MODERNIZING A thesis by Rutger Kuipers Content

I Thesis ‘Modernizing Beijing’

Abstract and Acknowledgement 3

Introduction 4

1 History 7 .1 ’s ancient architectural history .1.1 General features .1.2 Imperial architecture 8 .1.3 Residential architecture 9 .1.4 10 .2 Periods of Modernisation until 1978 11 .3 Rising China (after 1978) 16 1.4 China’s future development and goals 19

2 Reconstructing Beijing 20 2.1 City planning and architecture of Beijing 2.2 Architectural debates on Beijing 23 2.2.1 Discussing Koolhaas’ CCTV 26

3 Theoretical framework 28 3.1 Regionalism 3.2 Supermodernism 3.3 Critical Regionalism 3.4 Defamiliarization 29

4 Case Studies in Beijing 32 4.1 Wu Liangyong: Ju’er 4.2 Steven Holl: Linked Hybrid 33 4.3 Andreu: National Theatre 34

5 Conclusions 36

Additions 37

References 39

Pictorial references 40

Modernizing Beijing Rutger H. Kuipers TU Delft MSc3  II Impressions of Beijing

III Analyses and precedents

IV Location

Modernizing Beijing Rutger H. Kuipers TU Delft MSc3 2 Abstract Acknowledgement

By modernizing the city, Beijing is upgrading to a Special thanks goes out to Karina Moraes Zarzar, higher level of prosperity. At the same time though Marc Koehler and to the mentors of the ExploreLab we see the reverse side of a global development, Studio for supporting me on this project. the interventions in the city ruin parts of the city by destroying its traditional architecture, in particular the Thanks to the founders of the ExploreLab Studio at traditional hutong-areas, which are one of the main TU Delft for providing the possibility of a graduation characteristics of this city, and which carry a long project based on personal interest. And of course ’s ancient life and architecture. thanks to my current team of students at ExploreLab2 My interest is mainly concerned within a dilemma of for the valuable reflections on each others projects upgrading Beijing to a modern wealthy city on the and having a good time during the process. one hand and on the other hand destroying part of its tradition. How could an architect operate within a dilemma like this? Does the architect need to choose the one or the other position or is there a possible solution to a new architecture which embeds the local traditions? My goal is to find the last solution: a new architecture that embeds local tradition.

I will discuss the interventions in Beijing according to a few theoretical themes; globalisation, critical regionalism and defamiliarization.

Modernizing Beijing Rutger H. Kuipers TU Delft MSc3  Introduction

We live in an era of globalisation, it takes less time society (in fact they originate from America, the then before to get from one point in the world to world’s hegemony). One of the problems or critique another –in travel of speech, written words, images on globalisation is that it happens mainly between the or physically-, the world becomes one, or doesn’t rich countries in the world, who try to dictate capitalist it? A definition given by Wikipedia (which in itself principles to the rest of the world. A lot of poor is a product and process of globalisation): “an countries do not get the benefits from globalisation umbrella term for a complex series of economic, -meaning here: becoming a wealthier society-, unless social technological, cultural and political changes there is any profit to make for Western investors and seen as increasing interdependence, integration the country is willing to cooperate with the capitalist and interaction between people and companies in market system. On the other hand globalisation helps disparate locations” (Wikipedia, 2006). The effects developing countries (that are of interest and willing to of globalisation reflect in the vision cooperate) to become more prosperous.

China has been confronted with globalisation, since Deng Xiaoping introduced the ‘open door’ policy to China in 1978 and changed the planned system to a market system, which resulted in a tremendous economic boom. Beijing has since then started developing towards a modern city in a rapid pace. At the moment ‘starchitects’ from all over the world imprint this city with amazing designs, Beijing has become the platform of the next architectures, of architectural and urban debates.1 The world is following closely what is happening to China and how

1.`McDonaldization` it is dealing with this rapid change, since there has been such a remarkable big economic transformation for this country and its cities. The government of that everybody drinks Coca-Cola, eats McDonalds, China seems to be eager to profile itself in the world, wears Nikes and listens to the same pop-music. the reserved position the communist China had The one thing that seems peculiar in the effects of towards capitalism has made place for an embracing globalisation, is that all these trademarked items of it. One of the results is the 2008 Olympic Games come from the rich part of the world, the Western in Beijing, which means an acceleration of the

1. Given the example: on october 17th, 2006 TU Delft organizes a forum in Beijing on its urbanism in cooperation with the , NTU Taipei and the Berlage Institute. (www.ifou.org). The Architecture Institute organised an exposition in the summer of 2006 on Contemporary China, in which Beijing and Shanghai are the main cities of subject (www.nai.nl). In Beijing, the dutch architect Neville Mars (a former associate of Koolhaas) founded the Dynamic City Foundation which 2. An old foodstand in inner Beijing wears the Coca Cola advertisement. arranges several debates around the transformation of Beijing.

Modernizing Beijing Rutger H. Kuipers TU Delft MSc3  deal with the phenomenon of globalisation and the local identity of the place. An important theory comes from Tzonis and Lefaivre, who introduced the Critical Regionalism, where they propose a new vision of architectural approach, with a critical view towards the products of globalisation as well as local potentials. I presume that with the research on this theory I

3. The planned olympic field for 2008 can formulate a design task that will help to find the solution to a new architecture with local identity building program. It means a new deadline for embedded. Beijing that shows to when the cities facilities should be upgraded to a higher level of prosperity. At the I will discuss the interventions in Beijing according same time though we see the reverse side of global to a few theoretical themes; supermodernism, development, the interventions in the city ruin parts regionalism, critical regionalism and defamiliarization. of the city by destroying its traditional architecture, in Supermodernism is discussed by Hans Ibelings, particular the traditional hutong-areas, which are one who found a new ‘ism’ to grasp the architecture of of the main characteristics of this city, and which carry globalisation from the last decade of the twentieth a long history of Beijing’s ancient life and architecture. century in words: Supermodernism, according to My interest is mainly concerned with a dilemma of Ibelings, covers architecture with decreasing value for upgrading Beijing to a modern wealthy city on the “symbolic or metaphorical references” (Ibelings, 1998, one hand and on the other hand destroying part of p.133). Regionalism on the other hand is a rather its tradition. How could an architect operate within a conservative way of reviving past architectures. Its dilemma like this? Does the architect need to choose main critic towards sorts of Supermodern architecture like Ibelings describes is the loss of local identity. Critical Regionalism is introduced by Tzonis and Lefaivre and presents a discourse on Regional and Global architecture. It attempts to critically combine these into a new approach on architecture. Despite its progressive ideas many still wrongly reflect to it as a conservative theory. Defamiliarization (originally used in linguistics by Victor Shklovsky) is a theory

4. Destruction close to the Gate at Tiananmensquare discussed by Tzonis and Lefaivre. The theory presents a way of how to deal with the re-use of the one or the other position or is there a possible (fragments of) precedents. solution to a new architecture which embeds the local traditions? The purpose of this graduation thesis in MSc3 is to My goal is to find the last solution: a new architecture form a basic knowledge to support me in a design that embeds local tradition. task in the last semester, MSc4. I have written most part of the thesis from my home in the Netherlands To research this I consulted architectural theories that (globalisation provided me this possibility) in addition

Modernizing Beijing Rutger H. Kuipers TU Delft MSc3  I spend three weeks in Beijing the summer of 2006, examining and photographing parts of the city as well as collecting verbal and written information.

The first chapter starts with a brief overview of historical moments where I will try to briefly describe, from history till present, China’s traditional architecture and the influences from the Western society. The chapter provides a general insight in the nation’s development, its architecture and its politics. As Beijing is the primary goal I will attempt to focus on Beijing. In this historical part of the thesis is introduced how certain architectures have derived and how the Chinese reasoned on urban planning and architecture. There is a differentiation between ancient architecture, the period before 1978, (turning point in late history) with the influences from modern societies and the period after 1978 until now. Sometimes history is discussed according to dynasties, the dynasty chronology can be found as a supplement at the end of the thesis. In the second chapter I will discuss the city planning and architecture of Beijing itself. I will discuss past and current interventions, the future development and the discourse on Beijing’s architecture from a Western point of view and from that of Beijing architects. In the third chapter I will digress upon the theories of Regionalism, Supermodernism and mainly on Critical Regionalism and Defamiliarization. In the fourth chapter three case studies are discussed according to these theories; Wu Liangyong’s Ju’er Hutong, Steven Holl’s Linked Hybrid and Paul Andreu’s National Theatre.

Attached to this thesis are 5 books containing; an impression of the city, analyses of precedents, location study, programmatic content and design concepts.

Modernizing Beijing Rutger H. Kuipers TU Delft MSc3  1 History

This chapter provides an overview of Chinese timbers could be laid. One of the oldest examples architecture and the influences from the West. of ancient wooden architecture still remaining, is the It is not an attempt to rewrite Chinese architectural Foguang temple in the province (picture 8), history, but to point out certain architectural dating back to the Tang dynasty (857). approaches, styles and influences, which could contribute to a discourse on the traditional architectures of Beijing and its ‘global’ architectures.

1.1 CHINA’S ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE

This section will present an overview on China’s 6. The Foguang Temple ancient architecture, divided in; the typical features of China’s architecture derived from history, the imperial Clay was used to make bricks and rooftiles, and is architecture and the residential architecture. It will still a very common material used in China. In Beijing present knowledge of some of the basics in ancient you will find the bricks are all grey and together with architecture that nowadays still have their traces in the the grey stones and tiles, this provides the city with an architecture of China, including Beijing. Still a lot of overall grey appearance. modern architects use traditional features, sometimes in an intelligent way and sometimes in a (disneyfied) esthetical way.

7,8. Fabrication of rooftiles For the foundation pounded earth was used, sometimes this was also used for walls.

Lattice patterns 5. Modern glass building with traditional shaped roof A traditional Chinese window has lattices that form a

1.1.1 GENERAL FEATURES OF ANCIENT

Materials According to Lou Qingxi, author of the book ‘Ancient Chinese Architecture’, the Chinese built constructions 9. Lattice pattern near , Beijing. of wooden frames in the earliest days, dating back to about 6500 years ago. Wooden pillars supported special pattern. These derived from the application wooden beams and crossbeams where upon the roof of rice paper for windows. The paper needed to have

Modernizing Beijing Rutger H. Kuipers TU Delft MSc3  many points of attachment, so a pattern was designed shows the all the specific features of Chinese palace for it to enlarge the surface. Numerous of these architecture from layout to appearance of structures designs have been found in China and nowadays and decoration. “The Forbidden City concentrates Chinese windows have the same kind of lattices for the highest technical and artistic achievements of glass-windows, a more modern type would even have ancient palace architecture.” Qingxi asserts that the pattern painted (or stickered up-) on the glass. traditional Chinese buildings are always grouped (In the additional Mapping booklet there is a photo- together, whether they are residences, temples or palaces. In the Forbidden City there are about 1000 collage of lattices in Beijing) halls which are all grouped around a large or small courtyard. All the courtyards are connected, lanes 1.1.2 IMPERIAL ARCHITECTURE provide circulation between them. The structural layout is very similar to that of a courtyard house Palaces complex, which will be highlighted in the next section. Qinxi mentions about that in the feudal history of Qingxi notices that traditional architectural complexes China the emperors had palaces that exalted them far had “decorative archways, pillars, screen walls, ands stone lions and tablets beside small buildings”, those were of major importance to arrange the space around it and set the scene. Most traditional architecture was formed in a simple rectangular structure, “and it is the complex of single structures, rather than the single structures themselves that expresses the broadness and magnanimousness of ancient Chinese architecture” (Qinxi, 2002, p.8).

Temples Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism and other tenets

10. Top view on the Forbidden City. above the populace. They were impressive structures which expressed the “architectural techniques and aesthetic aspirations of that epoch.” According to Qinxi the only extant imperial palaces are the 11. Round openings create a pictorial Forbidden City and the Imperial Palace in Shenyang. view of the environment. The Forbidden City is built in 1420 according to the or religions provided the architecture of China with ancient regulations of Chinese palace architecture; it beautiful temple complexes and ’s as well

Modernizing Beijing Rutger H. Kuipers TU Delft MSc3  as imperial gardens; all will not be addressed to the Yangzi River, in the south of China, where the here in detail. The importance of this architecture for ground was marshy, while cave dwellings were to this project is that it possesses features that show be found near the Yellow river, in the north on “plain the class of Chinese architecture, ancient high-tech or loess tableland.” This may have resulted in the structures (pagoda’s), beautiful gardens and their different house typologies found there later, the architectural elements, e.g. shown in picture 11. northern typologies exist mainly of one storey houses while southern typologies show multiple storeys. The Military structures earliest houses (dating roughly from around 4000 In the Bronze Age (21st to 5th century BC) massive BC) by archaeological research were formed in a structures on high platforms represented the architecture of that time. One extant example is a 13 meters high platform of a Song-Jin palace that is later used for a building of the . The traditional type of these so-called high-platform buildings were built on big scaled platforms, they represented power and wealth and were also used as a military tool to frighten the enemy. It was the most monumental 13. Circular arrangement 14. Rectangular arrangement expressive form of architecture in China. The gates circle of wooden pillars (picture 13), later rectangular of Beijing show a similar arrangement, a big platform shapes would be made (picture 14). These houses were all found in the Shaanxi province, west of Beijing.

12. Zhengyangmen Gate, Beijing 15. Archaelogical site in Shaanxi Province with a structure on top and gates peering through the The houses were situated around a central square massive base. (picture 15). Main building materials used, were earth and wood, that are still being used frequently today. 1.1.3 RESIDENTIAL ARCHITECTURE

In ‘Chinese Architecture and Planning, Ideas, Methods, Techniques’, Qinghua Guo argues that the earliest forms of Chinese dwellings “emerged from two different physical environments”, resulting 16. Reconstruction of courtyard house, Erlitou in nest type, pile dwellings and a cave type, earth The oldest courtyard house Guo asserts, is the Erlitou dwellings. The pile dwellings were to be found around Palace (from around 2000 BC) (picture 16). Courtyard

Modernizing Beijing Rutger H. Kuipers TU Delft MSc3  houses were built for protection; they exist of roofed amount of decoration and the scale of a compound walls or inward facing buildings on each side. The were confined by the status of the inhabitants. “Those courtyard houses are orientated north-south, as who exceeded the according standards would be most houses in China are built traditionally facing the punished or even executed.” south, so to make good use of sunlight, according to In the larger complexes between the principal rooms Guo this could have been the reason why the south- side later became so respectful in Chinese building, and for instance in Feng Shui thinking (Guo, 2005). Beijing’s courtyard houses are also called quadrangles or (meaning quadrangle compound with rooms on its four sides). In A Guidebook to Alleys in Beijing Zhengyong and Mingde describe their unique features. The rooms facing the 18. Dropping Flowers Gate (at the right is an entrance screenwall) south and the reverse-set rooms there is a “Chuihuamen or Dropping Flowers Gate” separating them, in most cases there is another screenwall behind this gate. N side Behind the principal rooms there are posterior rooms are called or buildings for storage. In large courtyard complexes the ‘principal 17. Traditional courtyard you would find beautiful gardens, artificial hills and house layout. rooms’, the ones fishing pounds, showing the good taste of the master. facing the north are called ‘reversely-set rooms’. The No matter the scale, the courtyard complex is always gate to the compound is usually set at the south- enclosed by the rooms and low walls, enough for east side, this, in combination with a screenwall, is to preventing people to peek over. Inside the court the maintain privacy since one cannot look directly into rooms are linked by a roofed canopy, which is like the the compound. There is also presumed that this is rooms raised a few steps from ground level (as well the case because the people believed that evil spirits as the gates of the compound). The walls prevent the could not travel around a corner. Because of the people from wind and sandstorms and from the noise feudal hierarchy in a family, the difference between outside.2 The residence has become a quite place for juniors and seniors, men and women masters the people to relax from the exhausting life outside and servants of a family, there was a need to have (especially during those days). Rooms had thick and different standards of the rooms. It would not work if solid walls which would give warmness in winter and all the rooms had the same standards, and it would coolness in summer (Zhengyong and Mingde, 2001). cause trouble to the family management if they lived 2. I experienced the courtyard house for myself in the hotel I stayed in scattered in different places. The architectural form Beijing, it was an old courtyard house turned into a backpackers hotel. would show clear distinction of people’s positions, It had a courtyard which had a very calm and relaxing atmosphere, you the building facing the south was of high importance, wouldn’t notice anything from outside, it is a totally different environment, the trees presented a natural feeling together with the old stone while the one facing the north was mostly used for architecture. The only thing that was added was a big roof over the the servants of the family. The architectural styles, the courtyard to protect you from the Chinese rains.

Modernizing Beijing Rutger H. Kuipers TU Delft MSc3 10 1.1.4. HUTONGS people to gather together and live, used as the centre of tent compounds. By 1944 there were 2300 alleys in Beijing’s houses were built around the Forbidden Beijing and after liberation under Mao’s regime Beijing City, the houses closest to it would contain residents witnessed a fast development in urban construction. that were related to the Forbidden City, like the servants and guards. The houses were all arranged

21. Transformation of the courtyard house The houses were made government property and people had to provide space to migrants. The number of alleys would increase from 3000 before liberation 19. View on two courtyardhouses in a hutong area to about 6000 after. This was crucial to the state of in a rigid grid which was divided in rectangular the areas, they would fill up with people and their divisions. North-south and east-west directed streets qualitative living space would decline. Until now there would provide the routing in the city. In the divisions are still hutongs which are in a dilapidated state. smaller passageways would provide the routing Nowadays these hutongs are under enormous for the people between their houses and it would pressure of modernisation, which will be digressed function as isolation belts against fire risks. In the upon in the second chapter. an avenue would be 24 bu (about 36 meters), a street would be 12 bu (about 12 meters) 1.2 PERIODS OF MODERNISATION UNTIL 1978 and an would be 6 bu (about 9 meters). In that time there were about 400 alleys in the city. They were This section discusses the Western influences on called hutongs, which derived from the Mongolian China. It is significant to have an understanding of word ‘hottog’3, meaning ‘well’, which was a place for former periods of modernisation in Chinese history to understand where China is today. Mainly because of colonial influences China has met and sometimes clashed with modernity before today’s process of modernisation.

The Catholic Encyclopaedia argues that the first contact with Judaism was already in the 7th century: “They seemed to have reached China in the seventh

3. Arguably it could also be derived from the Mongolian word ‘huotuan’, 20. View in a contemporary hutong which means passageway.

Modernizing Beijing Rutger H. Kuipers TU Delft MSc3 11 century, according to the Si-ngan-fu inscription” refused to treat the Europeans as “cultural or political (Catholic Encyclopaedia). China’s oldest known equals.” Russia was the first European power to reach synagogue is situated in Kaifeng, dating from the a treaty with China in 1689: the Treaty of Nerchinsk. Northern Song Dynasty, when Jews settled in Kaifeng, The other nations were seen as inferior, and their efforts to reach a trade agreement were “rebuffed” by the Chinese, “the official Chinese assumption being that the empire was not in need of foreign - and thus inferior - products” (Shinn and Worden, 1988).

Peter G. Rowe and Seng Kuan provided for the main source for this part of the thesis on modernizations in 22. Model of the Kaifeng Synagogue China, with their book: Architectural Encounters with which was then capital of China. Essence and Form in Modern China. Rowe and Kuan In a Country Study for the Library of Congress in argue that “Traditionalism versus modernism in China Washington, Rinn-Sup Shinn and Robert L. Worden, emerged strongly as an issue of cultural development, argue that from the thirteenth century there have been though not for the first time [as seen above], in the Roman Catholic missionary attempts to establish aftermath of the Opium War of 1840 to 1842.” To their church in China. “Although by 1800 only a few reach peace China was forced to sign the Treaty of hundred thousand Chinese had been converted, , a ceding of the Treaty Ports (Rowe and Kuan, the missionaries--mostly Jesuits--contributed greatly 2002). Five port cities were opened to foreign trade to Chinese knowledge in such fields as cannon and trading nations were allowed to build settlements. casting, calendar making, geography, mathematics, According to Layla Dawson, who wrote China’s cartography, music, art, and architecture” (Shinn New Dawn in 2005, “The first western, imported and Worden, 1988). The first contacts with the West architecture was built in the 1842 Treaty Ports, which by trade are described by Shinn and Worden, who became the seedbeds for China’s modernization” note that the Western pioneers of China were the (Dawson, 2005). There was an extraterritoriality, which Portuguese. They reached China in 1517, at Macau meant that people in these cities were subject to the laws of their home nation, to avoid any conflicts which Chinese laws. The British had the best conditions of all nations in the Treaty of Nanjing, they would get Hong Kong as their colony and would be treated the most-favoured, which meant that they would receive every trading concessions that the Chinese would promise to other powers in future agreements (Shinn and Worden, 1988). Dawson asserts, “To this day German building regulations still apply in Qingdao 23,24. Portuguese architecture in Macau; German architecture in Qingdao. (picture 24), where an Anglo-German company (picture 23) and were followed by the Spanish, the began brewing ‘Tsingtao’ beer … The architects were British and the French. Except for Russia, “the most German and designed accordingly in Jugendstil powerful inland neighbour”, the imperial court, and Neo-Romanesque with hipped, red-tiled roofs,

Modernizing Beijing Rutger H. Kuipers TU Delft MSc3 12 rustic granite plinths and corners with plastered with countries for that time new to the Treaty Ports of walls, sometimes with half-timbered upper storeys.” China; Austria-Hungary, Italy and Belgium. They built (Dawson, 2005) “Eventually these ‘Concessions’ their own prisons, schools, barracks and hospitals. or ‘Settlements,’ as they were called, in places like Five miles in total were covered by the European Shanghai, became the centres of modern cities from Settlements and the riverfront was governed by which contemporary Western ideas and technologies were propagated” (Rowe and Kuan, 2002).

“The rude realities of the Opium War, the unequal treaties, and the mid-century mass uprisings caused Qing courtiers and officials to recognize the need to strengthen China.” Since that time (1840) schools started examining Western learning. Under 26. Former Belgian legation (2006). the direction of Han officials Western science and languages were being studied. “Students were foreign powers (Wikipedia, 2006). sent abroad by the government and on individual The result for Beijing was a legation quarter in or community initiative in the hope that national DongCheng district where 11 legations were to be regeneration could be achieved through the found, situated southeast of the Forbidden City. With application of Western practical methods” (Shinn the Xinchou Treaty in 1900 the Qing government was and Worden, 1988). Since that time China seemed to adapt itself to the West albeit under the pressure of

27. Plan of the Legation Quarter, 1912. (This picture is in large format with content, added at the end of the thesis)

forced to turn the area into a legation quarter. This 25. American Barracks in built by Germans introduced some Western architecture in Beijing (see picture 26). There was a patriotic Catholic church built past confrontations. in 1890 by the French mission, which is said to be In Tianjin, situated south-west of Beijing and often the largest church in Beijing. It’s built in a neo-Gothic referred to as the port city of Beijing, there were style with brick and cast iron and the facade is of grey eventually 9 concessions in the city. According marble (picture 28,29) to Wikipedia, the first concessions were British and French, between 1895 and 1900, then Japan, Before the ‘Unequal Treaties’ as they were called, Germany and imperial Russia joined them, together the Chinese had always felt superior towards

Modernizing Beijing Rutger H. Kuipers TU Delft MSc3 13 seek refuge in the legations, having to seek shelter elsewhere. Those that were caught were raped as well as tortured and murdered. As a result of these reports, a great deal of anti-Chinese sentiment was generated in Europe, America, and Japan.” Eventually international forces with troops from 8 nations, Japan, Russia, Great Britain, France, U.S., Germany, Italy and Austria (accompanied by Chinese anti-Boxer forces) started a march of 120 kilometres from Tianjin to Beijing. There they “engaged in plunder, looting and rape.” Eventually the Qing court signed the peace agreement in 1901. (Wikipedia, 2006) The Catholic Church was besieged during the Boxer war and the facade was renewed in 1902. It later became subject of attack during the .

According to Dawson, “China’s second ‘modernization’ took place after the fall of the Imperial 28,29 Xishiku, Catholic church in former Legation Quarter Court and the founding of the Republic of China in 1911 with Sun Yat-sen as the first president.” The foreigners. These treaties however gave foreigners new “nationalistic semi-democratic government” special treatment compared to the Chinese. In the existed of Chinese who had studied in the West, but eyes of the Chinese this was seen as damage on they still remained the feudal structure. (Dawson, their prestige. Such “feelings increasingly resulted 2005) Rowe and Kuan mention that in treaty ports in civil disobedience and violence towards both like Shanghai, there raised a new style, known as the foreigners and Chinese Christians” (Wikipedia, “compradoric style”, which emerged out of colonial 2006). It eventually resulted in the famous Boxer and Chinese architecture. (Rowe and Kuan, 2002) movement that had a strong aversion against Chinese architecture was clearly getting influenced by foreigners. The Boxers peaked at 1900 when they the colonialism. Western style buildings with Chinese- attacked foreign compounds in Tianjin and Beijing. style roofs were and still are a common sight in the In Beijing the legations were besieged during 2 architecture of China. months, the legations almost tripled in inhabitants In 1949 the communists under Mao Zedong took because anxious foreigners sought refuge at the power. Mao put an end to the collaboration with the compounds. A German minister was shot to dead Western colonialism. In his famous public speech and a Japanese ambassador was killed in violence. he said: “Ours will no longer be a nation subject to Part of the area (on the west side) was set on fire insult and humiliation.” Rowe and Kuan mention and burned down. Wikipedia mentions the following: the almost immediate Russian Soviet influence “Chinese Christians suffered even more greatly, as equally to the ascendance of the communists. About there were more of them and most were not able to 11.000 Russian advisors came to China and brought

Modernizing Beijing Rutger H. Kuipers TU Delft MSc3 14 especially technical expertise and some 37.000 revolutional ideas meant to industrialize the city and Chinese went to Russia for education or training maintain a political centre in the city. The focus on “primarily in technical areas.” “These changes industrialization resulted into housing shortages, affected the study of architecture,” Rowe and Kuan and therefore the government turned to the “Soviet assert, they mention a merging with the technical field model of potential relief,” a system that “emphasized construction speed, low cost, labour savings. ... Basic features of the system were design standardization, mass production and systematic construction.” Standard dwelling units made of standard components would be the basis for residential areas,

30,31 Soviet-Communist style apartment blocks, Beijing and the influence of the Bauhaus-style. Linda Vlassenrood, contributed to ‘China Contemporary,’ a book published aside the similar named exhibition at the Nai. She discusses style the 32 View on the Second Ring Road. change during the Cultural Revolution (1965-1969). they would form rigid apartment blocks. “Sometimes Most national architecture design institutes and an aesthetic program of socialist realism was schools then were closed and their employees were employed, as pitched gable roofs and other motifs sent off to work at the countryside. “In these years were added to the standardized units.” “More often anonymous buildings epitomized the absence of than not, though, housing was functional, well-built.” design”, Vlassenrood asserts. Fundamental changes Later there came a growing dissatisfaction with the didn’t appear until the death of Chairman Mao. “After a Soviet standardized style. Which didn’t mean it was ten-year intellectual vacuum, the architectural debate abandoned but it began to be modified and adapted had to be ignited all over again.” (Vlassenrood et al, (Rowe and Kuan, 2002). 2006) Dawson also mentions Licheng in connection with the old city wall he wanted to preserve, but his ideas was a vice-director of the Beijing City lost against those of new planners who had the wall Planning Commission, he wished to preserve the demolished to make way for the Second Ring Road old character of central Beijing and did a remarkable (Dawson, 2005). A decision of which many still argue proposition to the Communist government, to change whether it was right or whether it’s a shame the wall the main centre where the government would be has been torn down. situated not on the north-south axis, but to the west of the Old City, which would get the pressure of development off the Old City. But the Communists were not interested in such a conservative plan, their

Modernizing Beijing Rutger H. Kuipers TU Delft MSc3 15 1.3 RISING CHINA request of Bill Clinton Wei was sent to the United States where he is now still fighting for Chinese In 1978 Deng Xiaoping came to power in China, and democracy in the Overseas Chinese Democracy he made his greatest achievement for political and Coalition (Van der Putten, 2003). economical reforms at the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh National Party Congress Central In 1989 on the 4th of June, the world was shocked Committee in December 1978, which was considered by the performance of the Beijing army. During two a huge turning point in Chinese political history. The months there was a protest started by students policy that was conducted until then – that meant against the communist regime, the Democracy basically to support whatever policy decision Mao Movement. The leader of the CCP, made and to follow whatever instructions he gave was sympathising with the movement, but the old – was abandoned at this Third Plenum and gave way conservative members of the party under guidance of to the open door policy (Shinn and Worden, 1988). Deng Xiaoping decided to dismiss Zhao Ziyang, sign Deng introduced a refreshing idea to the public, the new leader, Jiang Zhemin and to activate troops which was the contrary of Mao’s ideal of the poor. He against the demonstrators. The massacre of Beijing wanted China to become rich. The, until then detested followed in the night from 3rd to the 4th of June. Only capitalistic system, was embraced and gave way to for a moment the troops were slowed down by the the market principle (Van der Putten, 2003, p.18). The famous unknown ‘Tankman’. new goal of China was to achieve the modernization of industry, agriculture, science and national defence. Deng repudiated the class struggle and reformed the classic party line into one promoting these Four Modernizations. Success and failure in the future would now depend on economy instead of politics (Shinn and Worden, 1988).

But politically no big changes occurred, there was 33 The famous unknown ‘Tankman’. still a strict communist regime at the top. Those who attended to make a statement against the political On the respond of the west to the Human Rights in system were still being prosecuted. For instance Wei China, Jan van der Putten says the following: “In Jingsheng, who responded on 5 December 1978 to the field of Human Rights western leaders are easily the Four Modernizations announced, with a poster satisfied by a gesture. China anticipates excellent calling for a Fifth Modernization: Democracy. He on this. The release of one or more prisoners shortly became the leader of the Democracy Wall Movement before an important foreign visit is a routine.” He gives which started in December 1978 alongside the an example of Wang Dan who was flown to America reforms in the . A long brick just before Clinton arrived for a visit. But still there are wall on Chang’an Street was the focus of democratic a lot of activists kept prison (Van der Putten, 2003). dissent. But the wall was closed in December 1979 and Wei was sentenced to 18 years of incarceration. The Open Door Policy meant for the architecture of In 1997 under international pressure and to the China a sudden strong influence from the Western

Modernizing Beijing Rutger H. Kuipers TU Delft MSc3 16 architecture, reacting on and investing in the copied without any theoretical understanding,” inevitable urban growth. Dawson mentions that “China questions of materialization and local integration was to be inundated by alien lifestyles, shopping were never the issue. Pragmatism seemed to be fever, youth culture, McDonalds and Starbucks on the leading style at the architecture schools. Lots of every corner, international hotels, new environments impressionistic en simply trendy images appeared and more foreigners.” She also mentions that 30 % of that responded to the fast process of modernization. Shanghai’s urban development in the 90’s involved A severe understanding of the architectural style foreign architects, that would later move onto Beijing. seemed to be lacking. The appearing style would be In 2004, Dawson asserts, 140 out of 200 of the seen as Kitsch by critics. According to Vlassenrood, “world’s top design consortiums had offices on the the abundance of ornaments, an exuberant use of mainland.” (Dawson, 2005) A growing national pride colours and the diversity of styles would be typical for of international appearance made China wanting to this period. The influence of the property developer further promote itself to the international community. was rising and was overpowering the architect. The A reason to have the Olympics in Beijing in 2008 and architect was lacking a market directed view and his the Expo 2010 in Shanghai. work would be underpaid and altered afterwards by a market consultant. In the early 90’s these developers Linda Vlassenrood, points out some style issues in embraced “Western national architectural styles as a the Chinese architecture in this period of time in. symbol of a modern lifestyle”, which led to some very The ‘New Vernacular’ style was led by I.M. Pei in German, Spanish, Italian, Swedish, American or Dutch the early 80’s. He designed the Fragrant Hill Hotel appearing urban districts. in ‘77 and tried to set an example by bringing back traditional building styles in his architecture. It then Currently there are three types of architects present evolved in the New Vernacular style. The regionalist in China, according to Vlassenrood; the ones that are working for the government, the ones that are attached to the universities and a growing number that work in an architectural office. Yung Ho Chang is the first one to start an architectural office in Beijing, a long time before it was prohibited for architects to start their own company. Until that time national design institutes had a monopoly and this restrained the quality of the designs at the time. “The elite of today’s avant-garde,” as Vlassenrood puts it, is now led by Yung Ho Chang and the 34 Fragrant Hill Hotel, by I.M. Pei, 1977 ones influenced by him. The term avant-garde attempt, however, was contradictory to the eager is mainly used by Chinese, to indicate a small embarking of the globalisation. It disappeared with group of architects that prefer pure modern styles. the new embracing of Western architecture. Due to The absence of a generation of architects and of a very superficial approach in that time, the outward architectural education during the Cultural Revolution, appearance became totally detached from any has been clearly lacking the architecture field. In content. “All manner of architectural styles were the avant-garde most architects have studied or

Modernizing Beijing Rutger H. Kuipers TU Delft MSc3 17 have experienced working in the West, mostly in low-cost labour on materials like bamboo, concrete America and some in Europe. Chinese identity was and cement-bonded fibreboard makes it possible to an important subject to some of these architects. “It experiment and achieve a lot with these materials. was clear to everyone, however, that the essence of traditional architecture had to be sought in its In the last 5 years, according to Vlassenrood, the construction and spatial proportions and not in its minimalism has become more popular to the public. outward appearance.” The commercial market adopted this image as a trademark. To people this represented the modern Vlassenrood sets out three different approaches; culture. The Avant-Garde architects clearly developed “first of all a very precise translation of tradition into a an own idiom. Most architects are of opinion that it will modern architecture with special influences of Feng take another 10 years before this style is developed Shui and Yin Yang and traditional forms.” Second, to its “desired standard.” Vlassenrood points to the “a more conceptual reinterpretation that integrates importance of this new development in architecture traditional architecture less obviously, and finally a but however, she states, “the anti-formalist Critical Regionalism that explicitly elaborates on local architecture of the avant-garde does not yet provide a building styles.” (Vlassenrood et al, 2006) critical response to the rapidly changing city and the socially disruption this is causing. However, the self- In this thesis the Critical Regionalism is awareness of the Avant-Garde is growing.” not seen as a mere pragmatic approach New-coming architects are now more aware (see chapter 3), as in the example of of the problems that arrive with the fast urban Vlassenrood, moreover the interpretation transformations. Most of these new architects have of the theory in this thesis relates to the a Chinese and Western background, they studied second example given above, “a more or worked in America or Europe. (Vlassenrood et al, conceptual reinterpretation that integrates 2006) The Chinese identity nowadays has become traditional architecture less obviously.” more and more under pressure of the modernizing city with its progressive demands. Something with Vlassenrood argues that the designs of the Avant- which architects have to deal now. Garde show a similar minimalism. This inherent in the aversion of exuberant use of decoration and 1.4 CHINA’S FUTURE DEVELOPMENT AND colour and in the use of “(inexpensive) materials” like GOALS bamboo, wood, grey slate, concrete and metal. China, with its (former) communist regime and The “standard of execution” is much lower then in the adjustment to the capitalist market, created an the West. On the one hand, Vlassenrood argues, almost unique position in this world. It has become it is because construction companies lack certain an authoritarian capitalist country, the danger of knowledge cause they have been using concrete such a regime is that it doesn’t need to justify as a main material for decades. On the other hand itself for its decisions, justice is implied in every there are a lot of low-paid and unskilled peasants decision. The opening to a more intense contact at building sites with poor equipment “responsible with the West might change their approach from for the actual construction.” However, the intensive the former communist time and it might even lead

Modernizing Beijing Rutger H. Kuipers TU Delft MSc3 18 to a democratizing of China. It is believed that to support this increasing urbanization, with 20 cities a China will outgrow the United States as the world’s year until 2020. hegemony in 50 years from now, will it then still have In his book Beyond Metropolis, Laquian quotes an its authoritarian regime it could be threatening world observation of the United Nations4 to point at an peace. But that are all still presumptions. important view on the relation of development and urbanization, where they note that “urbanization has In the NRC Handelsblad weekend edition of April been an essential part of most nations’ development the 22nd Garrie van Pinxteren, who was a Dutch towards a stronger and more stable economy ... The sinologist and correspondent in China from 1982 countries in the south that urbanized most rapidly in until 2006, writes about China’s change into the the last 10-20 years are generally those with the most market-economy. “In 1982 as a student, I have seen rapid economic growth. Most of the world’s largest how unfree the daily life of most Chinese was then. cities are in the world’s largest economies, which is Criticism on the government was only held within further evidence of this link between economic wealth closed walls and with the far most cautiousness.” and cities...” (Laquian, 2005) … “The government told them [her Chinese student For China the urbanization is a grand project, for the friends] which profession to choose after their study future it will be of major importance to accurately and where to work.” Then she compares that time coordinate the process of urbanization. For the benefit to the current situation: “The personal freedom and of both rural areas as urban.5 the prosperity have indeed increased strongly, but still I have noticed that the ones, who cross the lines of what China allows, still are being prosecuted as ruthless as before.” She gives an example of a leader of a farmers protest who was arrested for years and continues about the human rights in China: “The care for human rights in the foreign countries turned into an admiration and respect for a government that knew how to rapidly expand its economic growth and so strengthened China’s position in the world. With that the Chinese government and thus the communist party has internationally secured legitimacy…” (Van Pinxteren, 2006)

China is undergoing a fast urbanization, there is a big shift of people moving from the rural areas to the urban areas. Currently 38 percent of China’s population is living in the urban area. By 2020 this should be over 50 percent. With an annual number of 4. Quote derived from The ’ Cities in a Globalizing World: 12 million people being expected to migrate from the Global Report on Human Settlements, 1996 (UNCHS 1996, xxv) rural to the urban. 400 New cities have been planned 5. For more information on China’s development, see book IV

Modernizing Beijing Rutger H. Kuipers TU Delft MSc3 19 2 Reconstructing Beijing

This chapter is focused on than an accretion”. Wu Liangyong, who is the writer Beijing, the choice for this of ‘Rehabilitating the Old City of Beijing’ asserts city seems interesting, and that “Beijing, as the most precious piece of Chinese it is not a coincidence the architectural and planning heritage, should continue city is carefully studied at the to provide us with inspirations in planning and design” moment by architecture and urban planning schools (Liangyong, 1999). Otherwise then the cities that all over the world. The cities’ fast growth, the richness of architectural typologies, the clash of a traditional inner city with a growing number of modern high- rises and the great new projects of prominent architects turn the city into a subject of worldwide architectural debate.

2.1 PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE IN BEIJING

Planning Anne-Marie Broudehoux describes the planning of Beijing in her thesis of Neighbourhood Regeneration 36 The Old City, the center of Beijing. in Beijing (1994). Beijing is located in the northeast of China, from a Feng Shui perspective the city is ideally evolved around a trade centre, Beijing did not start located between mountain ranges on the north, the as an economical plan, but more as a political and cultural one (Broudehoux, 1994; chapter 3.1). In an interview for this thesis with Qi Xin, of Qi Xin Architects and Engineers in Beijing, Xin points out that Beijing is a city designed for one person, namely the Emperor. Rather then for the purpose to accommodate people, Beijing is designed as an administrative centre of China.

The Old City is unique in its symmetrical. The Old City is developed within a rigid grid of north-south and west-east oriented directions. The layout relates to the 35 Beijing from above, with mountain range central axis that runs north to south and contains the most important monuments of Beijing. Respectively west and the east, while the south side is widely open. from the north to the south you’ll find the Bell tower, Beijing is praised by planners around the world ever Drum tower, Forbidden City and Square. since Marco Polo set foot in China. Beijing’s history For the upcoming Olympics, the axis will be extended as a capital has started in the twelfth century with to the north with the Olympic field. a few interruptions until now. According to Andrew In every level of scale from city to city-block to Boyd [1962; 63], the city evolved of a “creation rather neighbourhood (sub-block) to courtyard house and

Modernizing Beijing Rutger H. Kuipers TU Delft MSc3 20

its rooms, the symmetrical lay-out of, what Liangyong buildings with a limited height. The monumental calls the “fishbone-structure”, is repeated. architectures were all very precisely planned, as well as the surrounding space. Mostly these spaces were Commercial and handicraft buildings were situated to support the visual expression of the architecture. along the busy main streets, while residential blocks For instance a large open space would surround were planned along the quiet narrow lanes. The a gate. The residential houses were very limited in height and would strengthen the visual effect of the skyline. Another restriction to residential housing was the colour of the houses, they would all be grey, while the imperial architecture was brightly coloured and decorated, the latter also a restriction on residential houses. “But,” Liangyong asserts, “like green leaves behind bright flowers, they made the architectural arrangement of the whole city more colourful and splendid” (Liangyong, 1999).

The Old City was enclosed by a large city wall, which was destroyed when, under Mao, it was decided to be destroyed and make place for the Second Ring Road, which circles around the Old City now. Beijing has since developed several Ring Roads to primarily circulate the fast traffic, they count six right now (although there seems no precise indication of where the first Ring Road actually is) and a seventh is on the way. (Wikipedia, 2006)

37 The Central axis. blocks are all square, fitting with the courtyard house typology. According to Liangyong, to break the monotonous stretches of the (main) streets, decorative structures were designed, like “archways over the streets, entrance gates, entrance arches, side gates of 38 (until the 5th) government offices and screenwalls.” Main buildings were carefully located at certain points to “create Demolishing Hutongs splendid vistas” (Liangyong, 1999). In the Old City the hutong areas became subjected to rapid growth and overcrowding from migrants According to Liangyong, the architecture of the in the 50’s when the land became state-owned. It buildings of the whole city, palaces temples and resulted into an increasing density, by which they houses, are all composed of rather simple formed lost their formal lay-outs (as shown in picture 21).

Modernizing Beijing Rutger H. Kuipers TU Delft MSc3 21 Nowadays lots of the siheyuans are in a bad pay construction cost of the apartment, and find condition, buildings have been neglected. Most themselves a temporary place during construction courtyards have been filled with additional structures of 2 to 3 years. If they can’t, they are “allocated a rental flat in newly developed housing areas in the suburbs.” According to Ying most families affected by the relocation are of a relatively low status. Their socio- economical structures get disrupted by the renewal programs, most people had jobs and a social network close to their home. Although she points out that living conditions have improved for these people, she concludes that most people were not satisfied with the given compensation (Ying, 1998). 39 A new road in a destroyed neighborhood The view of Aprodicio A. Laquian has a wider for living or storage and the facilities in most hutong perspective on this relocation in his book Beyond areas are very poor. Some of them should obviously Metropolis. He asserts it is a common Asian problem be restored, or upgraded. But the reason of that mass-migration occurred after World War II and demolishing is mostly not just because their condition the people started settling in slums. “Policymakers is bad, cause some are in a seemingly good state, as saw the colonies of urban poor people as a Wu Liangyong asserts: “bulldozers continue to roll cancerous growth on the city.” Resettlement was over courtyard houses regardless of their quality and the solution to “excise these cancerous growths” condition.” (Liangyong, 1999). The problem is not (Laquian, 2005). mere the condition of the hutongs. The hutong areas are all in the centre of the city which has become Future Plans the most wanted and expensive ground. For that To deal with the reason there is a lot of pressure laid on these areas enormous from real estate owners who are eager to develop population these areas. It is a clash of the old hutong areas with the modernizing city. They don’t seem to fit to the modern urban machine anymore. It is the same thing that happened during the Industrial Revolution. The siheyuans are currently being demolished at a rapid pace, some claim there is presently one being destroyed per day. Most of the former growth of inhabitants of demolished siheyuans are relocated Beijing the outside the centre in Beijing. In case there homes are 40 ‘Two Axes, Two Belts and government designed Multi-centers.’ being renewed, they suppose to have the possibility a new masterplan of the to move back to their home. However, in a research city until 2020. The new plan is called: Two Axes, Two on the relocation of former residents, Tan Ying asserts Belts and Multi-centres. The latter refers to 6 new that, if they want to move back, they will have to satellite towns that are planned around the centre

Modernizing Beijing Rutger H. Kuipers TU Delft MSc3 22 city to ease the pressure of the centre. Each of them A last thing to highlight is the fact that Beijing has no will be designed to accommodate 500.000 people. clear city centre. Whereas in a typical Western city as The two axes are the north-south axis that will be for instance Amsterdam, there is a central area that maintained as an important cultural axis and the connects all commercial functions with administrative east-west axis that includes the Chang’an Avenue, and business functions. The Old City in Beijing has will be an important traffic vein in the city, connecting decentralized clusters of different functions. The the CBD in the east with the inner city. The two belts obviously is the geographical refer to the west ecological belt and the (south-)east centre, but it takes a long walk to the next shopping development belt. The ecological belt is an attempt district, and from there it takes even longer to get to create an ecological buffer zone with ecologically to another commercial district. A question of how to friendly industries such as high-technology and adjust this Old City to become an effective central higher education enterprises. The development area need to be raised. belt expected to absorb people and industries that are encouraged to leave the downtown area. The 2.2 ARCHITECTURAL DEBATES ON BEIJING belt runs towards Tianjin, so a stronger interaction between the cities will be possible in the future. Modernizing a city this fast raises a lot of questions, The infrastructure in Beijing is now a big problem, for instance what to do with hutong areas and how to as most people will get stuck in traffic jams every treat the identity of Beijing. This section will provide day. The centre city simply does not provide enough some views in these ongoing debates. circulation, and the car-usage is high (2.35 million For this thesis 3 architects have been interviewed to give their view on topics as preservation and identity: Hui Wang of Urbanus, Qi Xin of Qi Xin Architects and Engineers and Wei Lu of Studio PeiZhu.

Preservation Mainly people from the West have a lot of comments and critique on Beijing’s way of dealing with the hutong areas. From their point of view such areas should not be destroyed, because they stand for a 41 Beijing traffic jam typical Chinese lifestyle and a unique piece of Beijing cars) and even more cars (5 million by 2020) will architecture. To most Chinese these areas are slums join in the future. The government is improving its that should be renewed as soon as possible. Is there public transportation network to encourage people difference in the level of nostalgia between these the to move by public transport instead of cars. 14 New Chinese and the West? It must be said that some subway-lines are planned in the city, which now has Chinese (mostly academics or intellectuals) do prefer 3 lines. For a city of 15 million inhabitants that is a to preserve these areas. pretty poor amount. Eventually it will have a length of The Chinese government has seen the importance of 810 kilometres which is twice the length of London’s preserving their typical Chinese residential areas and underground network. so they set out a preservation plan. 25 Districts are on this plan to be preserved for the future. Hui Wang

Modernizing Beijing Rutger H. Kuipers TU Delft MSc3 23 is one of the founders of Urbanus, one of China’s example? It became a reason for me to investigate leading architectural offices. In an interview he gave what the means of preservation are. for this thesis, he presumes that the preservation plan Xin explains that Chinese architecture has always of the government is subjected to the appearance of been built as a temporary form of architecture, while European ancient architecture has been built for permanence (e.g. the Greek architecture). Chinese realize the building will disappear and make place for a new one. A philosophy that is passed on for generations, is that one should learn how to copy from the past. China, according to Xin has a copy culture. As in the West a good copy would still be a good copy, a good copy in China means it is similar to the copied. Somebody that watched the corps of Mao and is getting told afterwards that it might be a replica, would be a little disappointed, but for the Chinese it is just the same thing. 42 Preservation Plan (yellow is to be preserved) Xin gives the example of the Forbidden City that has the Forbidden City, as to preserve the height of the been built in the 14th century. None of its current buildings around it. structures are really from that period of time, simply because the buildings are being renewed to maintain When I walked through one of these areas (Qianmen) the quality. in Beijing it occurred to me that the area was pretty much deserted. Even further into the heart of the area Preservation can be divided in 4 different approaches: the total destruction of hutong buildings was visible. A road was being constructed in the middle of this - The first is ‘hands off’, the aging of the structure destruction. Wandering around I suddenly entered will be clearly visible and it will only be looked a building site and I was amazed that in the middle after for to keep the structure standing. of this destruction there were people building brand - Secondly, the restoration of the existing structure, the building is carefully restored as it was and the materials and construction are kept as much as possible. - Thirdly, the replacement of the structure, the building is torn down completely, to build up a new structure similar to the old. - The last is to renovate the structure, the building is adapted to a new function that fits new 43 A new courtyard house built in the old style demands. new courtyard houses in the old traditional style. (See picture 43) Does preservation mean to tear down the In Beijing you will find the third option is a common old dilapidated building and erect a brand new classic solution for the renewal of the hutong areas. It

Modernizing Beijing Rutger H. Kuipers TU Delft MSc3 24 is a cheaper solution, because the restoration of identity question is a universal question. To Wang a structure would take much time and skills to the architectural language is universal and the accomplish. architecture is specific for the client and for the area. The last option is something you see in for instance There is though a difference between the foreign the Hohai area, a famous place with restaurants and approaches and that of Chinese architects. According bars, where some of the courtyard houses have been to Wang there are many restrictions in the regulations renovated to serve as bars or restaurants. In other in China and the market is very competitive. Foreign places the courtyard houses sometimes function architects do not bear this in mind, which is why they as picturesque hotels. According to Wang, there is have more freedom in the design then the Chinese a current question for architects of how to renovate who lose creativity knowing the restrictions. these buildings so the functional use of the building’s typology is maximized. The interviewed architects all agree on the fact that hutongs can not cope with the density and therefore most of them should be destroyed. Still some of the areas in the Old City should be preserved to serve the cultural image of the city.

Identity Is Chinese or Beijing’s identity a common issue in the designs of Chinese architects? The July 2006 edition of TBJ Home, a free magazine on Beijing’s architecture and real estate, presents an interview with young architecture students. One of the students, Fox Yu, comments on the identity of his city and says: “we need our own culture again but not an old-fashioned 44,45 Blur Hotel, designed by Studio PeiZhu with the innovative use of blocks of frosted translucent fiberglass. At culture - we need a style to represent the new, night the building lits like a lantern. modern China.” The Western architects provide the city with flashy icons and the city becomes a city of Wang mentions there are many good examples of objects. Fox responds sceptical to this matter: “When functional layouts in residential complexes designed you see the Pyramids in the Valley of the Kings, you by Chinese architects; the problem is the relationship feel something inside. You feel amazed, you feel full between the buildings is too emphasized. of wonder ... But when you see a city full of pyramids, Daniel Elsa wrote an article in Architectural Record you feel nothing. But this is a question for urban on Chinese architects and refers to the same Chinese planners, not for architects.” (Jager, 2006) architects as mentioned in this thesis. He opposes To Wei Lu the relation of the place to the people’s live their architecture to that of the prominent building is more important then the overall image. projects in the cities with their grand gestures and Xin and Wang argue that the question of identity is praises the small group of innovative Chinese not particular a Chinese issue. Xin regards China architects that incorporate issues of “materiality, low- as having become part of the world now, the budget construction, and local context.” (Elsa, 2006)

Modernizing Beijing Rutger H. Kuipers TU Delft MSc3 25 This next generation of architects is very influential television is something else. CCTV is the voice of the and progressive designers that strive for innovation party, the centre of state propaganda, the organ which and new Chinese identity. tells a billion peoples what to think.” (Buruma, 2002) As Elsa puts it: “Instead of putting curved roofs on VPRO’s RAM made a documentary about this work top of commercial buildings like big hats or imagining of Koolhaas, and they asked him what he thought pagoda-shaped office towers, architects such as about the criticism of supporting a dictatorial regime Zhu, Chang, Fei, and Urbanus are exploring more with this choice. Koolhaas reacted by saying that is sophisticated ways of connecting today’s construction “an absolute serious issue. We carefully considered to their nation’s cultural heritage.” (Elsa, 2006) this and we are aware of any risks.” He continues by stating that their participation “is based on the 2.2.1 KOOLHAAS: CCTV assessment that there are forces active in China that will develop the Chinese politics in a certain This example of Koolhaas does not reflect the style direction, with which I can conform and which I can of his CCTV building but it contains a discussion on support. Firstly there is privatising coming up, they the political considerations of the architect designing want to turn the states television into a sort of BBC the building for the state‘s television company. as quick as possible. And secondly I think that the The importance of a discussion on politics is not eventual influence of digitalising will be the medium directly related to the presented discourse on Critical of liberation and synchronisation of information.” … Regionalism and related theories, but I believe that “The Chinese state is in evolution, the building has to the architect should consider his position in a social be finished in 2007 and it is the intent that the state and political matter very carefully. The example shows will change fundamentally and that there will occur an a discussion between a famous architect and his autonomisation.” This assumption Koolhaas makes critics. The presented views in the discussion can be here is of course extremely dangerous and Koolhaas of influence on my design, albeit in a symbolic way. is totally aware of that. The reporter asks him if he would be disappointed whether these changes will When other ‘starchitectural’ firms were competing not occur and Koolhaas answers with: “If this would for New York’s Ground Zero, Rem Koolhaas’ OMA not be the case, that means our assessment is wrong competed with others, among who were Dominique and that would be disastrous, also for me. I admit that Perrault, Toyo Ito and SOM, for the building of the it is an assessment and that it could be possible we state television company of China: CCTV, and he would have mistaken us. But if I would have doubts won. But when Koolhaas designed the CCTV tower in about it I wouldn’t do it, I am convinced that there Beijing he also designed a building that is the symbol will be a change with the privatising of Chinese state of a state’s propaganda machine that still has control television and that’s why we participate.” (RAM VPRO, over more than a milliard Chinese. 2004) In a populist article in the Guardian, Ian Buruma puts Koolhaas is convinced that these changes will a question mark to this wanted assignment. “Unless occur and many other foreign firms and investors one takes the view that all business with China is have the same conviction. They mostly believe that evil, there is nothing reprehensible about building an these economic changes eventually force China to opera house in Beijing, or indeed a hotel, a hospital, a democratise. Van Pinxteren says the following about university or even a corporate headquarters. But state this conviction “It’s tempting to see the economic

Modernizing Beijing Rutger H. Kuipers TU Delft MSc3 26 expansion of China as an introduction of political change. Maybe China will almost automatically transform its politics into democracy on the base of the expansion, since a ‘poly-parties’ democracy seems eventually to be the best system for a civilized developed country.” There are Asian examples that can make a case for this argument, like Taiwan and South-Korea. “Still I believe that nor the Chinese government, nor most of the Chinese believe that China will evolve into a ‘poly-parties’ democracy. Since my work as a correspondent in China I am more over convinced that that is just a vision too rash in its assumption that the Chinese government or the ‘suppressed’ people of China agree with us Westerners that the Western democratic system is the most useful political system until now … We may see it as superior to communism, fascism and the fundamental Islam, but China’s leaders have a very different opinion about that.” (NRC Van Pinxteren, 2006) On the verdict of RAM’s reporter that the system is abject, Koolhaas replies: “There has never been a system that pulled people out of poverty on this big scale. There has never been a market system with this effect” (Koolhaas, RAM, 2004). Ian Buruma of The Guardian has his clear-cut opinion about the issue: “…huge numbers of workers and peasants are being exploited, thrown out of work or driven out of their homes. Instead of free speech and democracy, there is propaganda. That is what CCTV is for. And that is what our architects are helping to maintain. It is not a noble enterprise.” (Buruma, 2002)

Modernizing Beijing Rutger H. Kuipers TU Delft MSc3 27 3 Theoretical Framework

In this thesis the basics of Critical Regionalism place) Supermodernism is seen by Ibelings as a are taken as the leading knowledge to develop a reaction on Postmodernism as he puts it: “The rising theoretical support of eventual design concepts. This of notions as indeterminacy, infinity, and neutrality can chapter will focus on Critical Regionalism and related strictly, in history of art, be seen as the prominent path theories, influenced by the author’s interpretation of of the preliminary period, the postmodernism.” To these theories. look beyond architecture Ibelings sees globalisation as the generic term for a complex of changes. 3.1 REGIONALISM Ibelings then explains the condition of supermodernity according to Augé on three profusions: profusion of Aimed at Critical Regionalism, discussed in section space, the profusion of signs and the profusion of 3.3, it is useful to understand Regionalism as well as individualisation. (Ibelings, 1998) Global approaches. Regionalism was re-introduced by Mumford in 1924 as a reaction to the Beaux-Arts 3.3 CRITICAL REGIONALISM Movement of that time. Regionalism to Mumford meant architecture “based on the perception of place” Critical Regionalism was first introduced by (Tzonis & Lefaivre, 2003). The regionalist interventions Alexander Tzonis and Liane Lefaivre, who dwelled in Beijing show mostly very citationist attempts, a very upon the regionalist ideas of Mumford, that they call common approach is to use the tilted roof on top of a ‘critical’. They explain why they named Mumford’s building as a traditional precedent to give the building regionalism ‘critical’ in their book on ‘Critical a Chinese feeling. Some of the new courtyard house Regionalism: Architecture and Identity in a Globalized projects in Beijing are simply clear copies from the World’. Lefaivre writes: “since the Renaissance it past (as discussed in section 2.2). They are adapted [regionalism] has always been critical of an outside to the current modern needs. They show a good power wishing to impose an international, globalizing, example of Regionalism in Beijing. universalizing architecture against the particular local identity...” Now she continues with an important part 3.2 SUPERMODERNISM of the understanding of the Critical Regionalism: “But Mumford’s regionalism is critical in a second, There are many attempts to categorize the global more important sense. It is critical not only towards architecture. Not the easiest job with all these varying globalism, it is also critical of regionalism.” ... “For the styles and attitudes toward design. One attempt is first time ... regionalism is seen as an engagement of Hans Ibelings, former director of the Netherlands with the global universalizing world rather than by an Architectural institute, he called attention to the attitude of resistance.” There are a lot of people who new idea of Supermodernism, a new ‘ism’, first still misjudge the Critical Regionalism as an attitude introduced by the anthropologist Marc Augé in his of resistance. Lefaivre concludes then: “In this sense book: Non Lieux; introduction à une anthropologie de we use the term Critical Regionalism, a regionalism la surmodernité. (Marc Augé introduced the notion evolved from an internal, self-directed criticism.” of place and non-places: If a place can be defined as relational, historical and concerned with identity, Mumford rejected the historicism, however, he then a space which cannot be defined as relational, supported preservation, but he opposed to the mere or historical, or concerned with identity will be a non- “mimicking” of historic buildings into new ones.

Modernizing Beijing Rutger H. Kuipers TU Delft MSc3 28 As what is done for instance in the hutong areas Architectural principles can be precedents like the that are now being torn down and newly rebuilt. To courtyard of which the typology should then be quote Mumford: “it is a piece of rank materialism to adjusted to fit the modern life-style, with the use of attempt to duplicate some earlier form, because of global as well as local products. Learn from the past its delight for the eye, without realizing how empty a and face the future. form is without the life that once supported it.” A clear quotation of this past architecture was like a “costume 3.4 DEFAMILIARIZATION ball” to Mumford, trying to live the life of others. But the past is not to be neglected and he argues: “Our Defamiliarization is a term derived from the Russian task is not to imitate the past, but to understand it, so writer Victor Shklovsky, who used the term to explain we may face the opportunity of our own day and deal a technique in linguistics how to intensify the reader’s with them in an equally creative spirit.” sensation by making the familiar look unfamiliar. In Art as Technique he writes: “The purpose of art is to An example of this approach of an in-between the impart the sensation of things as they are perceived global and local is seen in Alvar Aalto’s ‘Torre Velasca’ and not as they are known. The technique of art is (pic. 46), a skyscraper in the heart of the historic to make objects ‘unfamiliar’, to make forms difficult, centre of Milan. The concept of the skyscraper to increase the difficulty and length of perception was very modern for that time (‘50-’58) but the because the process of perception is an aesthetic appearance and materiality are clearly derived from end in itself and must be prolonged. Art is a way of an understanding of the local architectures. experiencing the artfulness of an object; the object is not important.” Or as he quotes Robert Scholes: “In art, it is our experience of the process of construction that counts, not the finished product” (Shklovsky, 1917).

Defamiliarization is taken by Tzonis and Lefaivre to apply it to architecture firstly in their book ‘Classical Architecture, The Poetics of Order’. The theory

46 Torre Velasca provides a way of rethinking classical architecture in new design in a way other then mere copying The principles shown above in Tzonis’ and Lefaivre’s or citing it, but to re-use and adapt it to the actual. explanation of Mumfords ideas form the basic Time has exceeded this architecture, and the understanding of the Critical Regionalism for this Romantic Regionalism and kitsch Post-modernist thesis. The Critical Regionalism is in this case not copy-cat architectures neglect this actual by copying seen as the mere pragmatic approach as to use local or citing. The technique of defamiliarization is forms and materials and adjust the building to its local explained by Tzonis and Lefaivre in the light of the ecological environment, but the theory is used to Critical Regionalism, that, as explained in the former generate a design formula with architectural principles section is a merging of regional and global ideas. derived from the past and combined with the global Defamiliarization, in ‘Classical Architecture, The products to fit the demands of our modern society. Poetics of Order’ merges the classical with modern(-

Modernizing Beijing Rutger H. Kuipers TU Delft MSc3 29 ist) ideas. Poetics can be assisting in the use of to be a lack of depth in the viewer’s process of defamiliarization, elements or fragments are not seen perception. as columns roofs or doors, but as there actions; supporting, protecting, opening, etc. Creating a new Syncretism and meta-statement are both applications world by using these principles in a way adapted that use the concept of defamiliarization. In the to the current time and making them strange in the syncretism and meta-statement the collected perception is basically the idea of defamiliarization. fragments of precedents may be mutated and used in a new design in a new setting, a new compilation Tzonis and Lefaivre propose three different combined with other elements, so they become applications of the classical precedents in ‘Classical estranged in the perception of the viewer. The familiar Architecture, The Poetics of Order’; “The … citing is becoming unfamiliar by rearrangement. (Zarzar, of classical motives …, Syncretism, and the use of 2004) classical fragments in architectural meta-statement.” According to Tzonis and Lefaivre the syncretism and (Tzonis and Lefaivre, 1989) meta-statement are harder to isolate, but they do give With the proposal of this classification Tzonis and a distinguishing. They assert that in the syncretism Lefaivre already mention that it requires a new segments of (classical) precedents are used as to study on its own. Karina Moraes Zarzar, professor restore the historic memory. In the syncretism there is at TU Delft and the supervisor on this thesis, a kind of renewed devotion to the precedent (Tzonis further digresses upon this classification and uses and Lefaivre, 1989). In Venturi’s addition on the Allen it not merely on classical architecture, like Tzonis Memorial Art Museum he uses a similar approach. and Lefaivre, but in the collection of all the (local) The column he designed, shown in picture 47, is precedents. In her article on ‘Design Precedents and clearly referring to the ancient Greek Ionic column. Identity’, Zarzar explains how these three applications However it is questionable whether he is or is not can be understood. Next is an attempt of how to defamiliarizing the column. On the one hand he understand these application principles by learning cites the literal form of an Ionic capital and on the from the theories of Tzonis and Lefaivre, and Zarzar. other hand he uses a different material and size proportions. Citationism is opposing to the idea of In meta-statement, according to Tzonis and Lefaivre, defamiliarization, it is the approach that familiarizes or “segments of the (classical) precedent are used over-familiarizes the sense of the viewer, as in Kitsch as a medium to state something about itself, in architecture and some Post-Modern architecture. other words, they become statements in a bigger The typical traditional Las Vegas architecture which statement. refers to past times and different places uses a citing The syncretism differs from the meta-statement which in an extreme way and actually it is mere a copying of can express irony and desperation and which can precedents. It “alienates the dweller from the reality.” become a critical commentary on the formal ways on The surreality proposed by the architect is more a the architectonic thinking.”6 Both are used to raise feeling of sentiment. Zarzar asserts that it “avoids questions about the “dogmatic or quasi-automatic,” the confrontation and tries to promote a sentimental embracing between the building and the consumer, 6. Freely translated from the Dutch version of their book ‘Classical a relation that is broken in modernity.” There seems Architecture, The Poetics of Order’.

Modernizing Beijing Rutger H. Kuipers TU Delft MSc3 30 use of the classical order, according to Tzonis and Lefaivre (Tzonis and Lefaivre, 1989). And in this case about the questions are raised about collected precedents.

These applications can become a set of tools helping to approach the new design. By using the syncretism or meta-statement then we can achieve to enrich the design with the concept of defamiliarization.

47 Venturi’s column.

Modernizing Beijing Rutger H. Kuipers TU Delft MSc3 31 4 Case Studies in Beijing

This chapter is focussed on three interventions one is answering to the demands of a higher density. in Beijing, chosen on their difference approach It has two- and three-storey compounds and each of of design. The theories presented in the former the apartments in them all share an inner courtyard. chapter will be used to explain these approaches The project is a renewal of an area that existed of and in turn the cases can clarify the presented old hutong buildings that were quite dilapidated theories. Chronologically it starts with the most structures. He maintained the pattern of streets Regional example towards and ends it with the most and the old trees. The structure is aesthetically well Supermodern example. integrated in its environment. It uses a lot of elements of traditional architecture such as the courtyard and As an example of a rather regionalist approach in the typical roofs (picture 52). Beijing one project of Wu Liangyong, architect and teacher in Beijing, is discussed in the first section. It had several awards, under which the UN’s 1992 World Residential Prize. It is renowned for its attempt to reintroduce courtyardhouse architecture in a modern 48,49 Closed doors in the Ju’er Hutong period. The other highlighted cases are of two foreign (star-) architects, Steven Holl and Paul Andreu. The example of Steven Holl might seem Supermodern in first appearance, but a closer look at the project traditional Ju’er reveals the use of local precedents and it is argued 50 Different perspectives on privacy that the project might be classified as Critical Regionalist. The example of Paul Andreu is in this thesis taken as the extreme of a Supermodern architecture.

Whenever analyzing a project, it is a subjective view on the project. The architect’s intentions may differ 51 ‘Courtyard parking’ 52 Typical siheyuan roof from the output of the analysis.

4.1 WU LIANGYONG: JU’ER HUTONG

Wu Liangyong is a director of the Institute of Architectural and Urban Studies at Tsinghua University in Beijing. In 1978 he developed a new set of courtyard houses based on the analysis of the traditional courtyard house typology. He came up with a project for a modern courtyard house referred to as the Ju’er Hutong (named after its neighbourhood). It clearly refers to the traditional siheyuan, only this 53 Ju’er Hutong from the streetside

Modernizing Beijing Rutger H. Kuipers TU Delft MSc3 32 The quality of living space has improved compared to Ju’er clearly is designed to provide every inhabitant a the former structures. Only a low number of residents qualitative living space, a modern interpretation of the returned to the place, because of the high prices typology fulfilling the demands of today. and the lack of government financial aid. There was much interest by wealthier families and businesses. 4.2 STEVEN HOLL: LINKED HYBRID The project’s exquisity is a reason it gained much attention. Because of this new mixture of people the In 2008 to be completed, the Linked Hybrid building intensity of a sense of community is, however, lower designed by Steven Holl Architects is now under then it might be before. When I walked through the construction. It is a grand housing project to area the place felt somewhat deserted, no people house over 2500 people. It combines housing with were inside the courtyards. Karina Moraes Zarzar underground parking, commercial functions and explains (in a yet to be published article) the using of several services for the inhabitants situated in a top elements of traditional architecture: “[The elements] ring that links all the buildings. A semi-public park such as the port, the roof and the courtyard ... are is situated at ground level, the use of integrated not transferred in the sense of bringing the hidden principles to reinforce the lifestyle of the inhabitants, but as a solace.” (Zarzar, 2006) Which she refers to as a citationist collection of precedents (see section 3.4) The attempt to reintroduce the courtyard as a typical typology Beijing architecture might have missed the success because the families living there 54 Linked Hybrid are too segregated and keep their privacy in the apartment. The courtyard misses an interpretation of the modern life-style, the place is now mostly used as a parking lot, not as a community space (picture 49). Doors in the old hutong neighbourhoods are mostly open, while those in the Ju’er area are mostly closed (picture 48,49). Another comparison to the old courtyard complexes shows that the Ju’er Hutong has windows at the street-side (picture 53) while the old siheyuan kept the privacy strictly to the inhabitants 55 Use of bright colours found in traditional Chinese architecture inside the compound (picture 50). That means another level of private to public space has been functions is controlled by the resident’s cards. The introduced. A garden in front provides a semi-private project uses features of traditional architecture, for space, however there is no physical connection to instance the bright colours (picture 55) that were used the street. The choice of the placement of these in traditional Chinese architecture. The way in which windows is however understandable as this is the the colours are re-used is in a syncretic manner. south-side of these apartments. Whereas hierarchy in The colours are taken from their original setting and the old courtyard houses created a better setting for renewed in the use on faces of the building. The the house in the north than the one on the south, the courtyard concept used in the traditional courtyard

Modernizing Beijing Rutger H. Kuipers TU Delft MSc3 33 houses seems to be applied to the complex, The reason why I think this building is ideally in as there are gardens on top of every flat that place and architecture, is that it is like a manifest for are accessible for the residents. This is clearly globalisation, an icon for Beijing that resembles the defamiliarizing new capitalistic society (with a twist of communism, the courtyard as a concept. A somewhat syncretic or the other way around…), an extremely modern approach is used as the concept is renewed in the creature. Costing about 260 million euros on itself can project or maybe it is even a meta-statement. The be an indicator for the economic explosion in China. hutong could also be seen as a concept used in the It is a perfect reflection of the undergoing change for project in the ring that connects all the buildings and Beijing as well for China, symbolizing the prosperity of contains all the public facilities. A park at ground level the country. resembles the Chinese garden. Overall we could state that the concept of defamiliarization is widely used in the project, mostly by using the syncretism approach. The project is therefore a good example of how to use local precedents.

4.3 ANDREU: NATIONAL THEATRE

The national theatre of Paul Andreu is probably the most commented project in Beijing, as it is probably the most controversial project. Mainly this is because it is situated close to state architecture around Tiananmen Square and because of its round shape, with a skin hanging like a curtain over the immense construction that is covering the theatre. Dawson notices the discussions that was raised by people, mostly attacking it for its lack of concern with the city, the national identity as well as tradition versus 56,57 The contrast of the hutong with the theatre gives modernism were discussed all over (Dawson, 2005). both buildings a stronger appearance. I will argue that Beijing couldn’t have chosen a better building on a better place, however, I don’t see this as Though prosperity doesn’t reach every citizen of a good example from a critical regionalist view. Beijing, poor people mostly don’t get the benefit of Near all this rigid state architecture, this building looks the economical success. For instance the habitants alienated. But, situated at the border of the political of hutongs get relocated and loose their socio- zone, it is still subjected to the state architecture, economical structure, which eventually draws them although it is extremely symmetrical in its appearance even further back behind. as well as the site plan surrounding it, besides, I will argue that the National theatre of Beijing Andreu’s building is not politically loaded it is simply symbolizes the present transformation of the Chinese there for the entertainment of the people. culture, a symbol purely for the wealthy China serving

Modernizing Beijing Rutger H. Kuipers TU Delft MSc3 34 the rich inhabitants of Beijing (who can afford a ticket for the theatre), ignoring the backside of modern Beijing. One thing that needs be commented on Paul Andreu’s building, seen from the pictures (56 & 57) is that it provides an immense contrast to the hutong area next to it. That contrast is strengthening the appearance of the old hutong as well as the theatre. It is a good example of how modern architecture can enforce and strengthen the aesthetic appearance of the old architecture. Concepts of defamiliarization can hardly be derived from this project. Because of the very supermodern approach it does not make much sense to judge this building on the use of defamiliarization.

Modernizing Beijing Rutger H. Kuipers TU Delft MSc3 35 5 Conclusions

Modernizing Beijing is a project of many different my visit to Beijing. Beijing without its old hutong faces, different opinions and different approaches. architecture would be as boring as Beijing without its Beijing has a long history and some beautiful new modern architecture. This mutual reinforcement remnants of past architectures, like the old hutong of architectures is one of the most important urban houses. Those can not simply be ignored and lessons from this city. swapped for a modern infill. Defamiliarization has provided me a theoretical On the other hand you have to be honest and look at basis to approach a new design. Preservation of the present demands that the modern Beijing asks ‘precedents’ is important, but more important for for. These old structures simply can’t cope with the architecture is to learn from these precedents. The modern Beijing. They occupy a lot of ground space, Critical Regionalism to me is not a conservative way while the inner city needs more density. And they are of dealing past, but a progressive way of dealing with simply neglected over time and now lacking several the future demands and learning from the past local basic needs such as a toilet or water supplies. architectures. The different applications (discussed in section 3.4) in the concept of defamiliarization help to The preserving of the hutong areas is done in a way understand how to approach a design task. - as discussed in section 2.2 - that raises questions on the authenticity. Presently these areas represent With the use of these theories I try to create a a unique - but poor - life-style. As they will clean this design which embeds the qualities found in the local area and turn the current overcrowded dilapidated precedents. Therefore I analysed the hutongs and buildings into expensive courtyard houses, the life- the layout of courtyard houses, to be found in book style will be obviously disappearing. The hutong III. With transposing the concepts and elements of will then turn into a tourist attraction that exlusively the traditional architecture, according to the used set represents the old architecture. The houses become of theories, I hope to design an architecture which simulacra, inauthentic representations of the past that enriches the context and not ignoring it. On the other once was. For the sake of the nostalgic minds. hand, the design has to face the current modern needs and has to fit into our post-modern paradigm. I am pro-preservation of the hutong areas. ‘Hands off’, that is, because these areas, like Dazhalan, will otherwise lose their typical life-style. I would like to see parts of the hutong-areas preserved and some demolished and modernized. All in order to make a composition in the Old City with high contrasts, amazing the visitor of the different settings. From out of the hutong areas modern architecture will stick out in the skyline, like the setting of the National Theatre (pictures 56 and 57). And walking through a modern part, turning a corner, you could surprisingly find yourself at once in an old hutong-area. This is one of the pleasant surprises I experienced on

Modernizing Beijing Rutger H. Kuipers TU Delft MSc3 36 Dynastie Timeline

in ‘China’, by Jan van der Putten, Novib 2003 ca. 21st-16th century B.C. Xia 1700-1027 B.C. Shang 1027-771 B.C. Western Zhou 770-221 B.C. Eastern Zhou 770-476 B.C. Spring and Autumn period 475-221 B.C. Warring States period 221-207 B.C. Qin 206 B.C.-A.D. 9 Western Han A.D. 9-24 Xin (Wang Mang interregnum) A.D. 25-220 Eastern Han A.D. 220-280 Three Kingdoms (San Guo) 220-265 Wei 221-263 Shu 229-280 Wu A.D. 265-316 Western Jin A.D. 317-420 Eastern Jin A.D. 420-588 Southern and Northern Dynasties 420-588 Southern Dynasties 420-478 Song 479-501 Qi 502-556 Liang 557-588 Chen 386-588 Northern Dynasties 386-533 Northern Wei 534-549 Eastern Wei 535-557 Western Wei 550-577 Northern Qi 557-588 Northern Zhou A.D. 581-617 Sui A.D. 618-907 Tang A.D. 907-960 Five Dynasties A.D. 907-979 Ten Kingdoms 916-1125 Liao 960-1279 Song 960-1127 Northern Song 1127-1279 Southern Song 1038-1227 Western Xia 1115-1234 Jin 1279-1368 Yuan 1368-1644 Ming 1644-1911 Qing 1911-1949 Republic of China 1949- People’s Republic of China

Information taken from the Country Study for the Library of Congress in Washington

Modernizing Beijing Rutger H. Kuipers TU Delft MSc3 37 27. Plan of the Legation Quarter, 1912. (large format)

Modernizing Beijing Rutger H. Kuipers TU Delft MSc3 38 References

Blaser, W. Chinese Pavillion Architecture, Niederteufen, Arthur Niggli Ltd., 1974. Dawson, L. China’s new dawn: an architectural transformation, München, Prestel, 2005. 176 p. Frampton, K. Moderne architectuur een kritische geschiedenis, Nijmegen, sun,1988 (4e druk 2001), 477 p. Deel 3, h. 5 ‘Kritisch regionalisme: moderne architectuur en culturele identiteit’ Guo, Q. Chinese Architecture and Planning Ideas, Methods, Techniques, Stuttgart, Edition Axel Menges, 2005. Hung, W. Remaking Beijing, Tiananmen square and the creation of a political space, Londen, 2005, Reaktion Books. 244 p. Ibelings, H. Supermodernisme, architectuur in het tijdperk van globalisering. Rotterdam, Nai 1998. 144 p. Laquian, A. Beyond Metropolis: the planning and governance of Asia’s mega-urban regions, Washington, Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 2005. Lefaivre, L. Critical regionalism architecture and identity in a globalized world. Munich, Prestel, 2003. 159 p. Liangyong, W. Rehabilitating������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ the Old City of Beijing : a project in the Ju’er Hutong neighbourhood, Vancouver, UBC Press, 1999. Mingde, L. & Zhenyong, Z. A Guidebook to Alleys in Beijing, Beijing, China Tourism Press, 2001 Putten, J. van der, China: Mensen Politiek Economie Cultuur Milieu, Amsterdam, KIT Publishers, 2003. Qinxi, L. Ancient Chinese Architecture, Beijing, Foreign Language Press, 2002. Rowe, P.G. & Kuan, S. Architectural encounters with essence and form, Cambridge, Massachusetts, MIT press, 2002. 213 p. Sassen, S. Globalization����������������������������������������������������������������� and its discontents, New York, The New Press, 1998. Shaughnessy, E. L. China: wereldgeschiedenis, Kerkdriel, Librero, 2006. Deel 3, h. 15, Architectuur en planning, pp. 212-229 Shklovsky, V. Art as Technique, first published in 1917, translated by Lemon and Reis in 1965, reprinted in David Lodge, ed., Modern Criticism and Theory: A Reader, London, Longmans, 1988, pp. 16-30. Tzonis, A. & Lefaivre, L. Critical Regionalism, Architecture and Identity in a Globalized World, New York, Prestel, 2003. Tzonis, A. & Lefaivre, L. & Stagno, B. Tropical architecture ‘critical regionalism in the age of globalization’, Chichester, Wiley-Academy, 2001. 311 p. Tzonis, A. & Lefaivre, L. & Bilodeau, D. Klassieke Architectuur, de Poetica van de Orde, Nijmegen,SUN,1989. Vlassenrood, L. et al, China Contemporary, Rotterdam, Nai, 2006 ARTICLES: Broudehoux, A.: Neighborhood regeneration in Beijing: an overview of projects implemented in the inner city since 1990, 1994. Elsa, D. Chinese Architects Look to the Future while Connecting with the Past, Architectural Record, 2006 Jager, M. Identity Crisis, article in TBJ Home, July 2006 edition, Beijing, 2006 Moraes Zarzar, K. Design Precedents and Identity. Procedures GA2004, 2004. Moraes Zarzar, K. Hutongs, Precedents and Identity - An Exploratory Essay on the Essences of Design Precedents in Beijing, (yet to be published) 2006. Tzonis, A. & Lefaivre, L. Why Critical Regionalism Today?, A+U, edition 5, may 1990. Ying, T. Relocation and the people - A research on Neighborhood Renewal in the Old City of Beijing. http:// web.telia.com/~u31224265/index.html, 1998

Modernizing Beijing Rutger H. Kuipers TU Delft MSc3 39 Pictorial references

Cover ‘The Hollywood Remains’, copyright of Natalie Behring. (www.nataliebehring.com) 1 Copyright by Rutger H. Kuipers, 2006. (Ronald McDonald taken from: www.finishingtouchshows.com 2 Copyright by Rutger H. Kuipers, 2006. 3 From Architectural Record website: http://archrecord.construction.com/china/1_projects/Olympics.asp 4 Copyright by Rutger H. Kuipers, 2006. 5 Unknown 6 From: http://www.siu.edu/~dfll/Chinese/index.html 7 Photograph courtesy of Ronald G. Knapp 988, Shuanglin zhen, Huzhou shi, Zhejiang Province 8 Photograph courtesy of Ronald G. Knapp 987, Shifuxiang, Zhejiang Province 9 Copyright by Rutger H. Kuipers, 2006. 10 From Google Earth 11 From: Chinese Pavillion Architecture, Werner Blaser, Niederteufen, Arthur Niggli Ltd., 1974. 12 From: www.drben.net 13-16 From: Qinghua������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� Guo, Chinese Architecture and Planning, Stuttgart, Edition Axel Menges, 2005. 17 Liangyong, W. ������������������������������������������������������������������� Rehabilitating the Old City of Beijing, Vancouver, UBC Press, 999.1999. 18-20 Copyright by Rutger H. Kuipers, 2006. 21 From: Broudehoux,���������������� A. Neighborhood regeneration in Beijing, 1994. 22 From: http://www2.kenyon.edu/Depts/Religion/Fac/Adler/Reln270/LINKS270.htm 23 Copyright by Travelblog.org 24 From: http://muninn.net/pics/qingdao/qingdao.html 25 American Barracks. “The images are scanned from postcards collected by Svend P. Morch during his time of service in Tientsin.” Copyright 1999, 2005 by Philip R. Abbey (photographic images are provided by Mr. Edgar C. Smith) Source: www.geocities.com/Eureka/Plaza/7750/tientsin01.html 26 Copyright by Rutger H. Kuipers, 2006. 27 Plan of the Legation Quarter in Beijing. From Madrolle’s Guide Books: Northern China, The Valley of the Blue River, Korea. Hachette & Company, 1912. 28 Copyright by Rutger H. Kuipers, 2006. 29 From: www.drben.net 30-32 Copyright by Rutger H. Kuipers, 2006. 33 Copyright by Jeff Widener from the Associated Press 34 Rowe & Kuan, Architectural encounters with essence and form, Cambridge, MIT press, 2002. 35 Copyright by NASA 36,37 Liangyong, W. ������������������������������������������������������������������� Rehabilitating the Old City of Beijing, Vancouver, UBC Press, 999.1999. 38,39 Copyright by Rutger H. Kuipers, 2006 40 In BJHGS, planning magazine, Beijing, 2006 41 Taken from Flickr.com 42 In BJHGS, planning magazine, Beijing, 2006 43 Copyright by Rutger H. Kuipers

Modernizing Beijing Rutger H. Kuipers TU Delft MSc3 40 44,45 Blur Hotel, taken from Architectural Record http://archrecord.construction.com/ 46 Torre Velasca, taken from http://web.tiscali.it/dammatra/Milano.htm 47 Column Venturi, taken from http://www.bluffton.edu/~sullivanm/venturi/add.html 48-53 Copyright by Rutger H. Kuipers 54 Linked Hybrid, taken from Stevenholl.com 55 Linked Hybrid, taken from www.skyscrapercity.org 56,57 Copyright by Rutger H. Kuipers

Modernizing Beijing Rutger H. Kuipers TU Delft MSc3 41 II

IMPRESSIONS

Thesis by Rutger H. Kuipers TUDelft MSc 3 Studio: ExploreLab Thesis by Rutger H. Kuipers “HUTONG ENTRANCES” TUDelft MSc 3 Studio: ExploreLab Thesis by Rutger H. Kuipers “BEIJING LATTICES” TUDelft MSc 3 Studio: ExploreLab Thesis by Rutger H. Kuipers “PUBLIC SPACE: BIKES,CARS,LAUNDRY AND STORAGE” TUDelft MSc 3 Studio: ExploreLab Thesis by Rutger H. Kuipers “PUBLIC SPACE: DIRECT USE” TUDelft MSc 3 Studio: ExploreLab Thesis by Rutger H. Kuipers “BEIJING ADVERTISEMENTS” TUDelft MSc 3 Studio: ExploreLab Thesis by Rutger H. Kuipers “RED” TUDelft MSc 3 Studio: ExploreLab Thesis by Rutger H. Kuipers “GREEN IN THE CITY” TUDelft MSc 3 Studio: ExploreLab Thesis by Rutger H. Kuipers “HUTONG WASTE” TUDelft MSc 3 Studio: ExploreLab III

ANALYSIS & PRECEDENTS

Thesis by Rutger H. Kuipers “MODERNIZING BEIJING” TUDelft MSc 3 Studio: ExploreLab COURTYARD HOUSE Analysis of 3 traditional types of Siheyuan 11 court with frontyard 32 courts with backyard

2 courts,1 frontyard, 21 backyard, several sideyards

Thesis by Rutger H. Kuipers “MODERNIZING BEIJING” TUDelft MSc 3 Studio: ExploreLab COURTYARD HOUSE Analized by the Ching-method.

Additive form. The Courtyard house is a complex of additive forms arranged in symmetry, and along a north-south axis. Some face eachother, others stand alone. A wall encloses the whole complex. 1 2 3

Faces

spatial tension

face to face

Axis

Thesis by Rutger H. Kuipers “MODERNIZING BEIJING” TUDelft MSc 3 Studio: ExploreLab COURTYARD HOUSE Analized by the Ching-method.

Orientation of units. All the units are opening to the courts. The importance of the unit are given by the thickness of the arrows. The most important buildings are oriented southwards. 1 2 3

Entrance. Routing. The entrance is always at the south and at the east Linear, circular and radial. side of the axis. The path is always fenced by a screenwall. The approach to the complex is always side-wards.

Path

primary routing secundary routing

Approach Configuration of the path

Thesis by Rutger H. Kuipers “MODERNIZING BEIJING” TUDelft MSc 3 Studio: ExploreLab COURTYARD HOUSE Analized by the Ching-method.

Spaces. The units in the complex are linked by courts. The spaces in the courts are open and semi-open, low and raised level. The picture shown beneath shows the different levels. The raised part in the court is always covered by a roof. The outer wall brings privacy to the inner court. The sloped roofs allow much sunlight. 1 2 3

raised level

ground level

Thesis by Rutger H. Kuipers “MODERNIZING BEIJING” TUDelft MSc 3 Studio: ExploreLab PRECEDENTS Dong Nan Yuan

Thesis by Rutger H. Kuipers “MODERNIZING BEIJING” TUDelft MSc 3 Studio: ExploreLab IV

LOCATION

Thesis by Rutger H. Kuipers “MODERNIZING BEIJING” TUDelft MSc 3 Studio: ExploreLab CHINA

Population: 1.3 billion people Area: 9.6 million square meters

Rapid Economic Growth of 9 % per year due to planned economy changed to market-based Europe and China compared economy. Because of rapid growth China planned to built 400 new cities for the next 20 years, some 20 a year. Annually there are 12 million people expected to migrate from rural areas to the urban area. Now there are 38 percent of the inhabitants living in urban areas by 2020 this should go up to 50 percent.

copyright by: www.dynamiccity.org

Top ten countries in Gross National Product 2005 and 2050

2005 2050 Urbanization

1 USA 11,351 1 China 44,453 2 Japan 4,366 2 USA 35,165 3 Germany 1,966 3 India 27,803 4 UK 1,647 4 Japan 6,673 5 China 1,529 5 Brazil 6,074 6 France 1,455 6 Russia 5,870 7 Italy 1,212 7 UK 3,782 8 Canada 728 8 Germany 3,603 9 Spain 655 9 France 3,148 10 Mexico 642 10 Italy 2,061 Source: Goldman Sachs

copyright by: www.dynamiccity.org

Thesis by Rutger H. Kuipers “MODERNIZING BEIJING” TUDelft MSc 3 Studio: ExploreLab BEIJING

Beijing Municipality

Population: 14.930.000 approx. 7.5 million in urban area Area: 16,808 km2 Density: 888 /km2

GDP: € 41,8 billion Per capita: € 2802 Growth rate: 10 %

Ethnicity: Han (96%) Language: Mandarin

Ages: 0-14: 13,6 % 14-64: 78 % 65+: 8,4 % Metropolitan area Median age: 34.4 years

Industry: IT, Real Estate, Automobiles

Time-zone: UTC+8

Mean Temperature: Jan Feb Mar April May Jun July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec -4.4/-2.1/4.7/13.0/17.2/18.9/23.6/25.6/24.0/19.1/12.2/4.3

Central City 8 Central Districts 5 Ring Roads

Images of Jing Zhou

Density Inner city

Thesis by Rutger H. Kuipers “MODERNIZING BEIJING” TUDelft MSc 3 Studio: ExploreLab BEIJING

Beijing has expanded in 50 years to about 20 times its size. In the 60’s and early 70’s, after the WW II, Beijing had a dramatic high natural birth-rate: 2 - 3.5 %. In the 70’s it decreased to 0.75 - 0.93 %, because of the One Family One Child Policy. From the 90’s the city started expanding due to the increase of the economy with the migration of people from the countryside. To support further expansion and to ease the pressure on the city centre, the government planned new towns in the suburb. 6 Satellite cities will be built that can accomodate 500.000 people each. Images by: Jing Zhou

Thesis by Rutger H. Kuipers “MODERNIZING BEIJING” TUDelft MSc 3 Studio: ExploreLab BEIJING DEVELOPMENT

In the process of modernizing, Beijing has set its self a goal: upgrading the city for the 2008 Olympics. The next goals are already planned for 2020. “Two axes, two belts and multiple centres”, is the main idea of the new plans. The two important axes that will be enforced are the north-south axis along tiananmen square and the forbidden city added with the Olympic field and the east-west axis which will connect the CBD with the inner city. The belts include a development (busi- ness) belt along east Beijing and in the west a ecological belt to draw back the pollution of the city. Several new centres are planned, such as the CBD and new satellite towns circle around the city, to take the pres- sure off the centre city. 2 Belts

A lack of good infrastructure in the city leads to lots of traffic jams. To ease pressure off the roads, Beijing is ex- panding its subway network with 14 new subway-lines. Currently the city has only 3. New roads are planned in the city to improve the circulation in the city. Currently Beijing has 6 Ring Roads to circulate the fast traffic around, and a seventh is planned.

2 Belts + multiple centres

2nd -

Thesis by Rutger H. Kuipers “MODERNIZING BEIJING” TUDelft MSc 3 Studio: ExploreLab BEIJING CHARACTER

The Old City is developed within a rigid grid of north- south and west-east oriented directions. The layout relates to the central axis that runs north to south and contains the most important monuments of Beijing.

In every level of scale from city to city-block to neighborhood (sub-block) to courtyard house and its rooms, the symmetrical lay-out of, what Liangyong calls the “fishbone-structure”, is repeated.

city block subblock courtyard house room compound

Typical to Beijing is its low-rise city centre. The resulted cityscape is under pressure of modernisation. The density is too high in the center, the answer could be high-rise, which will destroy the cityscape.

To preserve the cityscape, the government introduced a building height regulation on the city centre area. Although corruption lead to the ignorance of the regulation.

In the Old City the hutong areas became subjected to rapid growth and overcrowding from migrants in the 50’s when the land became state-owned. It resulted into an increasing density, by which they lost their formal lay-outs.

In the Ming dynastie an avenue would be 24 bu (about 36 meters), a street would be 2 bu (about 2 meters) and an alley would be 6 bu (about 9 meters). In that time there were about 400 alleys in the city. Due to the overcrowding smaller alleys appeared. Building Height Regulation

From RingRoad to alley

Thesis by Rutger H. Kuipers “MODERNIZING BEIJING” TUDelft MSc 3 Studio: ExploreLab BEIJING PRESERVATION

In order to preserve the old hutong areas, or at least some of them, Beijing introduced the Preservation Plan. The yellow areas indicate the 25 areas listed for preservation.

Thesis by Rutger H. Kuipers “MODERNIZING BEIJING” TUDelft MSc 3 Studio: ExploreLab BEIJING POSTMODERN PRESERVATION

Despite this preservation policy, still a lot of buildings get torn down and their inhabitants are being relocated to the outskirts. The buildings that are torn down are being rebuilt in their old original state. The state in which they were before they became victims of overcrowding and dilapidation. They are being adapted to the modern demands, added with good facilities like; toilets, bathroom, electricity etc. The result is a kind of postmodern replica of the courtyard house. The new buildings are then being sold again. The former inhabitants should originally be able to move back, as the government stated in their policies. But in reality the building is now so expensive that they can not afford it anymore. Moreover they will be encouraged to move to the outskirts, so there is more profit to make on the buildings. These buildings are now very popular in wealthier population groups. The combination of a traditional styled courtyard house and a prime location in the city center appeal to many people. This gentrification is a solution to the density in the innercity. It’s likely that the government doesn’t want to expose the ‘poor face’ of Beijing to its visitors and thus relocates poor people to the outskirts, ashamed as it is for their appearance.

Thesis by Rutger H. Kuipers “MODERNIZING BEIJING” TUDelft MSc 3 Studio: ExploreLab