HUMAN GROWTH 2 Postnatal Growth GROWTH

Valurne 1 Principles and Prenatal Growth Valurne 2 Postnatal Growth Valurne 3 Neurobiology and HUMAN GROWTH 2 Postnatal Growth

Editedby Frank Falkner The Fels Research Institute Wright State University School ofMedicine Yellow Springs, Ohio and J.M. Tanner Institute of Child Health London, England

SPRINGER +BUSINESS MEDIA, LLC Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Main entry under title: Human growth. Includes bibliographies and index. CONTENTS: v. 1. Principles and prenatal growth.- v. 2. Postnatal growth.- v. 3. Neurobiology and nutrition. 1. Human growth-Collected work. 1. Falkner, Frank Tardrew, 1918- Il. Tanner, James Mourilyan. [DNLM: 1. Growth. 2. Gestational age. WSI03 H918] QP84.H76 612'5 78-1440 ISBN 978-1-4684-2624-3 ISBN 978-1-4684-2622-9 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4684-2622-9

© 1978 Springer Science+Business Media New York Originally published by Plenum Press, New York in 1978 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1978

All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microftlming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher Contributors

DONALD A. BAILEY NOEL CAMERON Professor Lecturer in Human Auxology College of Physical Education Department of Growth and University of Saskatchewan Development Saskatoon, Canada Institute of Child Health London, England

FREDERICK C. BATTAGLIA Professor and Chairman ARTO DEMIRJIAN Department of Director, Growth Center University of Colorado School of U niversite de Montreal Montreal, Quebec, Canada Denver, Colorado

/NGEBORG BRANDT GILBERT 8. FORBES University Children's Hospital Professor of Pediatrics and of University of Bonn Radiation and Biophysics Bonn, Germany The University ofRochester, School of Medicine and Dentistry Rochester, New York JO ANNE BRASEL Associate Professor of Pediatrics Director, Division of Growth and RHODA K. GRUEN Development Institute of and Institute of Human Nutrition and Department of Pediatrics Department of Pediatrics Columbia University College of Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons Physicians and Surgeons New York, New York New York, New York

C. G. D. BROOK MEL VIN M. GRUMBACH Consultant Pediatrician Professor of Pediatrics The Middlesex Hospital University of California San Francisco London, England San Francisco, California

V vi MALCOLM A. HOLL/DAY ROY L. RASMUSSEN Professor of Pediatrics Assistant Professor CONTRIBUTORS The Children's Renal Center, Department of Physical Education Department of Pediatrics St. Francis Xavier University University of Califomia San Francisco Antigonish, Nova Scotia, Canada San Francisco, Califomia

ALEX F. ROCHE HARRY ISRAEL, /II Senior Scientist Chief, Dental Research Section The Fels Research Institute Children's Medical Center and Department of Pediatrics Ohio Dayton, Wright State University School of Medicine FRANCIS E. JOHNSTON Yellow Springs, Ohio Professor of University of Pennsylvania MICHAEL A. SIMMONS University Museum Departments of Pediatrics and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Obstetrics The Johns Hopkins University School JEROME L. KNITTLE ofMedicine Professor of Pediatrics Baltimore, Maryland Director, Division of Nutrition and Metabolism PATRICK G. SULLIVAN Mt. Sinai School of Medicine Reader in Orthodontics New York, New York London Hospital Medical College Dental School ROBERT M. MAL/NA London, England Professor Department of Anthropology J. C. VAN WIERINGEN University of Texas University Children's Hospital Austin, Texas Het Wilhelmina Kinderziekenhuis Utrecht, The Netherlands

W. A. MARSHALL Professor of JEREMY S. 0. WINTER Department of Human Seiences University of Manitoba Loughborough University Endocrine-Metabolism Section Loughborough, Leicestershire, Health Seiences Center England Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada Preface

Growth, as we conceive it, is the study of changeinan organism not yet mature. Differential growth creates form: external form through growth rates which vary from one part of the body to another and one tissue to another; and internal form through the series of time-entrained events which build up in each cell the special• ized complexity of its particular function. We make no distinction, then, between growth and development, and if we have not included accounts of differentiation it is simply because we had to draw a quite arbitrary line somewhere. lt is only rather recently that those involved in pediatrics and child health have come to realize that growth is the basic science peculiar to their art. It is a science which uses and incorporates the traditional disciplines of anatomy, physiology, biophysics, biochemistry, and biology. It is indeed a part of biology, and the study of human growth is a part of the curriculum of the rejuvenated science of Human Biology. What growth is not is a series of chärts of height and weight. Growth standards are useful and necessary, and their construction is by no means void of intellectual challenge. They are a basic instrument in pediatric . But they do not appear in this book, any more than clinical accounts of growth disorders. This appears to be the first large handbook-in three volumes-devoted to Human Growth. Smaller textbooks on the subject began to appear in the late nineteenth century, some written by pediatricians and some by anthropologists. There have been magnificent mavericks like D' Arcy Thompson's Growth and Form. In the last five years, indeed, more texts on growth and its disorders have appeared than in all the preceeding fifty (or five hundred). But our treatise sets out to cover the subject with greater breadth than earlier works. We have refrained from dictating too closely the form of the contributions; some contributors have discussed important generat issues in relatively short chapters (for example, Richard Goss, our opener, and Michael Healy); others have provided comprehensive and authoritative surveys of the current state of their fields of work (for example, Robert Balazs and bis co-authors). Most contributions deal with the human, but where important advances are being made although data from the human are still lacking, we have included some basic experimental work on animals. Inevitably, there are gaps in our coverage, reflecting our private scotomata, doubtless, and sometimes our judgment that no suitable contributor in a particular field existed, or could be persuaded to write for us (the latter only in a couple of instances, however). Two chapters died on the hoof, as it were. Every readerwill

vii viii notice the Iack of a chapter on ultrasonic studies of the growth of the fetus; the manuscript, repeatedly promised, simply failed to arrive. We had hoped, also, to PREFACE include a chapter on the very rapidly evolving field ofthe development ofthe visual processes, but here also events conspired against us. We hope to repair these omissions in a second edition if one should be called for; and we solicit correspon• dence, too, on suggestions for other subjects. We hope the book will be useful to pediatricians, human biologists, and all concemed with child health, and to biometrists, physiologists, and biochemists working in the field of growth. We thank heartily the contributors for their Iabors and their collective, and remarkable, good temper in the face of often bluntish editorial comment. No words of praise suffice for our secretaries, on whom very much ofthe burden has fallen. Karen Phelps, at Fels, handled all the administrative arrangements regarding what increasingly seemed like innumerable manuscripts and rumors of manuscripts, retyped huge chunks of text, and maintained an unruffled and humoraus calm through the whole three years. Jan Baines, at the Institute of Child Health, somehow found time to keep track of the interactions of editors and manuscripts, and applied a gentle but insistent persuasion when any pair seemed inclined to go their separate ways. We wish to thank also the publishers for being so uniformly helpful, and above all the contributors for the time and care they have given to making this book.

Frank Falkner James Tanner Yellow Springsand London Contents

V Postnatal Growth

Chapter 1 Ce/lu/ar Growth: Brain, Liver, Muscle, and Lung Jo Anne Brasel and Rhoda K. Gruen 1. Introduction ...... 3 2. Brain ...... 4 3. Liver ...... 8 4. Skeletal Museie ...... 9 5. Heart ...... 13 6. Lung...... 14 7. Summary and Conclusions...... 16 8. References ...... 17

Chapter 2 Ce/lu/ar Growth: Adipose Tissue C. G. D. Brook 1. Introduction ...... 21 2. Brown Adipose Tissue ...... 21 3. White Adipose Tissue ...... 22 4. Conclusion ...... 31 5. References...... 31

Chapter 3 The Methods of Auxologica/ NoiU Cameron 1. Introduction ...... 35 2. The Auxological Anthropometrist ...... 39 3. Reliability ...... 41 4. Recommended Instruments ...... 46 5. Surface Landmarks ...... 51

ix X 6. Measurement Techniques ...... 53 7. Photogrammetric Anthropometry ...... 78 CONTENTS 8. Radiography in Auxological Anthropometry ...... 83 9. Measuring the Disabled ...... 85 10. Automated Anthropometry ...... 86 11. References ...... 87

Chapter 4 Somatic Growth of the Infant and Preschool Child Francis E. Johnston 1. Infant and Preschool Years ...... 91 2. Description of Somatic Growth ...... 92 3. Growth during Preschool Years ...... 95 4. Determinants of Growth and lts Variability in Infants and Preschool Children ...... 107 5. Summary and Conclusions ...... 112 6. References...... 112

Chapter 5 Body Composition and Energy Needs during Growth Maleolm A. Holliday 1. Introduction ...... 117 2. Body Composition ...... 118 3. The Changing Pattern of Body Composition as Growth Proceeds ...... 123 4. Body Composition and Energy Balance during Growth ...... 126 5. Body Composition and Energy Metabolism in Undemutrition and Ovemutrition ...... 135 6. References...... 137

Chapter 6 Puberty W. A. Marshall 1. Definition ...... 141 2. The Adolescent Growth Spurt ...... 142 3. Mathematical Description of Adolescent Growth ...... 146 4. Growth of the Heart, Lungs, and Viscera...... 146 5. Sex Differences in Size and Shape Arising at Adolescence ...... 147 6. Lymphatic Tissues ...... 148 7. Development of the Reproductive Organs and Secondary Sex Characters-Male ...... 150 8. The Reproductive Organsand Secondary Sex Characters-Female . . . . 157 9. Sex Differences in Timing of Events ...... 162 10. Variation among Population and Social Groups ...... 163 11. The Trend toward Earlier Menarche ...... 167 12. Adolescent Sterility ...... 168 xi 13. Puberty and Skeletal Maluration...... 169 14. Prediction of Age at Menarche ...... 170 CONTENTS 15. Body Composition at Puberty ...... 175 16. Strengthand Work Capacity ...... 177 17. References...... 178

Chapter 7 Prepubertal and Pubertal Jeremy S. D. Winter 1. Introductiön ...... 183 2. Growth Hormone and Somatomedin(s) ...... 184 3. Insulin and Insulinlike Peptides...... 188 4. Prolactin ...... 189 5. Thyroid Hormones ...... 190 6. Sex Steroids ...... 193 7. Adrenocorticosteroids ...... 201 8. An Overview of the Endocrinology of Growth ...... 203 9. References ...... 204

Chapter 8 The Central Nervaus System and the Onset of Puberty Melvin M. Grumbach 1. Introduction ...... 215 2. LRF and the Pituitary and Gonadal Sensitivity to Tropic Stimuli ...... 226 3. Sleep-Associated LH Release and the Onset of Puberty ...... 228 4. Maturation of the Positive Feedback Mechanism ...... 230 5. Adrenal Androgens, Adrenarche, and Gonadarche ...... 233 6. References ...... 236

Chapter 9 Body Composition in Adolescence Gilbert B. Forbes

1. Introduction ...... 23~ 2. Techniques for Assessment of Body Composition...... 241 3. Calculation of Lean Body Mass and Fat ...... 252 4. Growth of Lean Body Mass ...... 254 5. Growth of Body Fat ...... 258 6. ChangesinTotal Body Calcium ...... 261 7. Effect of Exercise and Physical Training ...... , ...... 262 8. Body Composition in Abnormal States ...... ·~ ...... 264 9. Pregnancy ...... 265 10. Heredity ...... 265 11. Nutritional Implications ...... 265 12. References ...... 266 xii Chapter 10 Growth of Museie Tissue CONTENTS and Museie Mass Robert M. Malina 1. Growth of Museie Tissue ...... 273. 2. Growth of Museie Mass ...... 280. 3. Development of Muscular Strength ...... 286 4. Muscularity and Maturity Status...... 288 5. Selected Factors Influencing Museie Growth and Function...... 290 6. References...... 291 .

Chapter 11 Adipose Tissue Development in Man Jerome L. Knittle 1. Introduction ...... 295 . 2. Morphology of Fat Depot Development ...... 298 3. Metabolie Studies Related to Fat Depot Development ...... 303 4. Future Areas of Research ...... 307. 5. References...... 312

Chapter 12 Sone Growth and Maturation Alex F. Roche 1. Introduction ...... 317 . 2. Prenatal Growth and Maturation of a Long Bone ...... 318 3. Postnatal Growth and Maturation of a Long Bone ...... 321 4. The Epiphyseal Disc ...... 322. 5. Increase in Shaft Width ...... 323. 6. Epiphyseal Fusion ...... 323 . 7. Growth and Maturation of an lrregularly Shaped Bone ...... 324 8. Radiographie Changes ...... 325. 9. Reference Data for Size and Shape ...... 325 10. Skeletal Weight ...... 330 . 11. Skeletal Maturation ...... 332. 12. Minor Skeletal Variants ...... 345. 13. Finale ...... 349. . 14. References...... 349

Chapter 13 The Fundamentals of Cranial and Faeial Growth Harry Israel, III 1. Introduction ...... 357 . 2. Taking Shape ...... 358 . 3. Control Mechanisms in Craniofacial Growth ...... 364 4. Birth to Maturity ...... 365 xiii 5. Skeletal Change and Countenance ...... 367 6. The lnfiuence of Aging ...... 369 CONTENTS 7. Nutritional Consequences ...... 370 8. Aberrant Facial Formation ...... 374 9. Conclusion ...... 378 10. References...... 378

Chapter 14 Sku/1, Jaw, and Teeth Growth Patterns Patrick G. Sullivan 1. Introduction ...... 381 2. Methods Employed to Record Skull Growth ...... 383 3. Regional Growth Patterns ...... 388 4. Mandible ...... 396 5. Dentition ...... 398 6. Analysis of the Patterns of Skull Growth ...... 399 7. Conclusions ...... 409 8. References...... 410

Chapter 15 Dentition Arto Demirjian 1. Introduction ...... 413 2. Clinical Emergence ...... 415 3. Emergence of Deciduous Dentition ...... 415 4. Emergence of Permanent Dentition ...... 417 5. Secular Trend in Dental Maturity ...... 420 6. Concept of Dental Age ...... 420 7. Evaluation of Dental Maturity by Developmental Stages ...... 421 8. Correlations between Dental Development and Other Maturity Indicators 435 9. Conclusion ...... 440 10. References...... 441

Chapter 16 Secu/ar Growth Changes J. C. van Wieringen 1. The Concept of Secular Changes in Growth and Maturation ...... 445 2. Medical and Social Importance...... 446 3. Two Early Epidemiological Growth Studies...... 447 4. Secular Changes in Sexual Maturation ...... 448 5. Secular Changes in Height...... 452 6. Secular Changes in Weight-Height Relationship ...... 462 7. Discussion ...... 466 8. References ...... 470 xiv Chapter 17 The lnfluence of Exercise, Physical Activity, and Athletic Performance CONTENTS on the Dynamics of Human Growth Donald A. Bailey, Robert M. Malina, and Roy L. Rasmussen 1. Introduction ...... 475 2. Bone ...... 477 3. Museie ...... 483 4. Body Composition and Physique ...... 487 5. Physiological Function ...... 489 6. Muscular Strength and Motor Performance ...... 491 7. Childhood and Adolescent Athletics ...... 493 8. Conclusion ...... 500 9. References...... 501

Chapter 18 The Low-Birth-Weight Infant Frederick C. Battaglia and Michael A. Simmons 1. Definitions ...... 507 2. Etiology of Low-Birth-Weight Infants ...... 517 3. Physiology of Abnormal Intrauterine Growth...... 530 4. Problems and Management of LBW Infants Related to Intrauterine Growth ...... 533 5. References ...... 550

Chapter 19 Growth Dynamics of Low-Birth-Weight lnfants with Emphasis on the Perinatal Period Ingeborg Brandt 1. Introduction ...... 557 2. General Growth Patterns of AGA Preterm Infants; Distance and Velocity 564 3. Growth Patterns of SGA Preterm Infants: Catch-Up ...... 594 4. Conclusions ...... 609 5. References ...... 611

Index ...... 619 Contents of Volumes 1 and3

Volume 1

I Oevelopmental Biology

1. Adaptive Mechanisms of Growth Contra/ Richard J. Goss

2. Human Biochemical Development Gerald E. Gaull, Fritz A. Hommes, and Jacques F. Roux

3. Deve/opmental Pharmaco/ogy Charlotte Catz and Sumner J. Yaffe

4. Glimpses of Comparative Growth and Deve/opment R. A. McCance and Elsie M. Widdowson

II Biometrical Methods in Human Growth

5. The Statistics of Growth Standards M. J. R. Healy

6. Sampling for Growth Studies Harvey Goldstein

7. The Mathematical Handling of Long-Term Longitudinal Oata Ettore Marubini

XV xvi 111

CONTENTSOF 8. lntroduction to Genetic Analysis VOLUMES 7 ANO 3 Jean Frezal and Catherine Bonaiti-Pellie

9. The Genetics of Human Fetal Growth D. F. Roberts

10. The Genetics of Birth Weight Elizabeth B. Robson

7 7. The Genetics of Adult Stature C. 0. Carter and W. A. Marshall

12. The Genetics of Maturational Processes Stanley M. Garn and Stephen M. Bailey

IV Prenatal Growth

13. Anatomy of the P/acenta Douglas R. Shanklin

14. Physiology of the P/acenta Joseph Dancis and Henning Schneider

15. Fetal Measurements D. A. T. Southgate

16. lmplications for Growth in Human Twins Frank Falkner

77. Association of Fetal Growth with Matemal Nutrition Jack Meteoff

18. Carbohydrate, Fat, and Amino Acid Metabolism in the Pregnant Woman andFetus Peter A. J. Adam and Philip Felig

19. Pre- and Perinatal Endocrino/ogy Pierre C. Sizonenko and Michel L. Aubert

20. Development of Immune Responsiveness A. R. Hayward

21. Fetal Growth: Obstetric lmplications Karlis Adamsons Volume 3 xvii

CONTENTSOF VI. Neurobiology VOLUMES 1 AND 3

7. Neuroembryology and the Development of Perception Colwyn Trevarthen

2. The Differentiate Maturation of the Cerebra/ Cortex Th. Rabinowicz

3. Organization and Reorganization in the Central Nervous System: Evolving Concepts of Brain P/asticity Gary Lynch and Christine Galt

4. Developmenta/ Aspects of the Neuronal Control of Breathing F. J. Schulte

5. Ontogenesis of Brain Bioe/ectrica/ Activity and S/eep Organization in Neonates and lnfants C. Dreyfus-Brisac

6. Sexual Differentiation of the Brain P. C. B. MacKinnon

7. Critica/ Periods in Organizationa/ Processes J. P. Scott

8. Patterns of Early Neurologica/ Development Ingeborg Brandt

9. Early Development of Neonatal and Infant Behavior E. Tronick, H. Als, and T. B. Brazelton

Vll Nutrition

10. Nutrition and Growth: lnfancy Renate L. Bergmann and Kar[ E. Bergmann

7 7. Protein-Energy and Growth Laurence Maleolm

12. Population Differences in Growth: Environmentaland Genetic Factors Phyllis B. Eveleth

13. Epidemiology Derrick B. Jelliffe and E. F. Patrice Jelliffe xviii 14. Obesity; Overnutrition George F. Cahill, Jr. and Aldo A. Rossini CONTENTSOF VOLUMES 1 AND 3 15. Nutritional Deficiencies and Brain Deve/opment R. Balazs, P. D. Lewis, and A. J. Pate!

16. Nutrition, Mental Development, and Learning Joaquin Cravioto and Eisa R. DeLicardie

Vl/l of Growth Studies

17. A Concise History of Growth Studies from Buffon to Boas J. M. Tanner V POSTNATAL GROWTH