsoft Excel. As Figure 1 below shows, in creating the Excel table, I used the following column names to input the paratextual data: Year,

Issue, Work Title, Work Author, Language, Country, Paratext Type, Paratext Author,

Paratext Title, and Length.

Figure 1. A Sample of the Microsoft Excel Table Used for the Paratextual Data

Input and Analysis.

After the data had been entered in the table, I applied filters to analyze the paratextual data according to the following categories: year, language, country, paratext type, paratext author, paratext title, and length. Two categories (work author and work title) were not used to filter the information presented in the worksheet, as they were not considered relevant for the current research project due to the following reasons: the data do not include all translations (and as a consequence all authors and titles) published in

Inostrannaia Literatura between 1955 and 1991, but only those that were accompanied by paratexts; therefore such data cannot serve as a representative corpus for such analysis. Moreover, the list of authors and titles is too diverse (even though some work 77 authors appear in the corpus more than once, the work titles do not repeat) and does not show any significant patterns.

Filters in Microsoft Excel are used to narrow down the data displayed in a worksheet and hide parts of the data a researcher does not need from view. Therefore, filtering helps to qualify and display only the data that interests the researcher. I have not used advanced filtering; simple filtering was enough for the purposes of the study.

Moreover, filters are additive, meaning the researcher can use as many as needed to narrow down the results. Figure 2 shows an example of a spreadsheet that has been filtered to display only two categories: “paratext author” (translator) and “paratext type”

(foreword).

Figure 2. Filtering by Paratext Author and Paratext Type.

Even though such quantitative analysis by itself cannot be informative enough to answer the research questions, together with thematic analysis and the analysis of the framing strategies, it can shed some light on the main trends found in the corpus of the paratexts accompanying the translations published in Inostrannaia Literatura between

1955 and 1991.

4.3 Discussion of the Findings of the Quantitative Analysis

4.3.1 Total Number of Works with and without Paratexts

The total number of translated works published in Inostrannaia Literatura between 1955 and 1991 is 2,458. It is important to note that thematic “clusters’ (see Baer 2016: 61), for example “Contemporary Poets of India” or “Poets of Latin America,” are counted as one work in this study as they have one paratext accompanying the whole cluster. The percentage of foreign works published in each historical period is presented in Figure 3:

16%

30%

54%

1955-1964 1965-1984 1985-1991

Figure 3. Total Number of Foreign Works Published in the Journal in Each Historical

Period.

As seen from Figure 3, the Stagnation period saw the highest number of the works published in the journal. Again, it can be explained by the differences in the length of the periods (i.e., 10 years, 20 years, and 7 years, respectively), however such results may also suggest that the literary field during the Stagnation was much more complex and heterogeneous than it was thought before. If we look at the percentage of works with and without paratexts, we can see that 32% of all works published in the journal were accompanied by a paratext, whereas 68% of the works did not have any paratext (see

Figure 4):

32%

68%

w/o paratext with paratext

Figure 4. Number of Foreign Works Published in the Journal with and without Paratexts

It should be noted that some translations that were not accompanied by forewords or afterwords were discussed in the critical essays published at the end of the issue.

However, such pieces of criticism were not included in the present study as they are not placed directly before or after the translation but rather apart from the work or works they discussed. Therefore, their framing power may be weaker than that of forewords and afterwords. However, such essays represent a rich field for research on the farming of translations published in the journal and could be included in further studies.

Figures 3 and 4 provide a general overview of how many works were published in the journal and what percentage of those works was accompanied by paratexts but does not show any change across the three periods. Therefore, Figure 5 shows how the total number of works and the number of works with paratexts changed over time: 81

54%

46%

36%

30%

17% 16%

1955-1964 1965-1984 1985-1991

All Works With Paratexts

Figure 5. All Foreign Works vs. the Works Accompanied by Paratexts Across the Three

Historical Periods

Figure 5 presents the results that were not anticipated. One might suggest that as the total number of published works during Perestroika is lower than that of the previous periods, the number of paratexts accompanying translation during that period would follow the same trend. However, the data shows the opposite. With time, the percentage of works accompanied by paratexts grow

4.3.2 Types of Paratext

The paratextual data consists of 777 paratexts to the translations of foreign works by various authors and from various languages published in Inostrannaia Literatura between

1955 and 1991. If we analyze the paratexts by type, it can be seen (See Figure 6 below)

82 that the majority of them are forewords. Out of 777 total paratexts, 631 are forewords

(81%), 141 are afterwords (18%), and 5 (1%) are notes.

700 631

600

500

400

300

Number ofparatexts Number 200 141

100

5 0

Foreword Afterword Note

Figure 6. Number of Paratexts per Paratext Type

The data presented above supports our hypothesis that paratexts published in the journal are used to guide the readers’ interpretation and reception to ensure the “right” understanding of the translated works. As forewords precede translations, they are the first textual items to capture the readers’ attention and serve, in Genette’s terms, as

“thresholds” of interpretation. The forewords in the corpus contain information about the author, the origin of the work, the plot, statements of intent, contextual information, introduction to the translated version and the translator, the process of translation and other types of content depending on the paratext’s author. Even though afterwords and forewords are somewhat alike and contain similar types of information, it is the foreword 83 that precedes a translation, and, therefore, has a more powerful potential influence on the reader. As for the notes, they represent only 1% (5 notes) of the total of 777 paratexts and cannot be considered as a powerful tool in terms of guiding the readers’ interpretation.

4.3.3 Addressers of the Paratexts

The chart shown in Figure 7 below shows that only 4% (36) of all the paratexts are authorial paratexts (written by the authors of the source texts) followed by translator’s paratexts, which account for 25% (192), and allographic paratexts, accounting for 71%

(549). A closer look at allographic paratexts shows that 78% (426) include an addresser’s name and 22% (123) are without a name. In discussing the addresser of a paratextual message, Genette and Maclean (1991) distinguish between “authorial” and “editorial” paratexts and points out that the author and the editor are the two people responsible for the paratext; however, they may “delegate a part of their responsibility to a third person,” in this case the paratext is called “allographic” (italics in original, 266). I consider those paratexts without an addresser allographic, as there is no clear indication that either the author or the editor wrote the paratext.

80% 71% 70%

60%

50%

40%

30% 25%

20%

10% 4%

Authorial Translator's Allographic

Figure 7. Percentage of Paratexts per Addresser

4.3.4 Length of the Paratexts

The analysis of the paratextual data in terms of paratexts’ length showed the following results presented in Figure 8:

6.5 pages 1 5.5 pages 3 6 pages 5 4.5 pages 5 4 pages 15 10 or more lines 13 3.5 pages 27 2.5 pages 41 3 pages 47 1.5 page 139 Half-page 144 2 pages 148 1 page 189

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Number of paratexts

Figure 8. Length of Paratexts

As can be seen from Figure 8, the majority of the paratexts in the corpus have a length of one page, followed by those whose length is two pages and half of a page.

Such results may be explained by the fact that relatively shorter paratexts are considered by editors to be the most effective in terms of their influence on the reader. The paratext should be long enough to include all the necessary information about the translation and its source text and the author, but not too long, as, in this case, the reader might just skip the paratext or read only parts of it. However, such length may be attributed to this particular journal’s publication practices.

If we analyze further, and take the length of 2 pages as a dividing line between shorter and longer paratexts, we can see the following results (see Table 1):

Table 1. Shorter vs. Longer Paratexts: Number and Percentage

Length of a paratext Number of Percentage

paratexts

10 or more lines–2 633 81 % pages

2.5 pages–6.5 pages 144 19%

Shorter paratexts (those whose length varies from a few lines to two pages) represent 81% of all the paratexts included in the corpus, whereas longer paratexts (from two and a half pages to six and a half pages in length) account only for 19% of the total of 777 paratexts.

If we analyze the paratext length in relation to the paratext type, we can see interesting results as shown in Figure 9:

100% 88% 90%

80%

70%

60% 53% 50% 47%

40%

30%

20% 11% 10% 1% 0% 0% Shorter (10 or more lines–2 pages) Longer (2.5 pages–6.5 pages)

Foreword Afterword Note

Figure 9. Relationship Between the Type of a Paratext and its Length.

As can be seen from Figure 9, shorter paratexts (those whose length varies from ten lines to two pages) are predominantly forewords – 88% are forewords, 11% are afterwords and only 1% are notes. If we look at longer paratexts (those whose length varies from two and a half pages to six and a half pages), we see that the difference between the use of forewords and afterwords is not very significant – 53% of longer paratexts are forewords and 47% are afterwords. As we see, the shorter the paratext, the more likely it is to be located before the translation, whereas for longer paratexts their position in relation to the translation does not seem to be so important.

If we analyze the paratext length in relation to the paratext addresser, we can see interesting results as shown in Figure 10:

120

100

40 Number ofparatexts Number 20

0 Third party (no Author Translator Third party (Name) name) Half-page 17 43 41 43 1 page 10 63 80 36 1.5 pages 2 36 84 17 2 pages 6 34 98 9

Figure 10. Relationship between a Paratext’s Length and Addresser.

To illustrate the relationship between the paratext length and its author, I have chosen four types of paratext length—half-page, one page, one page and a half and two pages—as they are the most common lengths of the paratexts in the corpus. As shown in

Figure 10, the authorial paratexts are short – they have a length of half a page or one page; as for translator’s paratexts, they may be longer, but the most common length is 1 page (63 paratexts out of all translators’ paratexts). As for allographic paratexts, they are longer, especially those that have an addresser’s name – their length is more than 1 page with the most common length being two pages.

To sum up, it can be said that the paratexts presented in the corpus are chosen by the editors to be predominantly forewords whose length varies from half a page to two pages. Afterwords account for only 18% of all the paratexts and tend to be longer (from 89 two and a half pages to six and a half pages), so it can be suggested that they (afterwords) are not considered by the editors of the journal as effective as forewords in terms of their framing power as there is a higher probability than in the case of forewords that the readers might skip them. Moreover, allographic prefaces with an addresser’s name tend to be longer, whereas authorial and translator’s prefaces are shorter. In general, as translator’s paratexts account for only 25% of all the paratexts in the corpus, we may conclude that the editors’ purpose was not to provide the readers with information regarding the translation process, but rather to situate the translation within the broader socio-cultural and political context, and by doing that, to frame its interpretation.

4.3.5 Source-Text languages

The analysis of the languages of the source texts resulted in a list of 49 languages (See

Appendix A). Figure 11 shows the top ten languages from which the translations accompanied by paratexts were done:

Romanian 20

Japanese 22

Hungarian 30

Chinese 30

Italian 35

Polish 45

German 78

French 80

Spanish 92

English 150

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Number of paratexts

Figure 11. Top Ten Languages of the Source Texts with the Corresponding

Number of Paratexts.

The results presented in Figure 11 correspond to the macro-trends in the journal’s publishing practices revealed by my analysis and the results of other studies (e.g.,

Safiullina 2009, Sherry 2012, and Lygo 2016) – English, Spanish, French, and German are the leading languages of the source texts chosen for translation in the journal.

4.3.5.1 Source-Text Languages and their Corresponding Countries

When looking at the source languages of the translations accompanied by paratexts, it is important to keep in mind that the same language can be represented by several countries.

Table 2 below represents the results for English and the number of paratexts per country, listed in alphabetical order:

Table 2. The List of Countries with English as a Source Language with the

Number of Paratexts per Country

Source language Country Number of paratexts

English Australia 8 Canada 2 England 28 Ghana 2 India 7 Ireland 8 Kenya 3 Nigeria 4 South Africa 8 Trinidad 1 Philippines 1 United States 77 Total: 149

As seen from Table 2, the United States accounted for 77 (52%) and England for

28 (19%) paratexts out of the total of 149 paratexts accompanying translations from

English. Even though these two countries constitute the majority in representing English as a source language, it would be wrong to equate English only with these two countries.

The paratextual data shows that the situation with source countries is more complex and that the journal’s goal was to acquaint readers with translations of foreign works from a variety of countries. A comprehensive list of the top ten languages of the source texts

92 with corresponding countries and the number of paratexts per country is presented in

Appendix B.

4.3.5.2 Source-Text Countries and Languages Across the Three Historical Periods

As the current study cuts across three major historical periods in Soviet history—Thaw

(1955–1964), Stagnation (1965–1984), and Perestroika (1985–1991)—it was interesting to see whether there were any trends and changes in terms of the number of paratexts, as well as of the source text countries and languages chosen for translation in the journal.

Table 3 shows the number of paratexts published in the periods of 1955–1964, 1965–

1985 and 1986–1991.

Table 3. Number of Paratexts in Each Historical Period

Historical period Number of paratexts %

1955–1964 126 16

1965–1984 468 60

1985–1991 183 24

Even though the first period is much shorter (10 years) than the second (20 years) and third ones (7 years), the data shows a significant increase in the number of paratexts

(see Table 3). The overwhelming majority of the paratexts published in the journal between 1955 and 1991 belong to the second historical period, constituting 60% of all the paratexts. Moreover, the analysis shows that there are changes not only in terms of the

93 quantity of paratexts, with the second period being more productive in this regard, but also in terms of new countries represented in the journal (see Appendix C). As seen from

Table 4, there is a big difference in terms of the number of the source-text countries: the source texts from 41 countries were chosen to be translated and accompanied by paratexts during the first period and from 43 countries— during the third period, whereas during the second period the number of translated countries nearly doubled – works from

83 countries were translated.

Table 4. Number of Translated Countries and Languages in Each Historical

Period

Historical period Number of countries Number of Languages

1955–1964 41 29

1965–1984 83 40

1985–1991 43 28

The shifts in the total number of paratexts and in the representation of the source- text countries and languages across the three historical periods may be partially explained by the different lengths of the periods. However, the results also suggest that the journal was trying to cover more countries and languages even during the periods when censorship in the Soviet Union was very strong. The findings of this study support the results of the research carried out by Lygo (2016), where she looked at the translations in the journal Novyi mir during the Brezhnev period (1965–1981) and concluded that, even

though this period was called ‘stagnation’ was associated with anti-Western rhetoric, “the

publication of literature in translation was not subject to stagnation in any straightforward

or obvious way, at least in this journal” (57). Along the same lines, we can say that the

journal Inostrannaia Literatura was active in acquainting its readers with new countries

and authors even during the stagnation period.

As mentioned above, the number of the source-text countries of the translations

accompanied by paratexts is 83. To investigate how the source-text countries’ coverage

changes across the historic periods we decided to look at the top five countries and see

where any shifts occurred. Table 5 shows the top five most popular countries of the

source texts and the shifts in their coverage across the three historical periods:

Table 5. Number of Paratexts per Country across the Three Historical Periods.

USA France Germany Poland Italy

1955–1964 8 12 10 8 4

1965–1984 44 42 35 21 24

1985–1991 25 12 16 17 7

Total 77 66 61 46 35

As seen from Table 5, there was a significant increase in the number of paratexts

for all five languages during the Stagnation. As more foreign works were published in the

journal in that historical period, more paratexts were needed to accompany those works.

However, if we compare the countries’ coverage within the time span of one period only,

95 we see that the countries are distributed roughly equally within each historical period.

This proves again that the journal’s goal was to introduce a variety of works from a variety of countries to its readers, but that the specific variety of countries remained rather stable. Even though the Perestroika period was the shortest one, the number of works accompanied by paratexts from such countries as the United States, Poland and

Italy nearly doubled when compared with the Thaw period. A similar pattern is seen in the shifts in the source-language coverage across the three periods (see Table 6):

Table 6. Number of Paratexts per Source Language across the Three Historical Periods.

English Spanish French German Polish

1955–1964 17 16 17 13 8

1965–1984 88 61 50 46 21

1985–1991 45 15 13 19 16

Total 150 92 80 78 45

Again, as with the source-text countries, we see an increase in the coverage during the Stagnation period. What is interesting, though, is that if we compare the number of paratexts accompanying translations from the top five languages during the

Thaw period with the number during Perestroika, we see an increase in the number of paratexts for English and Polish. Moreover, bearing in mind that the third period is shorter than the first one, such an increase may be considered significant.

4.3.5.3 Some Reflection on the Editors and Changes in Paratextual Practices

The paratextual data show changes in paratextual practices not only in relation to the three historical periods but also in relation to the journal’s editors-in-chief. During the period covered in the study (1955–1991), the journal saw five editors-in-chief: Alexander

Chakovsky (1955–1963), Boris Ryurikov (1964–1969), Nikolai Fedorenko (1970–1988),

Chingiz Aitmatov (1988–1990), and Vladimir Lakshin (1990–1993). Table 7 shows the number of paratexts published under each editor.

Table 7. Number of Paratexts Published under Different Editors

Editor Number of paratexts %

Chakovsky (1955–1963) 114 15

Riurikov (1964–1969) 87 11

Fedorenko (1970–1988) 495 64

Aitmatov, Chingiz (1988– 55 7

1990)

Lakshin, Vladimir (1990– 26 3

1993)

As seen from Table 7, there is a major difference in the number of paratexts between Chakovsky’s, Riurikov’s, and Fedorenko’s editorships. Under Fedorenko, many more paratexts were published in the journal, namely 495 paratexts, which accounts for

64% of the total of 777 paratexts. The editorships of Aitmatov and Lakshin did not last

97 very long; therefore, the number of paratexts that appeared under their editorships does not look high. However, if we compare the average number of paratexts per annum during the tenure of Fedorenko to that of Aitmatov, we can see that the number of paratexts per year for both editors is high (26 and 18 respectively).

The data showed interesting results regarding the choice of countries chosen for translation under the first three editor. Even though, in general, the second historical period (1965–1985) saw a larger number of translated countries, a closer analysis of the editorships in terms of the countries of the source texts accompanied by paratexts shows interesting shifts under Fedorenko’s editorship. Table 8 shows some examples of such differences.

Table 8. Number of Paratexts per Editor and Source Text Country: Four Examples

Country Chakovsky Riurikov Fedorenko

China 12 1 13

Hungary 3 2 19

Japan 2 5 11

United States 8 11 38

If we look at China in the list of translated countries (see Appendix 3), we do not see much of a difference in the number of paratexts between the two historical periods –

12 paratexts were published in the first period and 14 paratexts in the second one.

However, if we look at the three editorships, we see that there was a drop in the

98 publication of paratexts that accompany translations from China during Riurikov’s editorship (1 paratext) and a significant increase (13 paratexts) during Fedorenko’s editorship. As for Japan, 11 paratexts were published under Fedorenko’s editorship alone, whereas just 7 were published under Chakovsky’s and Ruirikov’s editorships together.

We can see a similar increase in the number of paratexts for Hungary and the United

States under Fedorenko as the editor-in-chief. Of course, such shifts may be explained by the changing policies of the Soviet Union. However, such interest in translations from

China and Japan under Fedorenko may be also explained by the fact that he was an expert in the history of Chinese and Japanese culture and Chinese classical and modern literature. Moreover, before becoming the journal’s editor-in-chief, he had been an honorary member of Tokyo Sinology Institute and then Soviet ambassador to Japan

(1958–1962). This seems to present an example of the interaction between “the personal habitus” of the editor and “the institutional habitus” of the journal (Philpotts 2012: 42-

43).

4.4 Conclusion

The quantitative analysis of the corpus of 2,458 foreign works and 777 paratexts accompanying the translations of those works published in Inostrannaia Literatura between 1955 and 1991 yielded some interesting results. The data showed that 32% of the works published in the journal were accompanied by a foreword or an afterword and

68% of the works did not have paratexts at all. The data revealed that the majority of the paratexts in the corpus are forewords, which supports our claim that the paratexts were

99 used by the editors of the journal to frame the translations. As forewords precede the translations, they are more likely than afterwords to attract the readers’ attention. The overwhelming majority of the paratexts in the journal are allographic, which shows that the editors commissioned the writing of paratexts to a third party (rather than giving this opportunity to the authors or translators) or, possibly, wrote them themselves. In terms of length, the data revealed that the paratexts with a length from half a page to two pages are the most common. Such length allows the editors to include all the necessary information without being too long to skip. In general, forewords tend to be shorter and afterwords longer. In terms of the countries and languages of the source texts that are accompanied by paratexts, the corpus is represented by 85 countries and 44 languages. The top languages of the source texts are English, Spanish, French, German, and Italian.

The quantitative analysis of the paratextual data across the three historical periods showed the following trends:

1) Less criticism and more paratexts. My analysis of the issues of the journal

published between 1955 and 1991 showed a significant decrease in the number of

critical essays discussing the translations. During the first historical period (1955–

1964), critical essays (usually published in the second part of the journal)

accounted for almost half of a journal’s issue. During the Stagnation and

Perestroika periods, the journal published few pieces of criticism and devoted

more space to translations. There was an increase in the number of paratexts

during Perestroika compared to the previous two periods, which may be explained

by the fact that more works by new authors were published at that time that

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required some kind of situating of the author and of the source text within the

broader socio-cultural and socio-political context.

2) Editorial habitus. The preliminary analysis of the paratextual data shows that the

editorial habitus might have some effect on the journal’s publishing practices.

However, more research is needed, including archival research on the negotiation

process between editors and the censorship apparatus of that time, to further

support this claim.

3) International focus of the journal. The analysis of the source texts in terms of their

languages and countries shows constant interest across the three historical periods

in foreign works from a variety of countries and written in a variety of languages.

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CHAPTER 5

Thematic Analysis of the Paratextual Data

5.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the findings of the qualitative analysis of the corpus consisting of

777 paratexts to the translations published in the journal Inostrannaia Literatura between

1955 and 1991. The chapter starts with the thematic analysis of the paratexts, describing themes and sub-themes, providing examples of the corresponding passages in the paratexts, then it goes on to outline and discusses the major trends in the thematic content of the paratexts in the three historical periods.

5.2 Data Analysis Methods and Instruments

To analyze the content of the paratexts, I have applied both thematic analysis (looking for themes within the paratexts) and narrative analysis elaborated by Mona Baker (in particular, four framing strategies used to shape the narrative—temporal and spatial framing, selective appropriation, labelling, and repositioning of participants). In this study, thematic analysis helps the research understand what characteristics and phenomena of the source-text culture were viewed as important and controversial, and, therefore, worth clarifying for the target-language readers in the paratexts to the translations published in the journal. The analysis of the framing strategies found in the

102 corpus helps the researcher to understand how those views of the source-language culture were shaped for the target-language readers across the three historical periods.

5.3 Thematic Analysis: Overview

5.3.1 Choice of Themes

Before conducting the thematic analysis of the paratextual data, six major themes to be looked for in the corpus were identified:

Table 9. List of Themes

Theme name

1 ST (Source Text)

2 Author

2a Author’s Political Engagement

3 TT (Target Text)

4 Translator

5 Translation Process

6 Socio-political and Socio-historical Context

The themes presented in Table 9 were developed based on both the research question and the results of the studies conducted on a similar topic (i.e., Hosseinzadeh

2015, Xia and Sun 2015, and Gharehgozlou 2018). A detailed list of sub-themes will be discussed later in the chapter. During the analysis, I performed a close reading of each 103 paratext and input numbers corresponding to each theme (e.g., 1, 2, 6) for each paratext into the Excel table (see Figure 9). Even though qualitative analysis is more about data interpretation than about data statistics, it is sometimes important to quantify qualitative data. One reason for this is “to facilitate a systematic comparison among groups” (Guest et al. 2012: 171). In the context of the current research, it meant facilitating a systematic comparison among the data sets: “All forms of quantitative thematic comparison first require the fundamental step of establishing theme frequencies” (Guest et al. 2012: 172).

Once frequency counts have been generated, the next important step is to compare the results across the data sets in a meaningful way. In applied thematic analysis there are several ways to do this. In this study, I have chosen to measure theme frequency by calculating all the occurrences of each theme across the entire corpus to have a better understanding of the overall thematic intensity. The same procedure (measuring theme frequency) was applied to the corpus to compare theme frequencies across the three historical periods. I used Microsoft Excel to see which themes are the most recurrent ones in the corpus. As Figure 12 below shows, in creating the Excel table, I used the following column names to input the paratextual data: Year, Issue, Work Title, Work

Author and Themes.

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Figure 12. A Sample of the Microsoft Excel Table Used for Thematic Analysis.

After the data was entered into the table, the number of occurrences of each theme in the whole corpus was calculated. The analysis of the paratextual data in terms of the themes and their occurrence in the corpus yielded the following results:

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95% 100% 90% 77% 80% 72% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 17% 20% 10% 5% 10% 2% 0% ST Author Socio-political Author's TT Translator Translation and socio- political process historical engagement context

ST Author Socio-political and socio-historical context Author's political engagement TT Translator Translation process

Figure 13. Themes and their Occurrence in the Corpus.

The chart presented in Figure 13 shows that the most common themes are those related to the source text (95% of all paratexts), followed by the themes related to the author (77% of all paratexts), and the socio-political and socio-historical contexts (72% of all paratexts)6. The discourse on translation is less common. The themes related to the target text, translator and translation process represent only 10%, 5%, and 2%, respectively, of all paratexts. The findings are in line with the journal’s view of literary criticism and commentaries on the translated foreign works published in the journal:“Задача нашей

критики—раскрывать противоречивость творчества того или иного художника,

6 It has to be specified that the percentage for each theme is calculated taking 777 (total number of paratexts in the corpus) for 100% for each theme, as one paratext may contain several themes. Therefore, the combined percentage of all seven themes does not add up to 100%, as each theme here represents a separate category. 106

помогать широкому читателю в правильной оценке его произведений” [The role of our criticism is to reveal the contradictions of the artist’s work and to help the general reader in the correct evaluation of his works] (IL 1959(12): 214, emphasis mine).

What does this mean for the paratextual discourse in the journal? It means that the paratexts pay more attention to the source text and its author, rather than to the translation and the translator, in order to assure the ‘correct’ understating of the text by the readers.

In the same article on the principles of publishing foreign literary works, the journal editors emphasize the importance of the paratextual materials published in the journal due to the increasing number of translations. In the Soviet Union, literature was often used to serve political purposes and literary works had not only literary value but also an ideological value. Therefore, a considerable increase in the number of translated works from various countries and from different social and political contexts required some sort of commentary for the Soviet readers to understand those translations ‘properly.’ The paratexts accompanying the translations published in the journal were the means for ensuring proper understanding; they were privileged sites of framing used by the editors to fit the translations published in the journal into the broader political and social narratives circulating in the country at that time.

5.3.2 Six Phases of Thematic Analysis

The thematic analysis was performed following the six phases outlined by Braun and

Clarke (2006):

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1. Familiarizing myself with the data: This stage means ‘repeated reading’ of

the paratexts, reading the data in “an active way—searching for meanings,

patterns and so on” (87). This stage was the most time-consuming stage,

which also involved taking notes and marking ideas for coding. I used

notes, highlighting (yellow – for such themes as “Source Text,” “Author,” and

“Author’s Political Engagement;” green – for such themes as “Target Text,”

“Translator,” and “Translation Process;” and pink – for Socio-political and

Socio-historical Context), and post-it notes to identify segments of the data for

future analysis.

2. Generating initial codes: This phase involves the production of initial codes

from the data. As coding depends on whether the themes are more ‘data-

driven’ or ‘theory-driven’, the researcher might approach the data differently.

In my case, taking a ‘theory-driven’ approach, I approached the data with

specific questions in mind that I wished to code around. At this stage I was

taking notes, writing notes on the paratexts, using highlighters, and post-it

notes.

3. Searching for themes: This stage involves sorting the different codes into

potential themes. It is the beginning of the analysis stage, where I had to

decide how different codes could combine to form themes. At this stage, the

relationship among codes, and between different levels of themes (themes and

sub-themes) is analyzed.

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4. Reviewing themes: At this level, the researcher considers “the validity of

individual themes in relation to the data set” (91). At the end of this stage, the

researcher can already have a good idea of what the themes are, how they fit

together, and what they say about the data.

5. Defining and naming themes: This phase involves defining and further

refining the themes the researcher then presents for the analysis. This is the

phase where I identified, sorted, and named the sub-themes. I had to do a

close reading of the paratexts several times not to miss any important sub-

theme and to find typical examples of each sub-theme in the corpus.

6. Producing the report: When the researcher has a set of fully worked-out

themes, s/he can perform the final analysis and write-up. However, as

thematic analysis is a qualitative research method, the report is not just about

providing data, but rather about illustrating the story the researcher is telling

about the data. Such a report in the form of an analytic narrative should go

“beyond description of the data” and make “an argument” in relation to the

research question (93; italics in original).

5.3.3 Overview of the Themes

The six stages of thematic analysis applied to the analysis of 777 paratexts published in the journal Inostrannaia Literatura between 1955 and 1991 helped to identify the following themes and sub-themes presented in Table 10:

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Table 10. The Thematic Analysis of the Paratexts

Theme Sub-themes

1 ST (Source Text) - Genesis

- Theme

- Summary of the story

- Commentary on the title

- Settings where/when the story took place

- Genre

- Significance of the work/Awards

- Weaknesses/strengths

- Existing controversy over the work

- Reception

- Readership

- Truthfulness

- SL literature and its links with other literatures

- SL literature and its development and traditions

2 Author - Biographical information on the author

- Author’s originality

- Style

- Awards

- Professional status

- Weaknesses of the author’s writing

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- Other works of the author

- Author’s influence on other writers/public figures

- Influence of literary and political figures on the

author’s work

- Critiques of the author

- Author as translator

- Author’s close relationship with Russian/Soviet

writers

- Narodnost’ (people-ness)

- Trips to Soviet Union

- Author as critic

2a Author’s Political

Engagement

3 TT (Target Text) - Motivation for translation

- Readership

- Translation as a tribute to the author

- First translation into Russian

- Other translations of the author

- Translations of the same work into other

languages

- The paratext author’s relationship with the ST

author

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4 Translator - Biographical information on the translator

- Translator’s name

- Experience

- Awards

- Translation assessment

- Other translations by the same translator

- Relationship with the author

- Other translators of the same author/work

- Relationship with the ST country

5 Translation Process - Views on translation

- Translation difficulties/challenges

- Strategies

6 Socio-political and - USA

Socio-historical - Soviet Union

Context - Socialist Realism

- Cold War

- Anti-fascism

- Tyranny, social inequality

- Racial inequality

Before I begin my discussion of the thematic content of the corpus, it is necessary to clarify why certain themes were grouped as they were. First, concerning the theme

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“Author’s Political Engagement,” the reader of the study may ask why this theme is not a part of the “Author” theme? When I stared to do a close reading of the paratexts, I noticed that the paratexts paid a lot of attention to the author’s political engagement (e.g., membership in a political party, promoting revolutionary ideas, influencing society, opposing the current government, revealing the atrocities of a current regime, etc.).

Therefore, I wanted to trace whether and, if so, how this theme (i.e., the author’s political engagement) changed over the three historical periods. For that reason, this theme was studied as a theme in its own right. Second, I applied the arguments mentioned above in regard to the themes “Translator” and “Translation Process” and decided to study them separately rather than as a part of the “Target Text” theme. Even though it is important to see how the theme “Target Text” changes over time, if at all, this kind of data is not comprehensive enough to answer the research questions and provide information on how the portrayal of the translators and the process of translation (not the target text as a whole) in the corpus changes across the three historical periods.

Table 11 below provides examples of the passages where the identified sub- themes are discussed:

Table 11. Themes and Sub-Themes with Examples of their Corresponding Passages in

the Paratexts

Theme Sub-theme Typical Paratext Passage Journal’s Year, Issue, Page ST Genesis История ее создания такова. IL Работая над «Даниэлом 1979(3):187 Мартином», Дж. Фаулз ощутил потребность подвести

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итоги своим многолетнисм творческим раздумьям. Он на время отложил роман и принялся за вариации «старых» тем и сюжетов. Так были написаны «Башня из черного дерева» и четыре другие новеллы: «Элидюк», «Бедный Коко», «Загадка», «Облако». Theme Необычная для колумбийской IL прозы тема романа: исторя – 1976(10):3 точнее исповедь – человека, спасшего из гитлеровской Германии и павшего жертвой... буржуазной демократии Запада, на которую он уповал. Summary of the story Лучшая вещь в сборнике – IL «Волшебный ящик». Это 1964(4):22 рассказ о молодой супружеской чете, о разладах в их жизни, наступившем после смерти их маленького сына, о трагическом неуменье найти путь друг к другу и разделить общее горе и о том, как они, вопреки всему этому, преодолеают свою разобщенность. Commentary on the Настоящее Фуэнтес зачастую IL title связывает с прошлым. Связь 1984(7):27 времен ощутима и в названии произведения – «Сожження вода». По древнему ацтексому преданию , вероятнее всего после нашествия испанских конкистадоров и завоевания Мексики, «сгорели» воды озера Тескоко, окружавшие остров, на котором индейцы основали свою столицу Великий Теночтитлан. Исчезла, испарилась «соженная вода», и на месте ее разросся нынешний гигантский мегаполис – Мехико, где живут персонажи нового произведения

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Фуэнтеса. Setting where/when Время событий, описанных в IL the story took place повести Альдо де Яко, 1977(11):7 очерчено с документальной точностью. Перед нами Италия 1971 года. Genre Примечательно творчество IL 1960(5):5 Бехазина и в жанровом отношении. Он обращался к повести и новелле, к коротенькому рассказу и нерифмованному стиху. Но больше всего он известен в Иране как новеллист и автор миниатюрного лирического рассказа, сравнительно недавно занявшего прочное место в персидской литературе. Significance of the Роман «Человек среди IL work/Awards песков» был удостоен в 1975 1978(8):114 году премии Теофраста Ренодо – одной из самых почетных литературных премий Франции. Книга несколько месяцев фигурировала в списке пяти наиболее читаемых произведений. Weaknesses/Strengths Почему же, несмотря на эти IL серьезные недостатки, роман 1973(6):183 Стоуна является все же ценным вкладом в американскую литературу сегодня? Потому что он отражает главное в жизни Соединенных Штатов Америки, давая страшную картину социальной системы в стадии разложения, и заслуживает того, чтобы роман прочитали советские люди. Existing controversy И все же вторая часть IL 1960(7):7 over the work трилогии – самостоятельное художественное целое. Роман вызвал в Чехословакии оживленную дискуссию, а в мае 1960 года был отмечен первой премией на конкурсе,

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проведенным к пятнадцатилетию Республики. Reception Роман «Рэгтайм» Э.Л. IL Доктороу еще до выхода в 1978(10):182 свет благодаря журнальным публикациям привлек внимание литературной общественности США, быстро завоевал популярность и вошел в списки бестселлеров. Readership Эта моя книга была IL 1968(3):5 рассчитана на английского, а не на советского читателя. И даже в Англии я обращался не к тем, кто в силу своей идейной принадлежности считает, что Советский Союз прав, а капитализм неправ. Я писал, чтобы убедить тех обыкновенных, рядовых людей, которые находятся в растерянности, но стоят еще на другой стороне. Truthfulness Победа писателя состоит в IL том, что, не преуменьшая ни 1955(2):123 одного из факторов, действующих в рассказе в пользу врагов, он сумел убедительно показать – не риторическим порицанием, а действием – их полное поражение. SL literature and its На формирование этого IL links with other жанра в Иране большое 1960(5):85 literatures воздействие несомненно оказали западноевропейские и русские «стихотворения в прозе», не меньшую роль сыграла и персидская литературная традиция. SL literature and its Появление этих баллад IL development and означало новую эру в 1957(6):191 traditions немецкой литературе. Это была поэзия нового времени, в котором пережитки средневековья удивительно сочетались с пробуждением разума, жаждой знания,

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массовыми народными движениями. Author Biographical Сюй Дишань (1893-1941) – IL information on the известный китайский 1983(8):55 author писатель, родился на острове Тайвань. Когда после окончания японо-китайской войны 1894-1895 гг. Тайвань отошел к Японии, родители Сюй Дишаня, будучи патриотически настроенными людьми, вместе со всей семьей переселились в континентальный Китай. Сюй Дишань получил разностороннее образование, он окончил филологический и теологический факультеты Пекинского университета. В 1927 г. Уехал в США, изучал в Колумбийском университете историю религий, потом продолжил свое образование в Оксфорде. Здесь кроме истории религий изучал индийскую философию и санскрит. Author’s originality Как всякий подлинный поэт, IL Витторио Серени обладает 1968(1):154 своим собственным голосом. Его стихи нарочито прозаичны, порой даже неуклюжи. В них все держится на богатстве образов и необычном замедленном ритме. Style Стиль Базена — четкий, IL точный, строгий, лишенный 1977(3):170 сентиментиментальности, скорее стиль судебного документа, чем романа, однако зачатую украшенный чисто разговорными, даже уличными оборотами речи, что делает его особенно живым и естественнымЖ ни одного портрета, ни одной сцены, ни одного слова, не имеющего отношения к операции, которой занят

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писатель. Awards За несколько недолгих лет, IL которые прошли после их 1968(5):77 выхода в свет до трагической скоропостижной смерти писателя (он умер после неудачной операции), И.Бобровский был удостоен ряд литературных премий: имени Генриха Манна Немецкой академии искусств, премии западногерманской «Группы-47», а также австрийской и швейцарской литературных премий. Professional status Широкая известность поздно IL 1978(9):3 пришла к Норжу, хотя в литературных кругах его поэзия уже давно была признана и высоко оценена. Прогрессивные французские поэты первыми привлекли к его творчеству внимание массового читателя. Ы 1953 году на страницах «Леттр Франсэз» Жан Марсенак посвятил ему несколько блестящих статей, в одной из которых о Норже говорилось как о «непризнанном большом поэте». Weaknesses of the Можно не соглашаться с IL author некоторой недосказанностью 1957(12):55 отдельных произведений поэта, можно упрекнуть его в том, что он минует большие темысовременности, но бесспорны его симпатии к простым людям. Other works of the Роберт Грейвз — поэт, IL author романист, литературный 1968(2):180 критик, историк. В его кабинете два с половиной погонных метра полок заняты его собственными произведениями. Его перу принадлежат популярные исторические романы «Я, Клавдий» (1934), «Клавдий — бог» (1934), «Граф

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Велизарий» (1938), «Жена господина Мильтона» (1943), «Золотое руно» (1944) и другие. Author’s influence on Имре Шаркади, прожив очень IL 1981(1):8 other writers/public короткую жизнь, оставил figures заметный след в истории венгерской литературы. Его проза оказала влияние на таких видных художников слова, как Ференц Шанта, Шандор Шомоди Тот, Йожеф Дарваш. Influence of literary В ином плане повлияла на IL and political figures Лайоша Надя русская 1983(5):148 on the author’s work литература (в особенности высоко ценимый им Горький), увлекшая его глубоким проникновением в действительность, в ее подспудные движущие силы и утверждением веры в разум и достоинство человека. Critiques of the Один из самых тонких IL author итальянских литературных 1963(10):181 критиков заметил как-то, что «прозу Моравиа отличает одна характерная особенность: очень часто автора интересует не столько какая-либо человеческая проблема, сколько определенный тезис или определенная тема, и он трактует ее вдухе моралистического эссе. Author as translator Особое место в последней из 1986(1):4 упомянутых книг занимает художественный перевод. Это не случайно, так как сам Андрош Фодор работает в области художественного перевода давно, с увлечением, убежденный в том, что перевод художественной литературы взаимно обогащает народы, помогает им понимать друг друга. Author’s close Наш читатель с IL relationship with удовлетворением отметит и те 1959(10):5

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Russian/Soviet высказывания Роллана, где writers вновь подтверждается его глубокое восхищение великим русским писателем Львом Толстым и высокое уважение к своему другу А.М. Горькому. Narodnost’ (people- Сын крестьянина, он IL ness) превосходно знает быт, нравы 1957(5):56 и обычаи венгерской деревни и описывает их не как сторонний наблюдатель, а как человек из народа, говорящий о родных, понятных и близких ему людях. Мориц знает силу своего народа и любит его. Trips to the Soviet В Советском Союзе любят и IL Union знают творчество Рафаэля 1962(12):68 Альберти. Его произведения не раз издавались в СССР. Его ценят и любят здесь как большого поэта, представителя прогрессивной испанской литературы и истинного друга страны социализма. Он был первым испанским писателем, посетившим Советский Союз. Это произошло в 1931 году, и вместе с ним тогда была его жена, писательница Мария- Тереса Леон. В 1934 году поэт присутствовал на I съезде советских писателей и познакомился с Горьким. Author as critic Статьи Бодлера об искусстве IL отличаются стройностью 1957(3):178 мысли и остротой суждения; Бодлер и в них проявлял явно выраженные демократические симпатии. Он горячо защищал творчество рабочего-песенника, поэта Дюпона, восхищался демократическим реализмом художников Барбизона, дружил с Курбе, хотя и посвятил его творчеству лишь несколько строк.

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Author’s Литературный труд Жозе IL Political Сарней сочетал с активной 1987(6):52 Engagement политической и общественной деятельностью (не считая педагогической работы). Он был депутатом федерального парламента, сенатором республики, губернатором штата Мараньян. В 1980 году его выдвинули на пост председателя Социально- демократической партии, однако через четыре года — после того, как эта партия поддержала военную диктатуру, находившуюся у власти в результате переворота 1964 года, — он вышел из партии и возглавил группу ее бывших членов, основавших либеральный фронт. TT Target Motivation for Мы еще так мало знаем IL Text) translation литературу народов Индии! И 1956(11):5 особенно — поэзию этих народов, хотя она существует уже несколько тысячелетий! Публикация стихов индийских поэтов, пишущих на хинди, урду и бенгали, надо думать, явится только началом ознакомления читателей «Иностранной литературы» с большим и многообразным миром современной индийской поэзии. Readership Имя Питера Абрахамса IL достаочно хорошо известно в 1986(10):5 Советском Союзе. Многие из советских людей впервые познакомились с жизнью и борьбой угнетенного большинства населения Южной Африки, читая произведения этого писателя. Translation as a Анна Ахматова мастерски IL 1956(3):3 tribute to the author перевела несколько стихотворений румынского

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поэта, написанных в разные годы. Эти переводы — лишь малая оплата долга советских поэтов Александру Тома. First translation into «Удивительный волшебник» IL 1986(3):4 Russian до сих пор не переводился на русский язык. Автор публикуемого перевода — ленинградский поэт И. Инов, много лет работающий над творчеством Незвала. Other translations of Постоянным читателям IL the author «Иностранной литературы» 1985(4):137 имя Миклоша Радноти известно давно. На страницах журнала публиковалась поэтичная автобиографическая повесть Радноти «Под знаком близнецов» (1975, No 7), памятная подборка его стихотворений в переводе Д. Самойлова (1979, No 11). Кому-то, возможно, знакома и выпущенная издательством «Художественная литература» книга его стихов в переводах Леонида Мартынова, Давида Самойлова, Николая Чуковского и других прекрасных советских поэтов. Translations of the Наконец, несмотря на IL same work into other неимоверные трудности, 1963(4):57 languages которые представляет поэзия Вальехо для перевода, она начинает преодолевать и языковой барьерЖ стихи Вальехо звучат по-английски, по-французски, по- итальянски, а теперь и по- русски. The paratext’s author Мне довелось видеть его IL relationship with the только однажды. Было это 1980(2):67 ST author летом 1977 года в Москве, во время первой советско- американской писательской встречи. Лоуэлл поражал какой-то предельной самоуглубленностью.

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Translator Biographical Включенные в подбоку IL information on the переводы стихов Сефериса 1987(3):119 translator взяты нами из архива молодой поэтессы- переводчицы Любови Якушевой (1947–1984), очень рано ушедшей из жизни. Получив филологическое и искусствоведческое образование в МГУ, Л. Якушева около десяти лет увлеченно изучала творчество греческого поэта. Итогом этого углубленного постижения поэтического мира Сефериса стали многочисленные переводы, а также литературоведческое исследование творчества поэта — кандидатская диссертация «Художественный язык Й. Сефериса», которая, к сожалению, так и осталась незащищенной. Translator’s name Публикуемый перевод также IL имеет свою историю. Он был 1988(1):105 выполнен прекрасным мастером своего дела Ритой Яковлевной Райт-Ковалевой два десятилетия назад и предназначался для серии «Литературные памятники». Experience Эти рассказы выдающегося IL американского писателя 1982(3):165 Шервуда Андерсона — последняя работа талантливой советской переводчицы Натальи Альбертовны Волжиной, много сделавшей для ознакомления советских читателей с произведениями английской и американской литературы. Творческое владение богатствами родного языка, совершенное знание языка подлинника, разносторонняя образованность, безупречный

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художественный вкус позволили Наталье Альбертовне создать высокие образцы переводческого искусства. Awards Два года назад Главная IL редакция восточной 1971(2):163 литературы издательства «Наука» обьявила конкурс на новый перевод четверостиший Омара Хайяма. В конкурсе приняли участие многие: и маститые, и молодые. Первую премию получил поэт-переводчик Герман Плисецкий, имевший до этого за плечами всего одну книгу — «Персидские народные четверостишия». Translation Сложную образную и IL assessment речевую структуру и ритмику 1978(10):185 романа, уснащенного к тому же многочисленными историческими реалиями и сопоставлениями, в полной мере передает русский перевод, сделанный известным прозаиком Василием Аксеновым. Other translations by Перевел этот роман Михаил IL the same translator Брук, которого я знаю более 1985(1):97 двадцати лет, с тех еще пор, когда он и его коллеги выполнили русский перевод «Праздника, который всегда с тобой» Хемингуэя. Потом он переводил книги Н. Мейлера, Г. Видала, И. Стоуна и других американских авторов. Relationship with the Я с ним познакомился в IL author Киеве на пятой встрече 1984(10):79 американских и советских писателей. Тогда я перевел одно его стихотворение и прочел его вслед за выступлением Блая, а он, в свою очередь подыгрывая себе на мандолине, прочел мои стихи, переведенные на английский.

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Other translators of Первым переводчиком 1977(4):138 the same work/author Карреры Андраде на русский язык был известный советский испанист О.Г. Савич (1896–1967), из литературного архива которого взяты два публикуемых ниже сонета. В подборку включены также стихи из ранних поэтических циклов Карреры Андраде и из послевоенных книг (см. Переводы Бориса Слуцкого). Relationship with the Около года назад мне IL ST country довелось побывать на родине 1957(6):192 многих немецких баллад — в Западной Германии, из жизни котой, казалось, ушло романтическое содержание. Translation Views on translation Старый переводчик «по 1985(5):158 Process подстрочникам» и «с оригинала», я не слишком доверяю поэтическим переводам (в самом деле, вечный вопрос: переводима ли поэзия? С одинаковой справедливостью можно утверждать противоположное). И, вопреки всему этому, сквозь двойной покров подстрочника и перевода, током высокого напряжения бьет поэзия. Translation Надо сказать, что Китс IL difficulties/challenges исключительно труден для 1972(2):182 перевода. В нем удивительно сочетались острая поэтическая восприимчивость, богатство воображения — и трезвый и уравновешенный ум. Само звуковое богатсво его стиха, тонкие полускрытые метафорические ходы и то, что позднейшие его исследователи называли синэстезией — то есть такая изобразительность, в которой участвует не только зрение или слух, но слияние всех

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внешних чувств, подчас ставят перед переводчиком как будто неразрешимую задачу. Strategies Переводя, я рискнул IL употребить «черный хлеб», — 1970(3):161 не думаю, чтобы автор знавал черняшку, но мне кажется, это дает графику, условность детства. Socio- USA Одним из самых IL political and существенных аспектов 1973(6):181 Socio- социального кризиса, historical который сенатор Роберт Context Кеннеди охаректиризовал как величайший кризис, когда- либо переживавшийся Соединенными Штатами со времен Гражданской войны, — является кризис морали. Никогда прежде такое количество американцев (а долгое время это чувствовало лишь незначительное меньшинство) не сознавало, как бездушна, пуста, бесчеловечна и лжива жизнь в капиталистической Америке, несмотря на получаемые ежегодно миллиардные прибыли. Никогда прежде американцы, включая множество людей, принадлежащих к средним слоям населения, и в особенности молодежь, не выступали так решительно против мнимых ценностей общества, готового потратить миллиарды на то, чтобы стереть с лица земли города и селения Вьетнама, но не находящего денег на оплату труда учителей или на то, чтобы наши школы работали с полной нагрузкой. Это моральное загнивание отравляет жизнь тем, у кого есть совесть. Оно превращает Соединенные Штаты в самую

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уродливую в мире страну.Вот почему столь многие выступают против «американского образа жизни». Soviet Union Свое уважение к Советскому IL 1987(3): Союзу писательница 123 выразила, в частности, в романе «Роза Ташкента» (1977), в котором она познакомила читателей с некоторыми эпизодами истории нашей страны, с памятниками культуры и архитектуры, с богатой и разнообразной природой тех районов ССР, где она побывала. Благожелательное изображение нашей страны резко отличается от той неприглядной картины, которая складывается из десятков и десятков антисоветских книжонок, наводняющих сегодня книжный рынок Франции. Впечатления о Советском Союзе, которыми проникнут роман, имеют тем больше шансов дойти до самых широких масс, что писательница искусно вмонтировала путевые заметки в сюжет популярного «сентиментального романа». Socialist Realism Реализм современной IL китайской литературы — это 1957(5):11 реализм высшего типа, отображающий жизнь человека вобществе, идущему к социализму, — социалистический реализм. Cold War Однако действительное IL 1958 содержание романа Маккензи (7):171 значительно шире и глубже. Под малоизвестными островками Тодди-Большой и Тодди-Малый подрузамевается... Англия. Это ее, страну,

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расположенную на островах, превращают в плацдарм подготовляемой империалистами атомной, ракетной войны. Это ведь народ вынуждают подчиняться грубым требованиям американской военщины, отказаться от свободы и независимости, жертвовать неоценимыми культурными ценностями, обычаями, традициями. Все это должно быть принесено в жертву чудовищу «холодной войны», маниакальной политике «сдерживания». Anti-fascism Перелом наступил, когда IL разразилась война с 1956(2):16 гитлеризмом. Галчинский принял в ней прямое участие в качестве рядового солдата и потом на долгие годы попал в лагерьвоеннопленных. Именно там вызрел его убежденный антифашизм. Оказавшись после освобождения на Западе, поэт отверг предложение остаться в эммиграции и вернулся на родину, чтобы отдать свое перо Народной Польше, народу, строящему социализм. Tyranny, social Страницы, создающий IL inequality коллективный портрет 1981(2):149 богатеющей на подачках западных монополий ти на безудержной эксплуатации народа кучки политиканов, доморощенных бизнесменов и чиновников, принадлежит к числу наиболее ярких в романе. Racial problems К тому же Кронина держали в IL 1985(4):3 сравнительно привелигированной части тюрьмы. Черных и белых в тюрьмах Южно-Африканской Республики, как известно,

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держат отдельно. Кронин, как белый, находился в «белой» части. Казнили же преимущественно черных африканцев. Но все это лишь укрепило Кронина в тех взглядах, за которые его осудили, тут прожженный судья оказался прав. Трагедию черного населения Кронин все больше воспринимал как свою трагедию. Деяния, совершаемые властями якобы от лица белого меньшинства, вызывали в нем бурный протест. Censorship Хорст Бинек публикуется по- IL русски впервые. Отчего? 1991(12):144 Быть может, печатаемые здесь стихи воркутинского цикла помогут понять — какие силы стояли препятствием на пути знакомства русского читателя с его творчеством. Печатать Бинека, как говорится, «не советовали».

5.4 Thematic Analysis: General Trends and Discussion

5.4.1 The Changes in Thematic Coverage Across the Three Historical Periods:

General Trends

The results for all paratexts across the three historical periods are shown in Figure 14.

Because the three periods had different sample sizes, we normalized the data to make comparisons. To do this, we adopted the approach of dividing the raw frequency count

(or number of theme occurrences) by the total number of paratexts in that period. Thus, the raw frequency counts (or number of theme occurrences) were divided by their sample

129 sizes of 126 for the first period, of 494 for the second period, and of 157 for the third period. The normalized result expresses the percentage of paratexts that contain a particular theme. Note that, because some paratexts contain more than one theme, the normalized percentage added up to more than 100%.

120% 97% 98% 96% 97% 100% 95% 95% 85% 80% 73% 64% 60% 47%

40% 30%

20% 13% 10% 8% 8% 6% 6% 5% 6% 0% 2% 0% ST Author Socio-political Author's TT Translator Translation and socio- political process historical engagement context

1955-64 1965-84 1985-91

Figure 14. The Changes in the Themes’ Coverage in the Corpus across the Three

Historical Periods.

In terms of overall frequency, as seen from Figure 14, the most frequent themes across the three historical periods are “Source Text,” “Author,” and “Socio-political and socio- historical context.” Almost all the paratexts in the corpus mention the theme “Source

Text”: 95%, 96%, and 97% of the paratexts in the first, second, and third period, 130 respectively. The same can be said about the theme “Author”. The majority of the paratexts in the corpus—98%, 97%, and 95% of the paratexts in the first, second, and third period, respectively—mention this theme. As for the theme “Socio-political and socio-historical context,” the analysis shows that the frequency of the theme increased in the third period — 85% of the total of 157 paratexts in that historical period describe socio-political and socio-historical context. However, it should be noted that the content differs from that of the first period. (See “Reflective Analysis of the Changes in the

Thematic Content of the Paratexts” for a more detailed overview of those differences.)

If we compare the coverage of the theme “Socio-political and Socio-historical

Context” to that of “Author’s Political Engagement” (see Figure 15), we can see an interesting tendency: the coverage of the “Context” theme increases over time, whereas that of the “Author’s Political Engagement” decreases. One possible explanations of this difference in the coverage of the two themes across the three historical periods is changes in the socio-political environment in those periods. Even though the period of the Thaw saw some relaxation of censorship practices in art and literature, censorship in that period was still strong; therefore, the authors chosen for translation had to share the ideological values of the Soviet Union at that particular historical period. It may be said that, in order to make the translation acceptable for readers from an ideological perspective, not only did the paratext have to include information on the socio-political context, it also had to portray the foreign authors from a certain political perspective. The authors chosen for publication, especially in the first historical period, were usually left-wing writers, members of communist parties who had links with the Soviet Union (see the Chapter

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“Framing Strategies” for more on labelling of the authors in the corpus). During the periods of stagnation and perestroika, the ideological value of the works chosen for translation decreased, whereas their artistic value increased. Therefore, the theme

“Author’s Political Engagement” became less important for the censors and editors of the journal. “As the Thaw progressed, there appeared to be an increasing liberalization of the choice of authors and texts” and “a seemingly greater appreciation of literary worth”

(Sherry 2012: 106-107).

85%

73%

64%

47%

12% 8%

1955-1964 1965-1984 1985-1991

Socio-political and Socio-historical Context Author's Political Engagement

Figure 15. “Socio-political and Socio-historical Context” and “Author’s Political

Engagement”: The Changes in Themes’ Coverage across the Three Historical Periods.

Two more themes that show a significant change in coverage over time are the themes of “Translation” and “Translation Process (see Figure 16). Whereas during the first two historical periods only 5 % of all the paratexts in each period mention some kind 132 of information about the translator (i.e., biographical information, translator’s name, experience, awards, other translations by the same translator, relationship with the author, relationship with the source-text country, and other translators of the same work/author), during the perestroika period, 10% of the total of 157 paratexts in that period mention this theme. Similar changes are seen in the coverage of the theme “Translation process”: during the first period, none of the 126 paratexts mentions any topics related to the translation process (i.e., views on translation, translation difficulties, and strategies), whereas during the second period 2% of the paratexts mention this theme and during the third period 6% of the paratexts make some kind of reference to translation process- related topics. Even though such an increase in the coverage of the themes mentioned above is not dramatic, the data shows a clear trend towards greater translator visibility and greater emphasis on openness of the journal toward the target text and the target language.

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10%

6% 5% 5%

0% 1955-64 1965-84 1985-91

Translator Translation process

Figure 16. “Translation” and “Translation Process”: The Changes in Themes’ Coverage

across the Three Historical Periods.

5.4.2 Reflective Analysis of the Changes in The Thematic Content of the Paratexts

Thematic analysis of 777 paratexts published in the journal Inostrannaia Literatura during the period between 1955 and 1991 showed that thematic content and theme frequency in the paratexts changed not only across the three historical periods, but also within each period. In the latter case, the changes are due to the paratexts’ authorship and the paratexts’ length. Each of the changes mentioned above is discussed below.

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5.4.2.1 The Structure of the Paratexts

Before discussing the results of the thematic analysis, it is important to outline the structure of the paratexts in the corpus. Even though all the paratexts studied are different, they tend to share a similar structure. It is important to note that not all the components listed below are included in each paratext. Moreover, the sequence in which the components of the paratexts in the corpus are presented to the readers may differ from one paratext to another. For example, some paratexts may start with a detailed description of the author’s style and provide a short paragraph about the author at the end. Others may start with a detailed information on the author, then provide a detailed summary of the story. Some paratexts describe the socio-political context of the source text in great detail but provide very little information about the plot. After analyzing the total of 777 paratexts, the researcher came up with the following structural units of the paratexts published in the journal:

1) Source Text Author

2) Socio-political and socio-historical context

3) Source Text

4) Target Text

5) Message for the readers of the target text

It has to be emphasized once again that not all the paratexts in the corpus closely follow the structure outlined above; however, a close reading of all 777 paratexts showed that such a structure and sequencing of the thematic content units is found in the majority

135 of the paratexts in the corpus. Each paratext typically begins with some kind of information about the author of the source text: a description of the author’s childhood ( childhood poverty is typically emphasized), the author’s parents and family, education

(the parents’ efforts to provide their child with the best possible education are emphasized), and the author’s literary career. Many paratexts describe the author’s evolution as an artist: the author’s literary debut, style and themes of the author’s works, influence of other literary figures on the author’s work as well as the author’s influence on the literary tradition in his/her country and worldwide. The political and social engagement of the author seems to be a salient theme in the studied paratexts, especially in those written in the first historical period. The paratexts discuss the author’s membership in political parties, participation in social and political events, political activism, trips to the Soviet Union and meetings with Soviet political and literary figures.

Very often, the paratexts emphasize the author’s admiration for the Soviet Union and its people.

Another element of a paratext is discussion of the text’s socio-political and socio- historical context. The thematic analysis shows that context occupies a very important part of the paratexts in the corpus. The majority of the paratexts provide some description of both current (pertaining to the time of the publication of the translation in the journal) and past (pertaining to the time of the publication of the source text) socio-political and socio-historical events. The context may include a detailed description of political events

(e.g., wars, revolutions, freedom movements, political upheavals, etc.), cultural events

(e.g., cultural congresses, exhibitions, etc.), and geographical information (e.g., the

136 source text country’s location and geography, the country’s population and customs, etc.). It is obvious that the paratexts’ authors consider it important to situate the translations within their broader context. This brings us again to the main purpose of the paratexts in the corpus: guiding the readers’ understanding and interpretation of the translations published in the journal.

The source text is another important element found in almost all the studied paratexts. The paratexts usually describe the setting, the plot, the characters, the conflict, and the main theme of the translated work. Very often, the paratext provides the readers with the paratext author’s point of view on the source text’s theme and characters. The paratexts may include the author’s judgment of his/her work, as well as opinions of other authors and literary critics about the source text. It is interesting to note that the criticism of the source text is usually done against the backdrop of the principles of Socialist

Realism: ‘ideological commitment’, ‘party-mindedness’, ‘popular spirit’, and historicism’

(see the Chapter on Socialist Realism for more details). Such paratexts written in the spirit of Socialist Realism could be one of the means that helped the editors of

Inostrannaia Literatura to frame the works of foreign authors in such a way that they could pass through censorship. The paratext may emphasize the source text’s weaknesses and strengths (both from an artistic and ideological perspectives), and, even when a paratext begins with some kind of criticism of the source text, it usually ends on a more optimistic note, highlighting the value of the work.

The target text is given much less attention in the paratexts than the three components discussed above. If a paratext talks about the target text, it usually discusses

137 the translator, his/her biography, relationship with the source text author, trips to the source language country, translation awards, and other translations done by the same translator. Some paratexts provide a short assessment of the translator’s performance. As for the translation process and translation challenges, only a few paratexts devote any space to these topics.

Finally, the last element of the paratexts in the corpus is some kind of a message to the readers of the journal. This element will be discussed in greater details in the section of the dissertation devoted to the framing strategies.

The structure outlined above is found in the majority of the paratexts in the corpus. Almost all the paratexts contain some kind of information on the source text, the author and the socio-political and socio-historical context. Far fewer paratexts talk about the target text, let alone the translator or the translation process. Some differences in the paratexts’ structure may be explained by the changing socio-political context. However, the paratextual analysis revealed that the thematic content of the paratexts and their structure vary not only due to socio-political and socio-historical changes, but also due to the paratexts’ authorship and even the paratexts’ length.

5.4.2.2 Authorship of the Paratexts and Its Influence on Thematic Content

The quantitative analysis (see Chapter “Quantitative Analysis”) of the paratexts in the corpus showed that 4% (36) of all the paratexts are authorial paratexts, 25% (192) are translators’ paratexts, and 71% (549) are allographic paratexts. If we take a closer look at the thematic content of those paratexts, we can see that it differs depending on the

138 paratext’s author. The paratexts written by the source text author, or authorial paratexts, usually discuss the purpose and importance of the work. The author describes how the genesis of the work came about, as well as what motivated him/her to create the work.

Very often the author addresses the Soviet readers and explains why the work might be interesting to them. Authorial paratexts are usually short — from half a page to one page long. The allographic paratexts, those written by an editor or a literary critic, are the longest ones and cover a wide variety of themes. These are the paratexts that discuss the source text, the author, and the socio-political and socio-historical context in great detail.

The length of the allographic paratexts in the corpus varies from half a page to six and a half pages, with an average length of one-two pages. As for the translators’ paratexts, they represent an interesting category from the perspective of Translation Studies research. One might assume that the paratexts written by translators would devote a lot of attention to the translation and the translation process. However, the analysis of 129 forewords and afterwords written by translators showed that the majority of those paratexts do not mention translation at all. This shows that translators in the journal were not very visible and suggest a higher status of the author of a source text compared to that of a translator. The source text, the author, and the context are still the most frequent themes even in this type of paratext. However, there are some differences. The translators’ paratexts describe the author’s style in much greater detail than those written by the author or a third party. The translators emphasize the originality of the author’s style and illustrate how it differs from the style of other authors. Some translators’ paratexts are devoted almost solely to the description of the author’s style. Another

139 interesting feature of this group of paratexts is their emphasis on the translator-author personal relationship. In their paratexts, the translators often stress that they know the author personally, admire him/her as a person as well as a writer, and know a lot about his/her life and work. The translator may describe his/her visits to the source language country; in many cases such visits occurred more than once. The emphasis on such a close personal relationship between the translator and the author, as well as the translator’s multiple trips to the source language country, suggests, though indirectly, the high level of proficiency and translation competence of the translators in the journal.

Even though we rarely find a direct description of the translator’s skills and translation assessment in the paratexts, the themes mentioned above let us assume that the translator was not just randomly chosen to translate that particular author, but that he or she was a real professional with a high knowledge of the source language, the source text author, the culture of the source language country, as well as the broader source text context.

4.4.2.3 Length of the Paratexts and Its Influence on Thematic Content

As for the paratexts’ length, the quantitative analysis (see Chapter “Quantitative

Analysis”) of the corpus showed that the most common lengths of the paratexts are one page (189 paratexts), two pages (148 paratexts), or half a page (144 paratexts). These shorter paratexts (ranging from half a page to two pages in length) constitute 81% of all the paratexts in the corpus, whereas longer paratexts (ranging from two and a half to six and a half pages) constitute 19%. As discussed in the “Quantitative Analysis” chapter, the length of the paratexts correlates with the type of paratext (forewords and afterwords) —

140 longer paratexts tend to be afterwords, whereas shorter paratexts tend to be forewords.

Furthermore, the length of the paratexts influences their thematic content. I closely read the paratexts that are six and a half pages in length to see how, if at all, they differ from shorter paratexts. As a whole, very long paratexts do not differ much from the short ones.

They all cover the major themes: source text-related, author-related, and context-related.

What they do not talk about is translation, which is not surprising given their authorship: the long paratexts in the corpus are written by a third party. However, there are some characteristics unique to the long paratexts. First, such paratexts usually include a long introduction on the socio-political and socio-historical context of the source text. Such paratexts emphasize the importance of the context for a better understanding of the translated work. Second, long paratexts cover a high number of source text author-related themes. They devote a lot of space to a detailed description of the author’s development as a writer, very detailed information on the author’s biography and the influence of political events on the author’s literary career. Very often such paratexts cite other writers’ and critics’ opinions on the author’s work. The long paratexts in the corpus underline the originality of the author’s style and provide a detailed description of his/her style or manner of writing. Third, longer paratexts include information on the source text literature, its history, and traditions. Finally, they provide a very long and detailed summary of the source text, with detailed descriptions of the main characters. This last feature of the long paratexts in the corpus is very interesting from the point of view of the framing power of paratexts. The paratexts’ authors do more than just describe the main characters of the source text: the critics express their vision of the source text and suggest

141 their way, the right way from an ideological perspective, of understanding the main characters and their actions in the source text.

5.4.2.4 Conclusion: The Major Changes in Thematic Coverage

If we look at the corpus of 777 paratexts published in the journal Inostrannaia Literatura without paying particular attention to their structure, authorship and length, as discussed above, two overall changes in the thematic content of the paratext can be isolated:

1) Changes in the overall coverage of the themes

2) Changes in the content within the themes (changes in the sub-themes).

Changes in the overall coverage of the themes. As seen from the thematic analysis, the themes that have the highest frequency across the three historical periods are source text- related, author-related, and context-related. The coverage of those themes remains more or less stable across the three periods. Therefore, we can argue that the discourse of the translation paratexts published in the journal was more source-text oriented than target- text oriented. The purpose of the paratexts was to present the translated works in such a way that they could pass censorship: controversial passages were explained to the readers by the paratexts’ authors, the “correct” understanding of the author’s ideas was emphasized, and the right context was provided. In other words, the paratexts in the journal act as “powerful interpretive frames” (Summers 9).

As for translation-related and translation process-related themes, their coverage increases over time, especially during the third period. In other words, during perestroika

142 there are more paratexts written by translators and about translation. Even though during the first two historical periods there were paratexts written by translators, they rarely mentioned the translation process itself, whereas, during the third period, all the translators’ paratexts make some kind of comment about the target text and/or the translation challenges.

The theme ‘Author’s Political Engagement’ loses its importance in the third historical period (perestroika). As the political situation in the country shifted toward relaxation and abolishment of censorship, there was no need to present the source text author as a literary figure sharing the ideological values of the Soviet Union. The literary works during that period did not have to adhere to the principles of Socialist Realism.

Therefore, foreign works were not assessed against the backdrop of such principles as

‘ideological commitment’ and ‘party-mindedness.’ Consequently, the source authors’ political engagement was no longer an important issue to discuss in the translation paratexts published in the journal at that historical period. Moreover, the paratexts of the third period include direct criticism of the censorship that previous translations published in the journal were subjected to. For example, in September 1990, Soviet translator Inna

Bernstein in her foreword to the novel The Joke by Milan Kundera writes:

Передо мной лежит экземпляр романа Милана Кундеры “Шутка”,

присланный мне писателем весной 1967 года вскоре после выхода в свет. На

титульном листе вместе с любезными словами, которыми автор обычно

сопровождает посылку своей книги,—типично кундеровское ироническое

замечание: «этот роман исключительно пригоден для перевода на русский

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язык». Думать тогда об издании у нас «Шутки» не приходилось. После 1968

года—тем более. Потребовались крутые исторические повороты и у нас, и

на родине писателя для того, чтобы наш читатель получил возможность

познакомиться с романом, одной из вершин чешской прозы. (IL 1990(9):82)

[In front of me, I have a copy of the novel The Joke by Milan Kundera, which was

sent to me by the writer in the spring of 1967 shortly after the novel was released.

On the title page, together with the kind words that the author usually includes in

the package with his books, there is an ironic remark in the Kundera style: “this

novel is exceptionally suitable for translation into the Russian language.” At that

time, we could not even think of publishing The Joke, especially after 1968.

Major historical turning points were needed both in our country and in the

homeland of the writer for our readers to have an opportunity to get to know the

novel, one of the crown jewels of Czech prose.]

Here is another example of the journal’s critique of censorship in this period:

С обычным для нашей расторопности шестидесятилетним опозданием

советский читатель может познакомиться с фрагментами из едва ли не

самой знаменитой американской поэмы ХХ века — «Тело Джона Брауна»

Стивена Винсента Бене (1898–1943). Это даже не поэма, а эпопея,

стихотворный эпос, вышедший отдельной книгой впервые в 1928 году. (IL

1190(6):47)

[With a 60-year delay, typical of our promptness, the Soviet reader can get

acquainted with fragments from, perhaps, the most famous American poem of the

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20th century — “John Brown’s Body” by Stephen Vincent Benét (1898-1943).

It’s not even a poem, it’s an epic, poetic epic, first published in book format in

1928.]

From the examples cited above, we can see that the translations published in the journal were subjected to censorship on the macro-level: the choice of foreign works to be translated was regulated at the highest level, by the State.

Such examples show that during the perestroika period, the paratexts’ authors felt freer in expressing their opinions in the pages of the journal regarding the source text, the source text author, and the source text context. Moreover, during the third period, the journal published more paratexts written by translators. The paratexts became more target text-oriented: such themes as “Translator” and “Translation Process” were more frequent during perestroika than during the previous historical periods.

Changes in content within the themes (sub-themes’ changes). It must be noted that the changes in thematic content and thematic coverage affected not only the major themes (e.g., the theme of “Author’s Political Engagement” became less frequent in the third period, whereas that of “Translation Process” became more frequent), but also the sub-themes within the themes. The thematic analysis of the paratexts shows that the frequency of the theme of “Socio-political and socio-historical context” remained stable during the three historical periods; however, it is elaborated through different sub-themes during the third period. During the first two periods the paratexts discussed such sub- themes as fascism, capitalism, class struggle, struggles for independence, the Cold War, and racial problems, but during the third period the most frequent sub-themes were those

145 that explored feminism, social vices, conformism, mass culture, consumerism, and the place of the individual in society. In other words, during the first and second historical periods, the theme of “Socio-political and socio-historical context” was elaborated through sub-themes that are politically oriented, while during the third period it was elaborated through sub-themes that were more socially oriented.

Another difference in the thematic content of perestroika is its more favorable attitude toward the West, especially toward the United States. It is important to bear in mind that the sub-themes related to the United States and the West are quite frequent across the three historical periods. There is an explanation for such “curiosity about

America — and hence, a hunger for books by American authors” (Friedberg 1976: 520).

As Friedberg (1976) puts it, it is “the United States that is always presented by Soviet mass media and in Soviet schools as the U.S.S.R.’s only real counterpart in the capitalist world, one of comparable strength and size and population; it is with the United States

(and not, say, Great Britain or Japan or Brazil) that the Soviet Union is always compared and contrasted” (520, emphasis in original). During the Thaw and Stagnation, “Soviet literary criticism regards American literature as a single indivisible body of writing”

(Friedberg 1976: 530), which contributes to the image of America as “static”, and rife with socio-political problems such as unemployment, economic deprivation and injustice, racial injustice, feeling of loneliness and estrangement, and growth of fascism and militarism (Friedberg 1976: 530–540).

Whereas during the first and second historical periods the paratexts presented the

West in a negative light, during the third period the tone of the paratexts changed slightly.

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A broadening of the selection of American writing to which Soviet readers have access

“promotes a far more realistic view of America as a country of much greater complexity than what the Soviet press would lead one to believe” (Friedberg 1976: 556). Such an image of the United States as a country with “variant and vibrant culture” (556) can be clearly seen in the paratexts of the perestroika period. For example, in his afterword to

Kings of Cocaine by Guy Gugliotta and Jeff Leen Lev Elin writes:

Борьба с наркобизнесом, с преступностью в целом — междунорадноя

проблема, она стоит и пред СССР. И наше общественное мнение, пожалуй,

менее стабильное, чем в США, требует объявить преступникам войну, зовет

к ужесточению наказаний. […] Опасность «перегибов2 для нас крайне

серьезна, что подтвердила серия законов, приказов и указов последнего

времени. Легализовано прослушиванеи телефонных переговоров, что до сих

пор официально в нашей стране не допускалось — хотя мы знаем, что КГБ

прибегало к этому. […] Призывы покончить с преступностью, а для этого

«не мешать правоохранительным органам» звучат в нашей стране

постоянно. Перемены в руководстве и структуре этих органов удивительно

напоминают назначение жестокого, властного сторонника «энергичных

мер» Беннета «царем» борьбы с наркотиками... При этом система правовой

защиты в ССР далеко не отработана. Суды еще не стали независимыми и

легко поддаются кампаниям даже вроде «борьбы с алкоголизмом»,

адвокатов не хватает; правозащитная система, подобная американской —

как государственной, так и негосударственной, — мало сказать, в

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зачаточном состоянии. По сути, нет тормозов, способных остановить

наступление на права человека. Поэтому нам пригодится американский

опыт — чтобы выбрать свои методы, свои средства, чтобы правильно

рассчитать баланс между интересами общества и свободами личности. (IL

1991(3):236)

[The fight against drug trafficking and crime in general is an international problem, which the Soviet Union is facing as well. And our public opinion, perhaps less stable than in the USA, is demanding that a war on criminals be proclaimed, calling for harsher penalties. […] The danger of “extremes” is very serious for us, which was confirmed by a series of recently adopted laws, orders, and decrees. Phone tapping was legalized, which until then not been officially allowed in our country — although we know the KGB used to resort to such measures. […] Calls to end crime, which requires “no interference in the work of the law enforcement bodies,” are heard all the time in our country. Changes in the leadership and structure of these bodies surprisingly resemble the appointment of that cruel, powerful supporter of “aggressive measures,” [Bill] Bennett, the “tsar” of the fight against drugs... However, the system of legal protection in the USSR is far from perfect. The courts have not yet become independent and easily gives in even to the “fight against alcoholism”; there are not enough lawyers, and human rights organizations, similar to the ones in the USA, both governmental and non-governmental, are in their infancy. In fact, there is nothing to stop the attack on human rights. Therefore, we need American experience to help us

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choose our methods, our means, to strike the right balance between the interests

of society and the freedoms of the individual.]

Lev Elin emphasizes that the United States is one of the world’s developed democracies and that its democratic institutions protect individual freedom and human rights. In his afterword, he points out that the Soviet Union and the United States share some social problems, and he calls for greater balance between individual freedom and public order and safety in the USSR. Instead of the usual criticism of the USA and its system, which is typical of the paratexts of the first and second historical periods, we see that the paratexts of the perestroika period acknowledge that the Soviet system has its own problems.

To sum up, the analysis of the thematic content of the paratexts in the corpus shows the changing view of the West on the pages of the journal. Whereas during the first two periods, the paratexts present the West through themes with predominantly negative political connotations, during the third period the West is presented as different from the Soviet Union, but not necessarily bad. Another important change in thematic content concerns the change in focus from the socio-political setting of the source text to the socio-cultural setting, with greater emphasis placed on the problems of individuals and of society as a whole.

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CHAPTER 6

Framing Strategies Used in the Paratextual Data

6.1 Introduction

This chapter sets out to answer the “HOW” part of the questions of the qualitative analysis of the corpus comprised of 777 paratexts, namely, how the images of the source-language cultures (the thematic content of the paratexts) were shaped for target- language readers across the three historical periods. In this chapter, we describe and analyze the framing strategies employed by the paratexts’ authors to shape the readers’ interpretation of the translated works.

6.2 Framing Strategies: Overview and Analysis

The analysis of framing strategies is based on Mona Baker’s classification outlined in her book Translation and Conflict: A Narrative Account published in 2006. Baker examined some of the many ways (strategies) in which “translators and interpreters — in collaboration with publishers, editors and other agents involved in the interaction — accentuate, undermine or modify aspects of the narrative(s) encoded in the source text or utterance” (105), and she came up with the following open-ended list of devices that can be used to “frame or reframe narratives in translation” (112): 1) selective appropriation of textual material; 2) temporal and spatial framing; 3) labelling; and 4) repositioning of

150 participants. This chapter takes Baker’s classification as a starting point and describes how these strategies were used in framing the translations published in the journal.

6.2.1 Selective Appropriation of Textual Material

According to Baker, selective appropriation may be performed by using omission and addition “to suppress, accentuate or elaborate particular aspects of a narrative encoded in the source text or utterance, or aspects of the larger narrative(s) in which it is embedded”

(114). Moreover, selective appropriation may be done at a “higher-level” (which I will call the “macro level”) or within individual translations (which I will call the “micro level”). At the macro level, the patterns of selectivity take into consideration inclusion or exclusion of specific texts, authors, languages or cultures, whereas, at the micro level, selectivity (omission or addition) occurs within individual translations. Even though the study does not aim to analyze censorship at the macro or micro level, analysis of the paratextual data allows us to draw some conclusions regarding the inclusion and exclusion of works to be translated in the journal Inostrannaia Literatura between 1955 and 1991.

6.2.1.1 Macro-Level Patterns of Selectivity

Even though the present study is not devoted to censorship in the journal, both the quantitative and thematic analysis of the paratexts in the corpus may help to shed some light on the censorship practices of that time. The quantitative analysis provides an idea

151 of which authors and languages were chosen for translation (see Chapter “Quantitative

Analysis” for more on the authors, languages, and countries chosen for translation), whereas the thematic analysis of the paratexts published in Inostrannia Literatura helps reveal the criteria of inclusion and exclusion of the source texts chosen for translation

(see Chapter “Thematic Analysis” for a detailed analysis and discussion of the themes covered in the paratexts). Marianna Tax Choldin (1989) in her chapter on censorship titled “Censorship via Translation: Soviet Treatment of Western Political Writing” analyzed four nonfiction works on politics and international relations published between

1954 and 1966 and arrived at the following themes that were of concern to the censorship apparatus in the Soviet Union at that time:

1) The image of the Soviet Union and communism: a) excising the negative; b)

emphasizing the positive;

2) The image of the United States and other Western powers: a) criticism of the U.S.

political system and people; b) the United States and Western powers as

imperialist; c) the United States as “arrogant”; d) the United States as behaving

badly toward other countries.

Choldin’s analysis of censored foreign works showed that the themes outlined above were taken into consideration both in the initial process of source text selection and in the subsequent treatment of their translations. Along the same lines, it may be argued that the treatment of the themes in the translation paratexts published in the journal reflect the

152 attitude of the state toward the topics raised in the source texts and, therefore, reflect, though indirectly, the macro-level patterns of selectivity applied in each historical period.

The mentions of censorship that affected the publication of foreign works in the journal can be found in the pages of Inostrannaia Literatura itself, especially during the perestroika period. Here is what Asar Eppel writes in the foreword to his translation of

The Cinnamon Shops by Bruno Schulz:

Лет двадцать пять назад—то есть считай уже четверть века—я предлагал

журналу «Иностранная литература» прозу странного и поразительного

польского писателя Бруно Шульца. Странность и поразительность тогда не

поощрялись, и попытка моя кончилась ничем.

Осторожничали в те времена, зачастую руководствуясь советами «наших

друзей». Была такая категория—«наши друзья». К их рекомендациям

прислушивались сотрудники советских посольств, и в случае с Шульцем

тоже, очевидно, были наложены надлежащие запреты, ибо с польской

литературой, как известно, хлопот не оберешься.

«Наши друзья» пресекали и все мои дальнейшие попытки познакомить

наконец отечественных читателей с великой прозой, давно преведенной на

все европейские языки, и даже монументальный Ярослав Ивашкевич не мог

развеять опаски ответственных за литературу (я был свидетелем тому на

встрече с Ивашкевичем в редакции «ИЛ»), а уж он-то был настоящим

нашим другом. (IL 1990(12):5)

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[Twenty-five years ago, almost a quarter of a century, I was offering to the journal

Foreign Literature the prose of that strange and amazing Polish writer Bruno

Schulz. Strangeness and originality were not encouraged then, and my attempt

failed.

Back then, we were careful, often guided by the advice of “our friends.” There

was such a category — “our friends.” Their recommendations were very carefully

considered by the staff of the Soviet embassies, and in the case of Schulz, too, the

proper prohibitions were apparently imposed, because Polish literature, as is

commonly known, is a real headache.

“Our friends” stopped all my subsequent attempts to finally acquaint Soviet

readers with that great prose, which had long ago been translated into all the

European languages, and even the monumental Jaroslaw Iwaszkewicz could not

allay the fears of those responsible for literature (I was a witness to that at a

meeting with Iwaszkewicz in the editorial office of IL), and he of all people was a

real friend of ours.]

Even though the goal of the journal was to acquaint the readers with the latest works of the foreign authors, many works were published in the journal long after their release in the source language country. Here is what Russian literary translator and critic Alexander

Livergant says about the delay in the publishing of translations in the journal in his foreword to his translation of Black Mischief by Evelyn Waugh:

До недавнего времени в нашем литературоведении бытовала теория, в

соответствии с которой торопиться знакомить читателя со «спорными»

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книгами не следует — если они пролежат несколько десятилетий под

спудом, и читатель, и автор (если доживет, конечно) только выиграют; чем

дольше «сложное явление искусства» будет находиться в безвестности, тем

объективнее будет затем его прочтение — глядишь, крамола и выветрится.

Следуя этой конструктивной концепции, в которой, пожалуй, есть что-то от

виноделия, «выдерживали», как известно, много талантливых

отечественных и зарубежных авторов ХХ века, и остается только пожалеть,

что принцип «пусть полежит» не применен к Щедрину, Гоголю, Сухову-

Кобылину, Достоевскому — сейчас бы они, выдержанные, наверняка

составили конкуренцию Булгакову и Джойсу, Эрдману и Оруэллу, Хармсу и

Беккету.

Ивлина Во эта практика, казалось бы, благополучно миновала; советские

издания и журналы всегда охотно его печатали, а чтобы английский сатирик

особенно «не кусался», в предисловиях, как это еще совсем недавно было

принято, разьяснялся локальный, антибуржуазный характер его сатиры. (IL

1991(6):83, emphasis mine)

[Until recently, there was a theory in our literary studies according to which there is no need to hurry to introduce “controversial” books to readers — if they are kept under wraps for a few decades, both the reader and the author (if they live until then, of course) will only win; the longer the “complex phenomenon of art” lies in obscurity, the more objective its reading will be — and before you know it, the sedition will fade away. Following this constructive concept, in which perhaps

155

there is something taken from winemaking, as we know, many talented national

and foreign authors of the XX century were “aged,” and the only remaining regret

is that the principle «let it lie» was not applied to Shchedrin, Gogol, Sukhov-

Kobylin, and Dostoyevsky — “aged,” they would now compete with Bulgakov

and Joyce, Erdman and Orwell, Harms and Beckett. It would seem that Evelyn

Waugh escaped that practice; Soviet editions and magazines always willingly

printed his works, but to prevent the English satirist from “biting,” the prefaces, as

was then the custom, explained the local, anti-bourgeois nature of his satire.]

As seen from the examples cited above, censorship has been performed at various levels: in the selection of foreign works for translation, in the censoring of the translations published in the journal, and in the framing of the translations by means of paratextual materials (i.e., forewords, afterwords, and critical essays).

6.2.1.2 Micro-level Patterns of Selectivity

The present study does not have the aim of analyzing the micro-level patterns of selectivity; however, an analysis of omissions and additions found in the individual translations published in Inostrannaia Literatura may be considered an opportunity for further research.

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6.2.2 Temporal and Spatial Framing

Temporal and spatial framing does not usually involve changes in the text itself

(however, nor it does necessarily exclude such intervention), and it is more about

“selecting a particular text and embedding it in a temporal and spatial context that accentuates the narrative it depicts” (Baker 2006: 112). Such framing helps to establish links between the narrative of the source text and the narratives currently circulating in society, “even though the events of the source narrative may be set within a very different temporal and spatial framework” (Baker 2006: 112). The strategy of spatial and temporal framing is a very popular one in the paratexts under investigation in this study, which may be explained by the fact that, due to censorship, translations were often published years after the publication of the source text in the source country.

In terms of temporal framing, the paratext accompanying the translation of Black

Mischief by Evelyn Waugh offers an interesting example. Black Mischief was first published in 1932. However, due to censorship, the novel first appeared in the journal in its June 1991 issue. Here is what Alexander Livergant writes in his foreword to the translation:

«Черная беда», написанная без малого шестьдесят лет назад о

вымышленном острове у Восточного побережья Африки, при ближайшем

рассмотрении оказывается бедой отнюдь не чужой — и этим, думается, мы

обязаны не только провидческому дару сатирика, но и нашим

доморощенным перестраховщикам. […] Читая «Черную беду» сегодня,

лишний раз убеждаешься, что теория «выдерживания» спорных книг

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нередко оборачивается против самих теоретиков: лежа под спудом,

талантливый роман становится не менее, а более актуальным. (IL

1991(6):83)

[Black Mischief, written no less than sixty years ago about a fictional island off

the East Coast of Africa, at its most recent consideration turns out to be a

common misfortune — and this, I think, we owe not only to the visionary gift of

the satirist, but also to our homegrown overcautious people. […] Reading Black

Mischief today, you are once again convinced that the theory of “aging” of

controversial books often turns against the theorists themselves: kept under wraps,

a talented novel becomes not less, but more relevant.]

Livergant points out that the novel, originally published in 1932, was offered to Soviet readers with an almost 60-year delay. However, the issues raised by the source text author are still relevant in a different temporal and spatial context. The translator’s paratext situates the novel in the context of perestroika and draws parallels between the two historical periods: the period of modernization on the fictional African island and the period of perestroika with its reforms in the Soviet Union.

Another example of spatial and temporal framing is presented in the foreword to

The Safety Net by Heinrich Böll. The novel was originally published in 1979, but its first

Russian translation appeared in 1988, almost ten years later. In his foreword to translation, the translator, Mikhail Rudnitsky, emphasizes the links between the author and Soviet readers. Rudnitsky points out that the readers already know other translations of Heinrich Böll’s works, that the author’s point of view and the themes he touches upon

158 in his works are shared by readers in the Soviet Union, and, even though his last work in translation was published with a long delay, neither the author nor his works have lost their relevance for the target text audience: :

Думаю, возвращая Генриху Бёллю долг нашей благодарной памяти, нам

пора спросить себя: почему его книги, написанные в другой стране, в

условиях иной социальной системы, столь много говорят нашему уму и

сердцу? Почему трудная и неравная борьба бёлелвских героев за право быть

собой, за собственную свободу и достоинство так волнует нас, а

нравственные уроки этой борьбы так созвучны и нашим чаяниям? Не пора

ли признаться себе, что кое-какой опыт существования в обществе, которое

закрывает глаза на свои болезни, не терпит инакомыслия, не поощряет

стремления человека к «самостоянью» — что такой опыт имеется, увы, и у

нас. И не настолько далеко в прошлое ушел этот опыт, чтобы мы успели

напрочь о нем забыть. (IL 1988(11): 5)

[I think, in returning the debt of our grateful memory to Heinrich Böll, it is time

for us to ask ourselves: why do his books, written in another country, in a

different social system, speak so much to our minds and hearts? Why is it that the

difficult and unequal struggle of Böll’s heroes for their right to be themselves, for

their freedom and dignity, is of such concern to us, and the moral lessons of such

a struggle are so consonant with our aspirations? It is time to admit to ourselves

that we, unfortunately, also have some experience of existence in a society that

turns a blind eye to its diseases, that does not tolerate dissent, that does not

159

encourage the pursuit of “self-identity”. And that experience is not so far in the

past to have completely forgotten about it.]

The translator warns against drawing a literal analogy between the historical and social context of the novel and the Soviet context, but at the same time he argues that there are definitely grounds for comparison between the two. It is interesting to note that, besides comparing two different temporal and spatial settings, the paratext’s author criticizes some social aspects of the past, which would be unlikely to encounter in the paratexts of the Thaw period.

One might assume that the examples of temporal and spatial framing are characteristic of the paratexts of the perestroika period and not those of the first two historical periods. However, the paratextual analysis shows that such framing was in fact popular with the paratext authors across all three historical periods. For example, in the paratext to the translation of Gerpla by Halldór Laxness (originally published in 1952), we find the source text author’s opinion on the relevance of Laxness’s work:

В книге высмеивается и развенчивается культ героя; в ней показано, что

самую важную роль в истории играют простые люди. Многие из проблем,

поставленных в книге, актуальны и сейчас. В наше время тоже немало

болтают о героях... (IL 1957(1):145)

[The book mocks and denounces the hero’s cult; it shows that the most important

role in history is played by ordinary people. Many of the problems raised in the

book are still relevant today. Nowadays, too, they talk much about heroes...]

160

Even though the events described in Gerpla, inspired by old Icelandic sagas, unfold in the

11th century, the paratext emphasizes that the themes discussed in the novel—the hardships of war for ordinary people and their desire for peace—are still important today.

Another example belongs to the second historical period, that of the stagnation.

The novel Lope de Aguirre, Prince of Freedom was originally written by Miguel Otero

Silva in 1979. In the paratext to the novel’s translation, which was published in the journal in 1981, Yuri Dashkevich writes:

Поднятыми в романе проблемами писатель как бы соотносит свое

произведение с проблемами нашей современности, с борьбой, которую

ведут в наши дни народы Латинской Америки. (IL 1981(9):38)

[The problems raised in the novel relate the author’s work to the problems of our

time, to the struggle being carried on by the peoples of Latin America today.]

The paratext’s author points out that the conquistador Lope de Aguirre who lived centuries ago and was a forerunner of the heroes of Latin American independence from

Spain is closer to present-day readers than we might think. The problems that were important in the 16th century were still relevant for readers not only in Latin America but also in the present-day Soviet Union.

According to Mona Baker, the year in which a translation is presented to the target readers is one way of framing the source text’s narrative. However, due to censorship, the journal could not always publish translations in the same year the source text was published in the source-text country. Therefore, the spatial and temporal framing of the source texts’ narratives had to be achieved by other means than the actual timing of

161 the translations’ publication. In Inostrannaia Literatura, the paratexts to the translations published in the journal served as a means of “embedding the source text in a temporal and spatial context that accentuated its narrative and projected it onto a new setting”

(Baker 2006: 113). Without intervening in the texts themselves, the paratexts’ authors were able to displace the source texts to cater to the viewpoint of the Soviet readers.

6.2.3 Labelling

Labelling is understood by Baker as the process of “using a lexical item, term or phrase, to identify a person, place, group, event or any other key element in a narrative” (2006:

122). Rival place names, titles of books, films and other types of materials are the most common examples of devices available to translators for (re)framing narratives through labelling. No matter where labelling takes place, any type of label “provides an interpretive frame that guides and constrains our response to the narrative in question”

(Baker 2006: 122). Below is the list of the most common labels used to describe the authors of the source texts:

Table 12. List of Labels Used to Describe the Authors of the Source Texts.

Label Translation Journal’s

Year and

Issue

1 выдающийся писатель outstanding writer 1955(1)

162

2 гордый представитель нового мира proud representative of the 1955(2)

new world

3 один из величайших поэтов Китая one of China’s greatest poets 1955(2)

4 крупнейший поэт Австрии; Austria’s great poet; 1955(3)

вольнолюбивый поэт freedom-loving poet

5 писатель-реалист realist writer 1955(5)

6 лирик-мыслитель, боевой lyricist-thinker, militant 1956(3)

публицист, поэт-коммунист, поэт- publicist, communist poet,

патриот, романтик и борец, борец за patriotic poet, romantic and

дело трудящихся fighter for the cause of

workers

7 поэты-революционеры revolutionary poets 1956(5)

8 замечательный человек wonderful person 1956(6)

9 поэтесса-патриотка patriot poet 1956(7)

10 неповторимый андалузец unique Andalusian 1956(8)

11 революционный поэт, агитатор и revolutionary poet, agitator 1956(10)

сатирик and satirist

12 индийские друзья Indian friends 1956(11)

13 один из крупнейших писателей one of the greatest writers of 1956(12)

современной Франции, истинный modern France, a true artist

художник

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14 поэт самобытный и блестящий, original and brilliant poet, 1956(12)

народный баснописец folk fabulist

15 один из лучших передовых one of the world’s best 1957(2)

писателей мира, борец за светлое writers, a champion of a

будущее человечества bright future for humanity

16 пламенный революционер, ardent revolutionary, eminent 1957(9)

выдающийся публицист, publicist, literary historian

литературовед и литературный and literary critic, translator,

критик, переводчик, пропагандист propagandist of Russian

русской классической и советской classical and Soviet literature

литературы

17 неутомимый и страстный борец tireless and passionate fighter 1958(6)

против войны и фашизма against war and fascism

18 воинствующий гуманист militant humanist 1959(10)

19 поэт-революционер, борец за revolutionary poet, champion 1960(1)

человеческое счастье of human happiness

20 поэт-гуманист, борец против войны, humanist poet, fighter against 1960(2)

певец мира и дружбы между war, singer of peace and

народами friendship among nations

21 писатель-гуманист humanist writer 1960(5)

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22 пламенный революционер и ardent revolutionary and 1961(6)

замечательный публицист great publicist

23 поэт-революционер poet-revolutionary 1961(12)

24 активный борец за свободу своего active fighter for the freedom 1962(1)

народа of his people

25 молодой талантливый писатель, young and talented writer, 1962(4)

союзник и собрат в идейной борьбе ally and brother in the

ideological fight

26 живая история, человек, в котором living history, a man who 1962(12)

сосредоточены благороднейшие embodies the noblest

черты его народа: достоинство, qualities of his people:

мужество, воля к борьбе, вера в dignity, courage, the will to

правоту своего дела fight, faith in the rightness of

his cause

27 писатели-бойцы writer-warriors 1963(11)

28 крупнейший венесуэльский поэт the greatest Venezuelan poet 1964(5)

29 поэты-узники poet-prisoners 1965(5)

30 рационалист и аналитик rationalist and analyst 1966(2)

31 страстный, логичный, мудрый passionate, logical, wise 1966(8)

32 писатель, воин и пропагандист writer, warrior and 1968(1)

propagandist

165

33 поэтесса-коммунистка Communist poet 1969(5)

34 один из крупнейших писателей one of the greatest Brazilian 1970(4)

Бразилии, маститый писатель writers, veteran writer

35 самый значительный писатель the most significant writer in 1970(4)

арабского Магриба the Arab Maghreb

36 поэт-антифашист anti-fascist poet 1970(4)

37 писатель-коммунист Communist writer 1972(6)

38 искусный лирик skillful lyricist 1972(8)

39 непримиримый бунтарь irreconcilable rebel 1973(2)

40 прогрессивный писатель и progressive writer and 1973(4)

революционер revolutionary

41 поэт-гуманист humanist writer 1973(8)

42 писательница-коммунистка Communist writer 1974(3)

43 писатель-демократ writer-democrat 1974(5)

44 поэт-коммунист Communist poet 1982(10)

45 революционный романтик revolutionary romantic 1982(12)

46 писатель-реалист realist writer 1983(4)

47 художник-реалист realist artist 1983(5)

48 писатель-коммунист Communist writer 1984(11)

49 художник-реалист realist artist 1985(11)

50 оптимист optimist 1986(1)

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51 тонкий психолог, знаток excellent judge of character, 1986(3)

крестьянской жизни expert on peasant life

52 проницательный писатель и критик keen writer and social critic 1986(5)

общественных нравов

53 философ philosopher 1987(5)

54 моралист moralist 1987(6)

Two major findings emerged from the analysis of labelling techniques found the paratextual data. First, the data showed that the framing by labelling was more frequent during the periods of thaw and stagnation than during perestroika. The paratexts from the perestroika period do not use labelling as a framing strategy, as during that period the author’s political engagement was not considered an important feature for insuring the correct understanding (from an ideological perspective) of the source text. The paratexts from the thaw and stagnation periods, on the contrary, had to resort to this strategy more often to create an ideologically favorable image of the source text authors. Second, the paratexts reveal that labelling was used by the paratexts’ authors for two main purposes:

1) To reassure the censors

2) To reassure the readers

First, the labelling strategy was used in the paratexts to reassure the censors that the authors whose works were published in translation in the journal were politically

167 correct and shared the principles of Socialist Realism. Such labels as ‘communist’,

‘humanist’, ‘propagandist’, ‘patriot’, ‘revolutionary’, ‘fighter for a brighter future’,

‘antifascist’, and ‘realist’ are some examples of the use of labelling to reassure the censors. Second, labelling was used to reassure the readers that they were reading the works of the best foreign authors, and that those authors were close to people (e.g., ‘an active fighter for the freedom of its people’, ‘a wonderful person’, ‘a keen observer of peasant life’), qualified (e.g., ‘a true artist’, ‘the most famous writer’, ‘a perceptive writer’, ‘a veteran writer’), and shared the target country’s values and beliefs (e.g., ‘an ally in the ideological battle’). It may be said that framing by labelling was used in the journal to create the kind of narrative about the source language authors that would appeal both to the censors and to Soviet readers.

To sum up, it is important to point out that the authors of the foreign works published in the journal were labelled in a way that would lead the readers and censors to view them as writers who are trustworthy, humanistic, democratic, revolutionary, and ideologically correct, and, at the same time, among the greatest and most famous writers in the world. Therefore, in their labelling of the source text authors, the paratexts seem to be guided by two major criteria: 1) ideological criteria; 2) artistic criteria — the artistic value of the authors for the target text readers.

6.2.4 Repositioning of Participants

In her discussion of repositioning in translation and interpreting, Baker points out that participants can be repositioned in relation to each other and to the reader through either

168 shifts in the expression of linguistic parameters (i.e., time, space, deixis, dialect, register, and the use of epithets) or in the form of paratextual commentary (132). The present study is concerned with the repositioning that happens in the paratexts surrounding the translated texts and so does not look at the linguistic shifts within the translations. The repositioning strategy allows the translator or interpreter “to reconfigure the relationship between here and there, now and then, them and us, reader and narrator, reader and translator, hearer and interpreter” (132, italics in original). Such paratextual materials as introductions, prefaces, footnotes, glossaries, cover designs and blubs, are some of the various “sites available to translators for repositioning themselves, their readers and other participants in time and space” (133). The positioning technique was frequently used in the corpus of the present study to position the source text and the source-text authors as being a part of the target language community or fighting for a common cause (e.g., struggles for freedom and independence or the struggle against fascism).

Consider, for example, the foreword to the translation of poems by young

Angolan writers, which emphasizes the links between the source country (Angola) and

Soviet readers:

Тысячи и тысячи километров между Москвой и Луандой, между русскими

рощами и ангольскими джунглями.

История веков и международная обстановка последних десятилетий ставили

крутые препятствия связям между нашими народами. Но основная

тенденция современности берет верхю Борьба за свободу и независимость

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объединяет людей: преодолевая расстояния, сближаются континенты и

страны. (IL 1976(9): 3)

[Thousands and thousands of kilometers lie between Moscow and Luanda,

between Russian forests and Angolan jungles.

The history and the international environment of recent decades has posed

enormous obstacles to communication between our peoples. But the main trend of

our times is taking off. The struggle for freedom and independence unites people:

overcoming that distance, the continents and countries come together.]

In his foreword, the paratext author reconfigures the relationship between ‘here’ and

‘there’, ‘them’ and ‘us; he brings the source-text authors and the target-text readers closer to each other by pointing out that the two countries share similar difficulties, that they are fighting for a similar cause, and that the geographical distance between the countries is not a barrier for mutual understanding.

Very often the paratexts in the corpus include information about the source text authors and emphasize that the author has visited the Soviet Union, knows other Soviet literary figures, and shares the problems of the target language country. For example,

James Aldridge in his foreword to his novel A Captive in the Land, published in the journal in 1968, addresses the Soviet readers directly:

Из Англии в Советский Союз я обычно еду поездом. И, когда после долгого

путешествия по Европе поезд пересекает советскую границу под Брестом, у

меня всякий раз такое чувство, точно я приехал домой: ведь Советский

Союз во многом стал моим вторым домом. Я, конечно, прежде всего

170

англичанин и глубоко люблю свою страну, но вот уже долгое время живу

вашими радостями и горестями. Я делил с вами тяготы войны, видел, как

трудно вам пришлось в послевоенный период, и принимал это к сердцу так,

словно мой народ и моя семья платили такой дорогой ценой за ту свободу,

которая есть сегодня в мире. (IL 1968(3): 5)

[While travelling from England to the Soviet Union, I usually take the train. And

when, after a long trip across Europe, the train crosses the Soviet border near

Brest, every time I have the feeling that I’ve come home, because the Soviet

Union is, in many ways, my second home. First and foremost, I am, of course, an

Englishman, and I love my country deeply, but I have long lived your joys and

sorrows. I shared with you the hardships of the war, I saw how hard the post-war

period was for you, and I took it close to heart as if it were my people and my

family that had paid such a heavy price for the freedom that we have today.]

In his foreword, Aldridge stresses multiple times that his novel is not originally written for Soviet readers, and that probably not all readers in the Soviet Union will share his perspective, but he is sure that target readers will understand what he was trying to say in his novel.

Another example of the repositioning technique is found in the foreword to the translation of a story by William Bailey published in the journal in 1970. In her foreword, the translator, Limanovskaia V.I., draws the readers’ attention to the fact that she personally knew the author and that the author sent her the manuscript of his work that he accompanied with a preface, from which she cites the following lines:

171

Писал я ее, рассчитывая на американских читателей — на рабочих, главным

образом на моряков, но мне кажется, что она будет близка по материалу и

рабочим в других странах, быть может напомнит им что-нибудь из их

собственного опыта. С замиранием сердца буду ждать выхода ее в свет на

русском языке. Хочу надеяться, что те долгие часы, которые я провел за

пишущей машинко, не пропали даром. (IL 1970(4): 13)

[I wrote it for American readers — workers, mostly sailors, but I think it will be

close in its thematic content to workers in other countries and may even remind

them of something from their own experience. I will be bracing myself for its

publication in Russian. I hope that the long hours I spent behind the typewriter

were not wasted.]

The translator shows the readers two things at the same time: first, that the translator can be trusted as she knows the author personally and the author trusts her enough to send her his manuscript for translation; second, that the author, being a simple worker, is very close to the common people and shares many values important to both American and

Soviet readers.

Such descriptions in the paratextual commentaries help to create a bond of trust between the author and the readers by positioning the source text author as part of their community and not as the Other. Instead of erasing the voice of the author, the paratexts help to establish a link between the author’s (personal) narrative and the journal’s

(public) narrative.

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To sum up, the analysis of the paratextual data shows that the forewords and afterwords to the translations published in the journal are used to set the scene for reading the translations from the perspective of their authors: editors, critics, and translators. The paratexts’ authors contribute to configuring the relationship between the reader and the target text community and to elaborating the larger narratives that were circulating at the time when the paratexts were published.

6.3 Conclusion

This chapter has analyzed how the image of foreign countries was shaped for the readers of translations published in Inostrannaia Literatura between 1955 and 1991. By resorting to such framing strategies as selective appropriation, temporal and spatial framing, labelling, and repositioning of participants, the journal allows for inclusion of works, that otherwise would have been banned from publication, although accompanied by paratexts to ensure the “correct” understanding. Therefore, the journal played an important role in broadening the selection of foreign writing for Soviet readers, especially in those times when Inostarnnaia Literatura was one of the few sources of foreign literature available.

Even though the paratexts from the thaw and stagnation periods were written in accordance with the ideological requirements of the time, intelligent Soviet readers, who were used to “reading between the lines,” were able to create their own picture of the

West and the rest of the world. The paratexts to the translations published in the journal acted as performative tools to allow for “the presence of new, ‘unofficial’ texts as long as the formal aspects of censorship practices were adhered to” (Sherry 2012: 120).

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CHAPTER 7

Conclusions

7.1 Summary of Findings

The study aimed to investigate the role played by the journal Inostrannaia Literatura in defining Soviet Russia’s relationship to foreign cultures and literatures in the period between 1955 and 1991 and to examine how the translations published in the journal were framed to shape Soviet readers’ reception. To answer the questions outlined above, the researcher studied 777 paratexts to the translations published in Inostrannaia

Literatura in the three historical periods: 1955–1964, 1965–1984, and 1985–1991. The research applied both quantitative and qualitative methods to analyze the data set across the three periods. The quantitative analysis helped to identify major types of paratexts, their addressees, lengths, source-text languages, and countries, as well as trends and shifts across the periods. The qualitative analysis helped to discover major themes covered in the paratexts across the three historical periods and to show how the image of the foreign countries was framed for the readers of the journal. The analyses revealed some major findings outlined below.

The quantitative analysis of the total of 777 paratexts showed that the paratexts presented in the corpus are predominantly forewords whose lengths varies from half a page to two pages. Afterwords are less common and are usually longer. It is presumed that readers are more likely to read forewords than afterwords as the former are shorter and are placed before the translations rather than after them. As the paratexts were a

174 crucial framing tool of the translations published in the journal, the ease of access of the readers to the paratexts was of high importance to the journal’s editorship. As for the source-text countries and languages, the analysis of the corpus indicates that the paratexts represented 85 countries and 44 languages. If we look at the quantitative data across the three historical periods, we can see that the Stagnation period saw an increase both in terms of variety of languages and countries. This can be partially explained by the fact that it was the longest of the three historical periods. However, the analysis of the representation of languages and countries of the source texts within each historical period shows that the journal was aiming to introduce a variety of languages and countries evenly across the three periods despite political constraints. This supports the argument that translation should not be seen “reductively as a solely political activity, even in the heavily politicized context of the Cold War” (Lygo 2018: 446).

The thematic analysis of the data set showed the themes with the highest frequency are source text-related, author-related, and context-related. The coverage of those themes remains more or less stable across the three periods. As for translation- related and translation process-related themes, their coverage increases over time, especially during the third period. During Perestroika, there are more paratexts written by translators about translation-related challenges, difficulties, and strategies. The author’s political engagement, on the contrary, loses its significance as there is no pressing need to present the source-text author as a literary figure who sympathizes with or shares the ideological values of the Soviet Union. The paratexts of the Perestroika period comment

175 on socio-cultural rather than socio-political aspects of human life and express a more favorable attitude toward the West than those of the Thaw and Stagnation periods.

To frame the readers’ reception and understanding of the foreign works published in the journal, the editors employed a variety of framing strategies: selective appropriation, spatial and temporal framing, labelling, and repositioning of participants.

The framing strategies helped the editors situate the target texts within a different time and space frame, bringing them closer to the readers, and helped them position the author as a part of the target community. Such framing of translated texts, acting as a filter for foreign works, allowed for inclusion in the journal of more works and authors.

As seen from the analysis, not all works allowed for publication in the journal were chosen based on strict ideological principles or their potential value for Soviet readers. The journal’s liberal publishing policy was part of the state propaganda apparatus. By giving the journal some leeway in its choice of authors and works, the regime sought to present “a civilized, tolerant, and cultivated image to the world and to attract Western intellectuals” (Lodder 2013: 1315). As long as the code was not violated, at least on the surface, a work could be published. If the editor of Inostrannaia Literatura wanted to publish a translation of a progressive work that did not adhere to the canon, he could frame it with a foreword or an afterword that was written in the spirit of the time.

As Lygo points out, the existence of censorship in the USSR gave the authorities

“control over the representation of foreign countries and cultures to their domestic readership” (2018: 453). However, as seen from the analysis of the paratexts to the translation published in Inostrannaia Literatura during the periods of Thaw, Stagnation,

176 and Perestroika, the state failed to have total control over translation of foreign works and, by extension, over Soviet readers’ perception of the foreign countries. Discussing translators during the Cold War, Lygo argues that, despite the government’s manipulation of translation for political gain at that period, translators used their agency to “pursue their own aims and interests” (2018: 453). Along similar lines, it may be said that despite the government’s control over translated literature, especially during the Thaw and

Stagnation periods, Inostrannaia Literatura was able to use its agency to pursue its own interests, successfully balancing between political (censorship), pragmatic (selling the journal), and artistic (choice of authors and works) constraints.

The results of the study contribute to previous research on translation in periodicals and translation under totalitarian regimes in Eastern Europe. The findings may be also of interest to researchers from other fields, such as political science, sociology, periodical studies, literary history, cultural studies and to translation studies researchers looking at totalitarian regimes outside of Eastern Europe.

7.2 Limitations and Future Research

Limitations. The research has a number of limitations. First, thematic analysis has some degree of subjectivity. On the one hand, it provides a researcher with a lot of flexibility in interpreting the data and allows for analysis of large data sets. On the other hand, thematic analysis may be subjective and may involve the risk of missing details in the data. To address this limitation, I tried to reflect as carefully as possible on the choice of themes and to apply, where possible, the themes proposed by other researchers working

177 with similar data. Second, thematic analysis was done manually without any special software, except for Microsoft Excel. The use of some kind of word frequency counting software would benefit the current research to triangulate the thematic analysis of the paratexts. Third, we cannot be sure if the paratexts published in Inostrannaia Literatura actually influenced the readers’ understanding and reception of the translated works in accordance with the intentions of the paratexts’ addressers. Fourth, the study does not look at the actual translations. Therefore, we cannot argue that the actual translations were done in accordance with the principles outlined in the paratexts.

Future research. The following are a few areas for future research:

1) Examining translators’ paratexts. What do translators’ paratexts emphasize and does it correlate with what we see in the actual translations?

2) Examining translators’ profiles. How many different translators were there in the journal between 1955 and 1991? Who were the most popular translators in the journal

(their education, awards, other translations)?

3) Examining the source-text authors’ profiles. Who were the most popular authors in the journal?

4) Analysis of the critical essays published in the journal and comparing them to the forewords and afterwords in terms of their treatment of themes.

5) Analysis of the paratexts published after Perestroika. How does the number and, possibly, the content of the paratexts change after Perestroika and the fall of the Soviet

Union, with the attendant lifting of state censorship restrictions?

178

6) Comparative analysis of the paratexts published in Inostrannaia Literatura to those published in other Soviet translation journals, such as Internatsional’naia

Literatura and Druzhba Narodov, or to pre-Soviet translation journals, such as Vestnik

Inostrannoi Literatury.

This list is hardly exhaustive and is limited to the Russian context, although translation journals exist across the world and in various political and cultural contexts.

Therefore, it is hoped that, by demonstrating that the presence of paratexts and the nature of those paratexts are shaped by a constellation of factors within the target culture, in this case, the Soviet Union, this study may not simply model methodological approaches to the study of paratext but also serve as a point of comparison for researchers who choose to study the paratextual framing of translated texts in other historical cultures and historical periods.

179

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APPENDIX A

The List of the Source Languages from which the Translations Accompanied by

Paratexts Were Performed (with the number of paratexts per language)

Language Number of paratexts

Afrikaans 4

Albanian 1

Arabic 10

Bengali 1

Bulgarian 17

Catalan 3

Chinese 30

Czech 18

Danish 2

Dari 2

English 150

Farsi 2

Finnish 2

Flemish 1

French 80

German 78

Greek 12

196

Hebrew 2

Hindi 5

Hungarian 30

Icelandic 2

Italian 35

Japanese 22

Korean 1

Lao 1

Macedonian 1

Malayalam 1

Maltese 1

Mongolian 6

Multiple languages 12

Norwegian 8

Persian 4

Polish 45

Portuguese 13

Quechua 1

Romanian 20

Sanskrit 2

Serbian 1

197

Serbo-Croatian 10

Slovak 13

Slovenian 3

Spanish 92

Swedish 6

Tamil 1

Telugu 1

Turkish 2

Urdu 2

Vietnamese 16

Yiddish 3

198

APPENDIX B

Top Ten Languages of the Source Texts and their Corresponding Countries (with

the number of paratexts per country)

Language Country Number of paratexts

English Australia 8

Canada 2

England 28

Ghana 2

India 7

Ireland 8

Kenya 3

Nigeria 4

South Africa 8

Trinidad 1

Philippines 1

USA 77

Spanish Argentina 9

Bolivia 1

Brazil 1

Canary Islands 1

Chile 6

199

Colombia 5

Cuba 10

Ecuador 2

El Salvador 2

Mexico 5

Nicaragua 2

Panama 1

Paraguay 1

Peru 7

Puerto Rico 1

Spain 27

Uruguay 3

Venezuela 8

French Algeria 1

Belgium 2

Cameroon 1

Canada 1

France 66

Haiti 6

Madagascar 1

Morocco 1

200

Senegal 1

German Austria 9

Czechoslovakia 1

Germany 61

Romania 1

Switzerland 6

Polish Poland 45

Italian Italy 35

Chinese China 30

Hungarian Hungary 30

Japanese Japan 22

Romanian Romania 20

201

APPENDIX C

The List of Translated Countries According to the Three Historical Periods (with

the number of paratexts per country)

Country 1955–1964 1965–1985 1986–1991

Afghanistan - 2 -

Albania - - 1

Algeria - 2 -

Angola - 1 -

Argentina - 6 3

Australia - 8 -

Austria 2 5 2

Belgium - 3 -

Bolivia - 1 -

Brazil - 8 2

Bulgaria 5 10 2

Cameroon 1 - -

Canada 1 2 -

Canary Islands - 1 -

Chile 2 3 1

China 12 14 4

Colombia 1 2 2

202

Cuba 1 8 1

Cyprus - 1 -

Czechoslovakia 4 10 6

Denmark - 2 1

Ecuador - 2 -

Egypt 1 2 -

El Salvador - 2 -

England 3 12 12

Finland - 2 -

France 12 42 12

Germany 10 36 15

Ghana - 2 -

Greece - 7 4

Guinea Bissau - 1 -

Haiti 4 2 -

Hungary 4 20 6

Iceland 2 0 -

India 3 14 3

Iran 2 4 -

Iraq - 1 -

Ireland 2 3 3

203

Israel 3

Italy 4 26 5

Japan 3 15 4

Kenya - 3 -

Korea, North 2 - -

Laos - 1 -

Libya - 1 -

Macedonia - - 1

Madagascar - 1 -

Malta - - 1

Mexico 1 3 1

Mongolia 1 5 -

Morocco - 1 -

Mozambique 1 1 -

Multiple languages 3 3 1

Nicaragua - 2 -

Nigeria - 4 -

Norway - 4 4

Pakistan 1 - -

Palestine - 2 -

Panama - 1 -

204

Paraguay - 1 -

Peru 1 7 -

Philippines - - 1

Poland 8 22 16

Portugal - 1 -

Puerto Rico - 1 -

Romania 3 16 2

Senegal - 1 -

Serbia 1 1 2

Slovakia 2 7 3

Slovenia - 3 -

Somalia - 1 -

South Africa 1 8 3

Spain 8 18 3

Sri Lanka 1 - -

Sudan - 1 -

Sweden 1 4 1

Switzerland - 5 1

Syria - 1 -

Trinidad - 1 -

Turkey 1 1 1

205

Uruguay - 2 1

United States 8 49 20

Venezuela 1 6 1

Vietnam 1 13 1

Yugoslavia 1 10 1

206

APPENDIX D

Number of Paratexts per Year by Addresser

Year Author Translator Third-party (allographic)

No Name Name

1955 - 2 2 1

1956 1 4 6 5

1957 2 5 9 8

1958 1 1 5 8

1959 1 3 6 3

1960 - 1 7 5

1961 - - 6 1

1962 1 - 2 6

1963 - - 6 6

1964 - 1 4 7

1965 - 3 1 5

1966 - 4 4 3

1967 3 7 5 6

1968 2 3 1 10

1969 1 4 4 9

1970 1 1 16 19

1971 - 2 10 17

207

1972 2 6 1 15

1973 3 10 2 15

1974 1 6 - 18

1975 1 4 3 14

1976 1 11 3 16

1977 3 13 1 12

1978 - 2 - 16

1979 1 1 4 14

1980 3 7 - 13

1981 2 9 - 18

1982 - 5 - 17

1983 1 11 2 15

1984 - 8 2 14

1985 1 10 1 14

1986 1 4 - 22

1987 - 4 2 20

1988 1 14 1 17

1989 - 7 1 10

1990 2 10 2 13

1991 - 9 4 13

208