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Home , Bankera, Hydnellum, Hydnellum aurantiacum, Hydnellum ferrugineum, Hydnellum peckii, Hydnoid fungi

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Scotland’s rare tooth fungi: an introduction to their identification, and management capsules on an alder log Stewart Taylor, RSPB Design: rjpdesign.co.uk Print: crownlitho.co.uk Buxbaumia viridis

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Left: Tooth fungi habitat on Deeside © Liz Holden

Front cover: main image, peckii © Mark Gurney, RSPB

Inset top: tomentosus © Liz Holden

Inset below: fuligineoalba © Mark Gurney, RSPB

Plantlife is the UK’s leading charity working to protect wild and their habitats. The charity has 10,500 members and owns 23 reserves. In 2008, Plantlife is 'Lead Partner' for 77 under the UK Government's . Conservation of these species is delivered through the charity’s Back from the Brink species recovery programme, which is jointly funded by Countryside Council for Wales, Natural England, Scottish Natural Heritage, charitable trusts, companies and individuals. It involves its members as volunteers (Flora Guardians) in delivering many aspects of this work. Plantlife’s head office is in Salisbury, Wiltshire, and the charity has national offices in Wales and Scotland.

Plantlife Scotland Balallan House Allan Park Stirling FK8 2QG Tel.01786 478509 www.plantlife.org.uk [email protected] BACK FROM THE BRINK MANAGEMENT SERIES

Hydnellum requiring further taxonomic investigation to define exact species © Mark Gurney, RSPB

Scotland’s rare tooth fungi: an relationship wherein both partners gain introduction to their identification, nutrients. ecology and management What are tooth fungi? Not quite animals and certainly not plants, ‘tooth fungi’ are a diverse group of fungi that these fascinating organisms are members of utilise tooth like structures to produce their one of the largest kingdoms on the planet, the . Only four of the many genera (groups fungi, essential to the health of all ecological of species) that share this character are of systems and without which around 90% of our conservation concern in Scotland and higher plants and trees would not survive. considered here: Bankera, Hydnellum, Phellodon and . The parts of a that we see above ground are the producing structures, Two other stipitate (stalked) genera could (the ‘fruit bodies’) of a much larger organism cause confusion as they have similar that is mostly hidden from sight and macroscopic structures, but these are composed of a branching network of widespread: the Wood Hedgehogs () filamentous cells.This underground network, and Earpick Fungus (). Other tooth the ‘’, enables tooth fungi to forage fungi are not stipitate and where they are of for nutrients and to link up with the roots of conservation concern, have not yet been living trees in a symbiotic ‘ectomycorrhizal’ found fruiting in Scotland.

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Hydnellum aurantiacum. © Liz Holden

Distribution in Scotland Tooth fungi characteristics The core concentrations of Scottish tooth fungi ● Rather than gills or tubes, the undersides of appear to be in the Caledonian of the caps have little tooth-like structures to the Central and Eastern Highlands, with support the developing spores. scattered records from elsewhere. Certain ● The four genera of conservation concern in species, including Orange Tooth (Hydnellum Scotland have stalks, known as ‘stipes’ and aurantiacum) and Greenfoot Tooth (Sarcodon hence known as ‘stipitate’. glaucopus) are rarely recorded even within the ● These fungi produce relatively long-lived core areas. fruit bodies (several weeks in some cases) between early August and October. ● Up to ten species, representing all four genera, have been found fruiting in close proximity to each other in ‘hot spot’ clusters. ● It appears that these genera do not readily colonise new sites. Once established at a site their main mode of dispersal is through vegetative growth with the mycelium moving from tree root to tree root.

Wood hedgehogs (Hydnum species) have teeth and stipes but are widespread in Scotland and not 2 of conservation concern © Mark Gurney, RSPB BACK FROM THE BRINK MANAGEMENT SERIES

Tooth fungi habitat ● Soils supporting tooth fungi are usually ● Tooth fungi are woodland organisms that well drained although humidity levels are access nutrients in a partnership with often relatively high. Humidity might be living trees. In Scotland the host trees are maintained for, example, by proximity to thought to be mainly pine, and . water or overhanging branches. ● Their fruit bodies appear in soil and are ● The fruiting success of these fungi appears not on dead wood. to be linked to low nitrogen levels in the ● There is evidence to suggest that the soil as well as climatic variables. larger the area of woodland, the higher the ● Fruiting is not limited to old growth number of species (Newton et al, 2002). forests and fruit bodies do sometimes ● As a group they seem to share a occur with young trees or in plantation preference for fruiting in poor sandy soils, woodland on suitable ground.There is often on banks, tracksides, old quarries or however, usually a link to old growth borrow pits where there is a poorly either through proximity to that developed humus layer and very little habitat or through scattered old growth vascular cover. forest trees.

Ideal tooth fungi habitat © Stewart Taylor

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Bankera fuligineoalba © Liz Holden

The tooth fungi genera

Bankera species The flesh can be quite easily broken and generally the caps do not fuse together.The fruit bodies have white to buff teeth and white spores.The cap is fleshy and often has debris sticking to it. It is white at first becoming tinged brown with age. Dried material usually smells strongly of or curry powder.

Sarcodon species The flesh can be quite easily broken and generally the caps do not fuse together. Fruit bodies have greyish teeth and brown spores. The cap is fleshy, a brown colour and covered in distinct scales.There is no strong spicy smell when dried. © Liz Holden 4 BACK FROM THE BRINK MANAGEMENT SERIES

Sarcodon glaucopus © Liz Holden

Bankera fuligineoalba © Mark Gurney

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Hydnellum species The flesh is tough and the caps often fuse together incorporating surrounding vegetation and debris; there are multiple stipes beneath. Caps have brownish teeth and brown spores. The cap can be thick or thin and whilst starting very pale, becomes some shade of brown, with blue, orange or pink tints in some species.The caps of thin-fleshed species are often concentrically zoned.The cut flesh itself © Liz Holden is often zoned and in some species contains bright blue or orange colours. In damp weather fresh fruit bodies of some species produce blood red droplets (guttules).There is no strong spicy smell when dried.

ᮢ Hydnellum requiring further taxonomic investigation to define exact species © Liz Holden ᮡ © Liz Holden

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ᮡ Hydnellum peckii © David Genney ᮢ © Mark Gurney RSPB

7 © Liz Holden © Mark Gurney RSPB

Phellodon species Look alike non-target species The flesh is tough and the caps often fuse The Earpick Fungus (Auriscalpium) – is a small, together incorporating surrounding vegetation dark brown fungus that grows throughout the and debris; there are multiple stipes beneath. year on old pinecones.The relatively long, thin, Caps have white teeth and white spores. Caps hairy is often set to one side of the cap. are often concentrically zoned and colours vary from brown to blue black. Dried material usually The Wood Hedgehogs (Hydnum) – have teeth smells strongly of fenugreek or curry powder. more or less the same colour as the uniformly coloured cap ie pale cinnamon to buff or © Liz Holden terracotta.The spores are whitish.The cap is fleshy and easily broken.

Tiger’s Eye (Coltricia perennis) – is common in similar habitats, has a stipe, tough flesh and the top of the cap has concentric brown zones like several of the tooth fungi. Look carefully to find pores rather than teeth below the cap.

Why are tooth fungi of conservation concern? Reports produced during the 1980s and 1990s in parts of western and central Europe indicated that fruiting of these fungi was in significant decline and in 1999, concern about their status in the UK led to a grouped Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP) being established.The revised 2007 BAP list includes one additional species bringing the total number of species in the plan to 15, of which 13 occur in Scotland.

8 Perceived threats ● Habitat loss at both macro and micro scales e.g. clear felling, alteration of site conditions by invasive plants such as bracken or rhododendron or loss of suitable, sandy soil microhabitats ● Eutrophication of soils through airborne pollution or agricultural run-off ● The application of fungicides or substances containing nitrogen and / or phosphate A survey plot for tooth fungi © Liz Holden ● Liming alters the soil pH dramatically.Work in Sweden and Germany has found that liming was detrimental to established tough or bitter to be edible although some ectomycorrhizal species (Taylor & Finlay, are collected for dying craft materials. 2003) ● Check whether their presence is already ● Compaction or disturbance of soil by recorded at the site using your own land trampling or machine management records, by checking the ● Lack of awareness of the habitat Fungal Records Database of Britain and requirements of tooth fungi amongst land Ireland through the British Mycological managers Society website or by contacting Plantlife ● Lack of understanding of the ecology and Scotland (contact details on back page). If of the group they are already well recorded then there is no need to disturb them further; if not then What you can do if you find tooth fungi advice can be given on how to proceed. ● These are species of conservation concern ● Refer to the management guidelines below and collection should be kept to the if interventions are proposed for the site. minimum necessary to establish ● Consider undertaking a simple survey, as identification. there is very little base line data available ● Tooth fungi,some of which are listed on from which to assess the impact of the UK BAP (2007) list and in the management interventions. Surveys should preliminary Red List of Threatened Fungi take place over at least 5 years, as some (Evans, 2007), are not currently listed on tooth fungi do not fruit regularly. Monthly Schedule 8 of the Wildlife and Countryside visits from early August to October each Act (1981).Although a licence from the year are also recommended as some government is not required to pick fruit species fruit early and others later. bodies, permission of the landowner must Temporarily mark each fruiting site to avoid be sought. confusion in successive monthly visits. GPS ● These fungi are not poisonous and working readings, good field notes and photographs with the fruit bodies will not require action can help to accurately map your tooth fungi beyond normal health and safety and inform future site management. procedures. Most species are either too Contact Plantlife if assistance is required.

9 ● Get to know species specialists and local fungus recording groups who may be able to help inform site management and provide regular and relevant advice including how to monitor any management interventions. ● In the vicinity of known fruit bodies, maintain a wide age structure of trees to increase the likelihood of continuity of host trees.The exact stocking densities to enable the inoculation of neighbouring young trees with fungal mycelium have not been determined in this habitat but will relate to the extent of the host tree’s own root system. Opening up the canopy beyond 1.5 times the radius of the canopy is not recommended close to the known area colonised by tooth fungi. It can be difficult to © Liz Holden ascertain which trees are actually hosting the target mycelium; the further development of molecular tools will assist with this process in Management guidelines the future. Meanwhile the maintenance of a If you are in woodland with suitable host trees sustainable buffer zone (a minimum of 50m is and poor sandy soils it is possible that you suggested) of potential host trees around either already have tooth fungi, or if they do known fruiting sites is recommended to not appear to be present, that you could ensure host continuity. encourage their presence through appropriate ● Extended rotations, continuous cover management. Current research (Van der Linde, and small coupe felling are more 2008) suggests that the mycelium of tooth likely to sustain tooth fungi populations than fungi can be successfully transferred to new clear fell.When carefully applied these forms sites on the inoculated roots of seedling trees. of management can benefit tooth fungi by This work is at an early stage but may be a increasing the longevity of the woodland site, future consideration. maintaining continuity of hosts (selective thinning can be used to reduce the likelihood General guidelines in areas where tooth fungi of felling host trees) and maintaining are known to fruit: appropriate environmental conditions such ● The exact ecological requirements of as humidity. these fungi are not yet fully understood, so ● Increase woodland size where possible by great care should be taken when changing extending existing woodlands and the management of sites known to incorporating existing woodland fragments. support tooth fungi. ● Further research is required to determine ● Ensure contractors and land managers are which areas of the forest are likely to be aware of the presence of tooth fungi. most suitable for the mycelia of these fungi.

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It is not yet possible to offer specific Maintenance of paths, roads and car parks in management recommendations to favour areas known to support tooth fungi: the development of these species in the ● Aim for minimal interference with the wider forest. established soil profile e.g. avoid excavation ● Where natural regeneration is not to create foundations or deep layers of possible then restocking should be with new surfacing material to level the paths. native host species. ● Endeavour to retain existing path widths ● Minimise heavy disturbance and and edges where tooth fungi are known compaction from vehicle access or foot to fruit traffic. Ploughing and scarification should ● New construction materials should be be avoided in areas where tooth fungi are locally sourced if possible and mineral in known to be fruiting or where there is a origin.Wood chips would not be plan to encourage the presence of tooth appropriate. fungi. Even light disturbance should be ● A few carefully sited borrow pits, away avoided during the fruiting season. from the locations of the rarest tooth ● Maintain areas around fruiting tooth fungi fungi, could provide additional suitable free from the development of humus and habitat for these species to fruit in. For dense vascular plant cover. Verge cutting this purpose and where appropriate, it is with a bar can be appropriate as long as recommended that topsoil is not replaced. the dead plant material does not Excess topsoil should be placed several accumulate to enrich the soil.The effect of metres into the woodland and away from herbicides on tooth fungi is unknown. tooth fungus fruiting sites. ● At sites threatened by, for example, ● Path drainage should be established with Rhododendron ponticum or Snowberry care and in consultation with species (Symphoricarpus albus) take measures to specialists.The maintenance of ditches and control, contain or eradicate invasive non- banks can be beneficial in some native plant species using Forestry circumstances. Commission guidelines on suitable ● Material derived from any clearance of techniques. Bracken, particularly in trees should be piled up several metres into riverside locations, can be difficult to the surrounding woodland if staying on site. access by machinery but could be mown ● Minimise disturbance and compaction or managed by volunteers. from machinery involved in the project, or ● Avoid the use of fungicides, lime or the the storage of materials. application or accidental run off of any ● It is important to maintain the host trees nitrogen or phosphorus rich substance in but it may also be important to have a or adjacent to target areas. clear margin between the path edge and ● Monitor the effects of management the trees, if that does not compromise interventions. humidity levels. ● Remember that it is possible to manage for a range of conservation interests by creating a mosaic of habitats.

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Recommended texts and references Contacts for advice and further information UKBAP species lists and action plans are available at www.ukbap.org.uk For help with reporting or identifying tooth fungi contact, The preliminary assessment for the Red Data List of Threatened British Fungi (Evans Plantlife Scotland 2007) can be found through the British Balallan House Mycological Society’s website Allan Park (www.britmycolsoc.org.uk) Stirling FK8 2QG D.N. Pegler, P.J.Roberts and B.M. Spooner. Tel. 01786 478509 Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 1997 British Chanterelles and tooth fungi [email protected] www.plantlife.org.uk J. Breitenbach and F. Kränzlin.Verlag Mykologia, 1986 Fungi of Switzerland Vol 2 For help with contacting mycological Non gilled fungi contractors and volunteer groups: contact Plantlife Scotland Newton,A.C., Holden, E., Davy, L.M.,Ward, S.D., Fleming, L.V. & Watling, R. (2002). Status For help with contacting fungal recording and distribution of stipitate in groups contact the British Mycological Society Scottish coniferous forests. Biological at www.britmycolsoc.org.uk or Plantlife Conservation (107) 181-192 Scotland

Parfitt, D.,Ainsworth,A.M., Simpson, D., For information on dealing with invasive non- Rogers,H.J. & Boddy, L. (2007). Molecular and native plant species see the Forestry morphological discrimination of stipitate Commission Practice Guides for example hydnoids in the genera ‘Managing and controlling invasive Hydnellum and Phellodon. Mycological Research, rhododendron’ by Colin Edwards (2006) at 111, 761-777. www.forestry.gov.uk

Taylor,A.F.S. & Finlay, R.D. (2003). Effects of Guidance provided in this leaflet is integrated liming and ash application on below ground into HaRPPS, the Forestry Commission's web- ectomycorrhizal community structure in tow based information and decision support system, Norway forests. Water,Air and Soil providing quick and easy access to information Pollution: Focus 3: 63-76, Netherlands about a range of Priority and protected woodland species and habitat management: Van der Linde, S. (2008).‘Ecology and conservation http://www.forestresearch.gov.uk/fr/INFD- of stipitate hydnoid fungi associated with Scots 758CCA Pine’. PhD thesis, University of Aberdeen 12 BACK FROM THE BRINK MANAGEMENT SERIES

Sarcodon squamosus © Mark Gurney RSPB

This leaflet was written for Plantlife Scotland by Liz Holden, Field Mycologist BACK FROM THE BRINK MANAGEMENT SERIES BACK FROM THE BRINK MANAGEMENT SERIES

Phellodon niger © Mark Gurney, RSPB

British Lichen Society www.plantlife.org.uk [email protected]

Plantlife International – The Wild Plant Conservation Charity Plantlife Scotland Balallan House,Allan Park, Stirling FK8 2QG

Tel.01786 478509 capsules on an alder log Stewart Taylor, RSPB Design: rjpdesign.co.uk Print: crownlitho.co.uk

ISBN: 978-1-904749-40-0 © October 2008 Buxbaumia viridis Plantlife International – The Wild Plant Conservation Charity is a charitable company limited by guarantee. Registered Charity Number: 1059559 Registered Company Number: 3166339. Registered in England Charity registered in Scotland no. SC038951 Front cover image: