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Oscillation of the Velvet Worm Slime Jet by Passive Hydro-Dynamic Instability

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Oscillation of the Velvet Worm Slime Jet by Passive Hydro-Dynamic Instability ARTICLE Received 28 Aug 2014 | Accepted 14 Jan 2015 | Published 17 Mar 2015 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms7292 OPEN Oscillation of the velvet worm slime jet by passive hydrodynamic instability Andre´s Concha1, Paula Mellado1, Bernal Morera-Brenes2, Cristiano Sampaio Costa3, L. Mahadevan4,5 & Julia´n Monge-Na´jera6 The rapid squirt of a proteinaceous slime jet endows velvet worms (Onychophora) with a unique mechanism for defence from predators and for capturing prey by entangling them in a disordered web that immobilizes their target. However, to date, neither qualitative nor quantitative descriptions have been provided for this unique adaptation. Here we investigate the fast oscillatory motion of the oral papillae and the exiting liquid jet that oscillates with frequencies fB30–60 Hz. Using anatomical images, high-speed videography, theoretical analysis and a physical simulacrum, we show that this fast oscillatory motion is the result of an elastohydrodynamic instability driven by the interplay between the elasticity of oral papillae and the fast unsteady flow during squirting. Our results demonstrate how passive strategies can be cleverly harnessed by organisms, while suggesting future oscillating microfluidic devices, as well as novel ways for micro and nanofibre production using bioinspired strategies. 1 School of Engineering and Sciences, Adolfo Iban˜ez University, Diagonal las Torres 2640, Pen˜alolen, Santiago 7941169, Chile. 2 Laboratorio de Gene´tica Evolutiva, Escuela de Ciencias Biolo´gicas, Universidad Nacional de Costa Rica, 86-3000 Heredia, Costa Rica. 3 Department of Zoology, Institute of Bioscience, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo 11461, Brazil. 4 School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA. 5 Department of Physics, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA. 6 Tropical Biology, Universidad de Costa Rica, 2060 San Jose´, Costa Rica. Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to A.C. (email: [email protected]) or to J.M.-N. (email: [email protected]). NATURE COMMUNICATIONS | 6:6292 | DOI: 10.1038/ncomms7292 | www.nature.com/naturecommunications 1 & 2015 Macmillan Publishers Limited. All rights reserved. ARTICLE NATURE COMMUNICATIONS | DOI: 10.1038/ncomms7292 apid motions in nature are seen in a variety of situations 0 ms 38 ms associated with escape and predation. Extreme examples Rinclude the chameleon tongue that uses an unusual muscle- spring configuration to capture prey1, and the venus flytrap that stores elastic energy and uses an instability for the rapid closure of its leaf2. The velvet worm is an unusual example of how an organism projects itself by squirting a jet of slime in an oscillatory 68 ms 93 ms fashion, not only for capturing prey3, but also for defence4–8. Animals use squirting mechanisms for elimination of waste products (for example, urination in vertebrates); reproduction (gamete expulsion); communication (for example, pheromone excretion in mammals); locomotion (for example, squids); 8 defence (for example, horned lizards); and hunting (for 7 Left example, archer fish)9–13. These jets are normally directed in a 6 Right straight line. We are aware of only three exceptions: velvet worms 5 (Phylum Onychophora), spitting spiders (Scytodes spp.) and 4 14 3 spitting cobras (Naja spp.). Spitting spiders oscillate their fangs , Distance (cm) 2 15 and spitting cobras actively oscillate their heads . Despite having 1 been a subject of study for over a century, the mechanism 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 underlying the rapid oscillatory squirting of slime by the Time (ms) velvet worm remains a mystery4,16,17. Indeed, Darwin even hypothesized the creation of the disordered web as a potential Figure 1 | Slime jet oscillations and jet speed during worm attack. Giant origin for the evolution of spider webs18. red velvet worm Peripatus solorzanoi used to record the squirting process. In this article, we demonstrate that the fast oscillations of the Full-body length is B17.5 cm. In a, a soft paintbrush used to activate its jet slime and papillae in Onychophora are the result of a syringe- attack is shown, and it was digitally removed in the other snapshots for like system that, by means of a geometric amplifier, allows for fast clarity. (a–d) Different stages of the attack recorded at 480 f.p.s. The active B squirt using slow muscular contraction. This fast flow activates an part of the attack is completed in Dtsquirt 65 ms. (e) Slime pattern elastohydrodynamical instability that explains the fast papilla generated on a wall of the foam tunnel used to keep worms at focal oscillations during defence and attack. We present a physical distance (scale bar, 1 cm). Three or more oscillations of the slime jet are the simulacrum that reproduces the instability in the same range of typical outcome. (f) Liquid jet tip position as a function of time for the parameters of the natural system opening new venues for self- squirt. For this data, we used two cameras: one at 30 f.p.s. and the other at supported microfluidic devices and applications19–22. 480 f.p.s. The two cameras configuration allowed us to compute the jet velocity. The solid line corresponds to a squirt speed of V ¼ 5.0 m s À 1 and the dotted line to a squirt speed of V ¼ 3.2 m s À 1. Solid red dots and green Results and Discussion triangles correspond to left and right papilla, respectively. Worm attack kinematics. To capture the dynamics of the squirting process, we filmed several worm attacks (Supplementary Movies 1–3). In Fig. 1a–d, we show a series of snapshots of an are similar to those found in the legs, but fewer in number. attack recorded using high-speed imaging (480 frames per second Figure 2a,b and Supplementary Fig. 1 also show that muscular a.k.a. f.p.s.), with the average duration of a squirt for all specimens fibres found in papilla tissues are consistent with their directional being Dtave ¼ 0.064±0.005 s (Supplementary Table I; Supplemen- function, with some being annular, typical of sphincter-like tary Note 2). By tracking the motion of the tip of the jet shown in systems. The relaxed papilla has an accordion shape (Fig. 2c,d) Fig. 1 and Supplementary Fig. 2, as a function of time, we found that is unfolded just before the squirting process, and can thus be that the typical jet speed VB3–5 m s À 1. Furthermore, we see that easily packed while also having an inhomogeneous bending the squirt does not remain oriented but instead sprays an entire rigidity, with soft spots that make papillae more pliable and region as shown in Fig. 1e. These measurements raise the natural susceptible to bending as slime is squirted. question of the spatio-temporal evolution of the liquid jet and its Our anatomical findings are consistent with earlier evidence control by the worm. that slime papilla are modified limbs24,25 with a nervous system similar to that in their legs26. Detailed descriptions of the Onychophora muscular system23 show that the fastest muscles Anatomy of the ejecting system. Actively controlled muscular are located in the jaw with typical twitch time scales B0.5 s, action has long been invoked as the natural explanation for the which, while fast for this primitive worm, are nearly 25 times spectacular way in which these worms quickly squirt slime and B 16 slower relative to the papillary oscillation time scale 20 ms. continues to be the favoured mechanism . However, papillar Given that the legs and the papillary muscles are even slower, oscillations are fast (Fig. 1; Supplementary Table 1 and consistent with the primitive nature of these worms5,27,28, we are Supplementary Note 2) in comparison with any other motion B left with an obvious question—how are rapid changes in direction of the worm (fpapilla/fwalking 30–60) and with known time scales B 23 that occur over a time scale of a few milliseconds possible without ( 0.5 s) for the fastest muscles in the worm , suggesting a the existence of any specialized rapid muscular actuation or conceptual difficulty with this hypothesis. Therefore, we neural control? examined the anatomy of the whole-squirt system and surrounding tissues (Fig. 2; Supplementary Fig. 1). During squirting, the oral papilla extends from its folded shape to its Physical mechanism. A way around this conundrum is to realize full length (Fig. 2) of up to LB6 mm (Supplementary Fig. 2). In that a physical mechanism can drive the rapid and nearly chaotic Fig. 2a, we see a large reservoir region (re) where slime is stored oscillations of the papilla just as a garden hose pipe oscillates and a narrow duct that ends at the oral papilla, a syringe-like when water squirts out of it rapidly. Indeed, the inertial effects geometry that facilitates the acceleration of the slime for the fast associated with the exiting fluid jet drive the elastic hose pipe to squirt. In Fig. 2a,b, we show that muscle fibres in the oral papilla flutter, a subject that has been well studied experimentally and 2 NATURE COMMUNICATIONS | 6:6292 | DOI: 10.1038/ncomms7292 | www.nature.com/naturecommunications & 2015 Macmillan Publishers Limited. All rights reserved. NATURE COMMUNICATIONS | DOI: 10.1038/ncomms7292 ARTICLE re Figure 2 | Squirt system and papilla structure. (a) A haematoxylin and eosin-stained section of a Peripatus solorzanoi. The squirt system is composed of a large slime reservoir, re, whose length is depicted by a black arrow. The reservoir has a large diameter compared with the diameter of the duct that connects it with the oral papilla (black circle). (b) Longitudinal cut of an oral papilla of a Peripatus solorzanoi. Its wrinkled surface and sphincter-like tissues surrounding the inner duct are shown (scale 4 mm).
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