Integrated ESIA Greece Annex 6.6.1 - Geology Baseline Report Page 2 of 49

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION 5 1.1 Scope of the Study 5 1.2 Approach 5 1.3 Existing Work 5

KP 0 – KP 359 6

2 GEOLOGICAL SETTING 6 2.1 Overview 6 2.2 Major Morphological Features along the Route 6

3 LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY 8 3.1 Overview 8 3.2 Thrace 8 3.2.1 River Evros Section 10 3.2.2 Southern Evros Section 10 3.2.3 Lowlands of Evros Section 10 3.2.4 Komotini - Xanthi Plain Section 10 3.3 East-Central Macedonia 11 3.3.1 Kavala Mountains Section 11 3.3.2 Filippoi Plain Section 12 3.3.3 Serres Plain Section 12 3.3.4 Kroussia Mountains Section 12 3.3.5 Gallikos Plain Section 12

4 Geohazards 13 4.1 Overview 13 4.2 Types of Geohazards 13 4.2.1 Landslides and Rockfalls 13 4.2.1.1 Types of Landslides and Rockfalls 14 4.2.2 Faults 16 4.2.3 Soil Liquefaction 16 4.2.3.1 Impacts on a pipeline induced by soil liquefaction may include: 17 4.2.4 Karst Areas 17 4.2.4.1 Karst implications for pipelines: 18 4.2.5 Geohazards along the selected pipeline route 18 4.2.5.1 River Evros Area (KP 0 – 13) 18 4.2.5.2 Southern Evros (KP 13 – 62) 19 4.2.5.3 Lowland of Evros (KP 62 – 86) 20 4.2.5.4 Komotini – Xanthi Plain (KP 86 – 176) 20 4.2.5.5 Kavala Mountains (KP 176 – 193) 21 4.2.5.6 Filippoi Plain (KP 193 – 225) 21 4.2.5.7 Serres Plain (KP 225 – 295) 21 4.2.5.8 Kroussia Mountains (KP 295 – 329) 22

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4.2.5.9 Gallikos Plain (KP 329 – 359) 22 4.3 Classification of faults along the route 22 4.3.1 Classification of faults in TAP segment 23

KP 359 – KP 543 25

5 GEOLOGICAL SETTING 25 5.1 Overview 25 5.2 Major Morphological Features along the Route 25

6 LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY 28 6.1 Overview 28 6.2 Central Macedonia 29 6.2.1 Axios Plain Section 29 6.3 West Macedonia 31 6.3.1 Vermio Mountain slopes Section 32 6.3.2 Ptolemaida Basin Section 32 6.3.3 Askion Mountain slopes Section 35 6.3.4 Kastoria to Border Section 35

7 GEOHAZARDS 37 7.1 Overview 37 7.2 Types of Geohazards 37 7.2.1 Landslide and Rockfall 37 7.2.1.1 Types of Landslides and Rockfalls 38 7.2.2 Faults 40 7.2.3 Soil Liquefaction 41 7.2.3.1 Impacts on a Pipeline Induced by Soil Liquefaction 41 7.2.4 Karst Areas 41 7.2.4.1 Karst Implications for Pipelines 42 7.2.5 Geohazards along the Proposed Pipeline Route 42 7.2.5.1 Axios Plain Section (KP 359 – 425) 42 7.2.5.2 Vermio Mountain slopes Section (KP 425 – 466) 42 7.2.5.3 Ptolemaida basin Section (KP 466 – 486) 44 7.2.5.4 Askion Mountain slopes Section (KP 486 – 507) 44 7.2.5.5 Kastoria to the Border Section (KP 507 – 543) 45 7.3 Classification of faults along the route 46 7.3.1 Classification of faults in TAP segment 46

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 3-1 Lithostratigraphic – Tectonic column of the formations in Thrace area 9 Figure 3-2 Simplified geological map of Eastern Macedonia -Thrace 11 Figure 4-1 Seismogenic sources at the broader TAP area, with epicenters of significant earthquakes, after Sboras (2011) 24 Figure 6-1 Lithological log from a borehole near Halkidona 30

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Figure 6-2 Composite lithostratigraphical column of West Macedonia 31 Figure 6-3 Schematic cross section of the VermioPtolemaida area 32 Figure 6-4 Geological cross section of the area between Amintaio and Sarigiol 34 Figure 6-5 Schematic cross section of the area between Kalochori and Ampelokipoi 36 Figure 6-6 Geological Cross section of the aquifers of the Kastoria plain 36 Figure 7-1 Seismogenic sources at the broader TAP area, with epicenters of significant earthquakes, after Sboras (2011) 48

LIST OF TABLES Table 4-1 Group of faults according to their class 23 Table 7-1 Fault Classification 46

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1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Scope of the Study

The geomorphological, tectonic, lithostratigraphic and geotechnical conditions were examined as part of the overall environmental impact assessment for the proposed routing of the TAP Gas Pipeline. The main aim of this report is to present the above conditions and mention any potential geohazards that may affect the construction.

This report is separated into the pipeline sections KP 0 – 359 and KP 359 – 543.

1.2 Approach

This report is entirely based on qualitative data, maps and existing reports that were collected. Any characterizations are based on conclusions of existing reports and on the expert judgment of the scientific reporting team.

1.3 Existing Work

The geological maps of the Institute of Geological and Mineral Exploration (IGME) were used to extract relevant information (IGME, 1978, 1982, 1985, 1986, 1988, 1992 and 1997).

The studies executed for the installation of the Greek High Pressure Gas Transmission System were also used for gathering geological information concerning the area under investigation.

Additionally the data for the Section KP 359 – 543 are based on work undertaken by ILF (2005, 2006 and 2011) on the suggested pipeline route. Stamos (2009), Veranis (2010) and Kalousi (2010) also made references on the geological and geotectonic conditions of the broader areas of central and west Macedonia.

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KP 0 – KP 359

2 GEOLOGICAL SETTING

2.1 Overview

This section presents an introduction to the broad geological background of the area across the proposed pipeline route. The provision of quantitative geomorphological and topographical data lies beyond the scope of this report.

2.2 Major Morphological Features along the Route

The pipeline route starting at Kipoi and ending at Nea Mesimvria is located mainly in lowlands with the exception of a few mountain passes that are at Pefka and Kirki of Alexandroupolis, Kavala mountains, and areas of Kroussia Mountains and Pentalofos at the end. More detailed features are presented below:

 The River Evros Area is at the start of the route while it runs from the eastern shore of the Evros through the cultivated flat areas up to KP 13.  At the Vicinity of Ferres and Alexandroupolis (KP 13-62) the pipeline route up to KP 43 crosses smooth cultivated areas and one forest mountainous section of about 4 km near Pefka village. In the next section, up to KP 65 it passes through the forest and mountainous terrain of the mountains of Kirki with an altitude of around 500 m.  The lowland south of the Rhodope massif (KP 62-86) follows where the route crosses flat cultivated areas at the Komotini - Sappes basin.  The Komotini Xanthi Plain comes next (KP 86-176) where the route crosses a lot of significant rivers as Bosbos, Aspropotamos, Xeropotamos, Xanthis and finally the river Nestos and the plain of Chrysoupolis, reaching the area near the city of Nea Karvali.  Kavala Mountains are the next part (KP 176-193), where the route crosses mountainous areas at the North of Kavala city along ridges with forest lands reaching an altitude of 700 m.

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 Filippoi plain follows (KP 193-225) where the route passes north of Pageo Mountain, crossing smooth cultivated areas along the boundary of the area where the dried swamps of Filippoi existed in the past.  Serres plain area (KP 225-295) is next where the route passes through the hilly farmlands until reaching the valley of Strimon with a maximum altitude of 130 m. In the next part, the route crosses the plain of the river Strymon which contains a dense system of ditches and irrigation canals.  Kroussia mountains (KP 295-329) follows where the route crosses mountainous and rocky area covered by dense forest up to KP 310, where the route passes near Lachanas city. The following section up to the area of Assiros (KP 329) is hilly cultivated areas.  Gallikos valley (KP 329-359) area is constituted from different morphological subunits. From the area of Assiros up to the vicinity of Drimos, the route crosses hilly lands, meadows and cultivated areas at an altitude of around 370 m. Then in the Melissochori- Pentalofos section, the route crosses mountainous forest terrain at an altitude of about 400 m. The Gallikos river bed is crossed next and then following to the end of the part under study in Nea Mesimvria, by flat areas with meadows at an elevation of approximately 70 m.

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3 LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY

3.1 Overview

Τhe wider area crossed by the pipeline route, from Kipi to Nea Mesimvria, consists of geological formations, which from a geotectonic point of view, belong to Rodopi circum - Rhodope and Serbomacedonian zone with eruptive rocks, molassic formations and neogene-quaternary deposits as well. The bigger part of the pipeline route crosses smooth relief areas covered by Quaternary or Pleiocene - Pleistocene deposits. At the parts of the route with mountainous or semi mountainous relief, Alpine formations prevail. These formations are usually metamorphic rock as Gneisses, Gneisses – Schists and Marbles.

3.2 Thrace

Figure 3-1 presents a Lithostratigraphic – Tectonic column of the formations in Thrace area according to P. Papadopoulos, G. Katsikatos, 1992. This figure illustrates the tectonic relationship of the main units of Thrace area showing the Circum Rodope zone overthrusted on the Rodope mass. The molassic basin of Rodopi - Evros has been formed over the metamorphic formations of the Rodopi Mass and Circum Rodope zone. Neogene and Quaternary sediments overlie unconformably on molassic formations.

Volcanic activity of the area took place during the period of Oligocene- Eocene and resulted in the significant expansion of the volcanic formations.

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Figure 3-1 Lithostratigraphic – Tectonic column of the formations in Thrace area

Source: ASPROFOS (2013)

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3.2.1 River Evros Section

This section consists of the Holocenic deltaic deposits of Evros and the molassic deposits of Oligocene and Eocene age that follows. The deltaic deposits mainly consist of fine and mixed phases of sandy clays, silty sands etc. The molassic formations consist of alternations of clays, marls and fine sandstones with bioclastic banks, lignite horizons and acid tuffs, tuffite sands etc.

3.2.2 Southern Evros Section

This section consists mostly of volcanic formations such as tuffs, tuffites, andesites, dacitoidandesites, molassic formations and Alpine formations. Molassic formations that prevail are the ones of Eocene and Oligocene consisting of marls alternating with or passing to sandy marls, sandstones and conglomerates. At the upper sections occur tuffs to tuffites (Es-tfb) with limestone schill banks (k). Alpine formations are schist, quarzites, marlylimestones, breccias and they are anticipated at the mountainous part of KirkiMountains. On the narrow stream’s beds Holocene sediments are anticipated

3.2.3 Lowlands of Evros Section

This section of the flat areas consists mainly of alluvial deposits with a small percentage of volcanic rocks (tuffs – tuffites, andesites) that appear at the beginning of the section. The loose formations cover the 85% of the Section under investigation.

3.2.4 Komotini - Xanthi Plain Section

In percentage terms then 93% of this section consists of alluvial deposits (loose materials). The rest of the formations are conglomerates, screes and marbles.

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3.3 East-Central Macedonia

Figure 3-2 shows a simplified geological map of Eastern-Central Macedonia. As it is shown on this figure, at the more extensive part of the route Neogene and Quaternary formations prevail, while metamorphic rocks cover the Northern areas of Kavala city.

Figure 3-2 Simplified geological map of Eastern Macedonia -Thrace

Source: Katsikatsos, 1992

3.3.1 Kavala Mountains Section

In percentage terms then 75% of this section consists of marbles and schist. Kavala Mountains have lighter and darker coloured ones, well or poorly thinly stratified in bed or in lenses, locally alternated or interfingered with micaschists. Schists are classified as muscovite – schists with varying parts of quartz and carbonate.

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3.3.2 Filippoi Plain Section

In percentage terms then 100% of this section consists of alluvial deposits.

3.3.3 Serres Plain Section

This section consists of alluvial deposits (i.e. 72% in percentage terms) and 21% of the section consists of Neogene formations. There are also marbles (7% in percentage terms) at the karst area of Allistrati Caves.

3.3.4 Kroussia Mountains Section

In percentage terms 96% of this section consists of rocky materials. The rest of the formations are pleistocenic deposits which are characterized as loose rocky materials. The gneiss that prevails at the mountainous area of Kroussia – Lachanas – Karteresis is dark grey or brown, fine to medium grained monotonous (e.g. plagioclase anorthite, quartz, muscovite, biotite, perthitic K- feldspar, epidote, etc).The bedrock is usually covered by an eluvial mantle of significant thickness.

3.3.5 Gallikos Plain Section

In percentage terms then 75% of this section consists of loose materials (alluvial deposits & neogene sediments). The rest of the formations are limestones, schist and conglomerate which are characterized as hard rocky formations of Triassic- Jurassic age and a small appearance of Gabbros of Ophiolitic type. These Alpine rocky formations constitute the mountainous area at the North of Pentalofos-Melissochori and belong to Serbomacedonian zone.

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4 Geohazards

4.1 Overview

4.2 Types of Geohazards

4.2.1 Landslides and Rockfalls

Deep-seated landslide terrain (depth > 5 m) constitutes the most severe geohazard for a pipeline project due to the following reasons:

 The large size of such slides (e.g. width and length ranging from a several 100 m to a few kilometer are not uncommon).

 The inherently unpredictable landslide behaviour because of the high complexity of the ground disturbance patterns associated with such landslide activity and the random nature of the triggering events.

The unpredictability of landslide behaviour refers to the frequency/magnitude of movement episodes and to the style of ground disturbance that can be expected within different parts of the landslide mass. Because of the uncertainties associated with the ground behaviour of landslides and also the difficulties in achieving significant risk reduction without major investment in time and resources, the crossing of a landslide by the application of mitigation measures is not generally a practicable solution for a pipeline route through deep-seated landslide terrain. Moreover, it should be taken into account that one of the possible landslide triggering events is ground shaking induced by earthquakes (also referred as seismic loading) which cannot be inhibited by man. Avoidance has therefore been considered to be the most appropriate strategy for route selection in areas of pre-existing deep-seated slides and in those areas susceptible to deep seated landslides respectively.

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Shallow landslides (depth <5 m) and areas susceptible of shallow sliding can frequently be crossed by the application of mitigation measures. Mitigation measures include the burial of the pipe below the base of the moving ground and landslide stabilisation (e.g. modification of slope geometry by earthworks, drainage, restraining measures, erosion control, etc.). Moreover it should be noted, that a level of residual landslide risk is the inevitable consequence of routing through mountainous, landslide prone terrain.

4.2.1.1 Types of Landslides and Rockfalls

Falls are abrupt movements of masses of geologic materials, such as rocks and boulders that become detached from steep slopes or cliffs. Separation occurs along discontinuities such as fractures, joints, and bedding planes and movement occurs by free-fall, bouncing, and rolling. Falls are strongly influenced by gravity, mechanical weathering, and the presence of interstitial water.

Toppling failures are distinguished by the forward rotation of a unit or units about some pivotal point, below or low in the unit, under the actions of gravity and forces exerted by adjacent units or by fluids in cracks.

There are five basic categories of flows that differ from one another:

1. A debris flow is a form of rapid mass movement in which a combination of loose soil, rock, organic matter, air, and water mobilize as slurry that flows down slope. Debris flows include <50% fines. Debris flows are commonly caused by intense surface-water flow, due to heavy precipitation or rapid snowmelt that erodes and mobilizes loose soil or rock on steep slopes. Debris flows also commonly mobilize from other types of landslides that occur on steep slopes, are nearly saturated, and consist of a large proportion of silt- and sand-sized material. Debris-flow source areas are often associated with steep gullies, and debris-flow deposits are usually indicated by the presence of debris fans at the mouths of gullies.

2. Debris avalanche: This is a variety of very rapid to extremely rapid debris flow.

3. Earth flows have a characteristic "hourglass" shape. The slope material liquefies and runs out, forming a bowl or depression at the head. The flow itself is elongated and usually occurs in fine-grained materials or clay-bearing rocks on moderate slopes and under

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saturated conditions. However, dry flows of granular material are also possible. A mudflow is an earth flow consisting of material that is wet enough to flow rapidly and that contains at least 50 percent sand-, silt-, and clay sized particles. In some instances, for example in many newspaper reports, mudflows and debris flows are commonly referred to as "mudslides".

4. Creep is the imperceptibly slow, steady, downward movement of slope forming soil or rock. Movement is caused by shear stress sufficient to produce permanent deformation, but too small to produce shear failure. There are generally three types of creep: (1) seasonal, where movement is within the depth of soil affected by seasonal changes in soil moisture and soil temperature; (2) continuous, where shear stress continuously exceeds the strength of the material; and (3) progressive, where slopes are reaching the point of failure as other types of mass movements. Creep is indicated by curved tree trunks, bent fences or retaining walls, tilted poles or fences, and small soil ripples or ridges.

5. Lateral spreads are distinctive because they usually occur on very gentle slopes or flat terrain. The dominant mode of movement is lateral extension accompanied by shear or tensile fractures. The failure is caused by liquefaction, the process whereby saturated, loose, cohesionless sediments (usually sands and silts) are transformed from a solid into a liquefied state. Failure is usually triggered by rapid ground motion, such as an earthquake, but can also be artificially induced. When coherent material, either bedrock or soil, rests on materials that liquefy, the upper units may undergo fracturing and extension and may then subside, translate, rotate, disintegrate, or liquefy and flow. Lateral spreading in fine-grained materials on shallow slopes is usually progressive. The failure starts suddenly in a small area and spreads rapidly. Often the initial failure is a slump, but in some materials movement occurs for no apparent reason. Combination of two or more of the above types is known as a complex landslide.

The most common impacts on a pipeline induced by landslide related ground disturbance include:

 Lateral pipe displacement;

 Pipe settlement;

 Uplift (heave) of pipe;

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 Significant plastic deformation of the pipe wall material (due to compression, tension or shear strain);

 Spanning (i.e. the loss of ground support if a landslide removes the ground-material over a significant length of the pipe trench);

 Increase of the static load upon the pipe (i.e. pipe is buried under landslide debris) Temporary increase of the dynamic load upon the pipe (i.e. is imposed by falling rocks).

4.2.2 Faults

The term active fault implies a judgement on the part of a geologist that the fault under consideration is capable and will eventually displace again. The definition of activity depends on the nature of the facility being considered. For a typical pipeline project, a fault is considered active, if it can be demonstrated to have displaced the surface of the ground during the Holocene epoch, i.e., within the past 10,000 years. Design practice in the pipeline industry varies widely with respect to defining a level of fault activity for design purposes. One reason for this lack of uniformity is that there are no reliable means for predicting the probability of future fault displacements. The basic mechanisms that govern such phenomena are measured in terms of geological time (i.e. millions of years) respectively which are orders of magnitude greater than the design life of a pipeline project. Consequently, for the evaluation/design of pipeline crossings of active surface faults, it is necessary to utilise judgement based on extensive experience and observations of fault displacements during past earthquakes.

4.2.3 Soil Liquefaction

Soil liquefaction is a secondary earthquake phenomenon which can endanger pipeline integrity. The potential for soil liquefaction is site dependent. Liquefaction is most likely to occur in water saturated, relatively uniform fine sands or coarse silts in a loose state. Such underground

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Area Comp. System Disc. Doc.- Ser. Code Code Code Code Type No. Project Title: Trans Adriatic Pipeline – TAP GPL00-ASP-642-Y-TAE-0070 Integrated ESIA Greece Document Title: Rev.: 01 / at16 Annex 6.6.1 - Geology Baseline Report conditions are linked to certain combinations of geomorphologic setting, sedimentary regime and seismic exposition.

4.2.3.1 Impacts on a pipeline induced by soil liquefaction may include:

 Pipe disruption due to lateral spreads (Lateral spreads are landslides caused by soil liquefaction and they occur on gentle slopes: < 3 degrees).

 Pipe disruption due to flow slides. Flow slides are landslides which may also be induced by soil liquefaction. They occur usually on slopes over 3 degrees inclination.

 Pipe settlements: May be caused by ground oscillation which is characteristic for almost completely flat ground. Ground oscillation occurs when liquefaction occurs at depth, or within confined liquefied layers.

 Temporary spanning: The loss of ground bearing strength caused by liquefaction can cause the total loss of ground support over a significant length of the pipe trench for a limited period of time.

 Buoyant rise of the pipeline: Pipeline flotation may occur in situations where the buried pipeline is surrounded by liquefied soil and the weight of the pipeline is less than that of the displaced liquefied soil.

4.2.4 Karst Areas

Karst is a landform which develops in soluble rocks by the enlargement of discontinuities through flowing groundwater (ultimately to form caves). In well-developed karst the voids and caves can be large and wide enough to carry all the natural drainage. Most karst in the world is formed in limestone rocks and marble which is its metamorphic equivalent. There is less karst on gypsum rocks, which occur to a smaller extent at the earth’s surface, and very little on other even more soluble rocks. Gypsum is much more soluble than limestone, and karst will therefore develop more rapidly on gypsum than on limestone. The major engineering significance of karst is the existence of underground cavities, which can cause ground subsidence or sudden collapse. Often, but not always a distinctive suite of landforms is formed at the terrain surface (e.g. closed depressions with no outlets for surface drainage, disorganised topography, etc.).

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4.2.4.1 Karst implications for pipelines:

 Pipe deformation due to subsidence: Karst subsidence forms in the soil cover above cavernous rock, due to down washing of soil (ravelling) into bedrock fissures  Spanning i.e. the loss of ground support if a collapse removes the ground – material over a significant length of the pipe trench  Pipe rupture if pipe wall cannot withstand the deformation induced by the loss of ground support across a subsidence or collapse sinkhole.

4.2.5 Geohazards along the selected pipeline route

4.2.5.1 River Evros Area (KP 0 – 13)

 KP 0.0 to 0.7

Evros floodplain crossing: This river constitutes an area of potential soil liquefaction. Further geotechnical investigation has to be undertaken in order to determine the soil conditions at the area.

Faults mapped along this segment:

 KP 0.6: fault #1, class 3

 KP 4.5: fault #2, class 3

 KP 4.7: fault #3, class 3

 KP 5.4: fault #4, class 3

 KP 6.7: fault #5, class 3

 KP 7.8: fault #6, class 3

 KP 8.7: fault #7, class 3

 KP 9.3: fault #8, class 3

 KP 9.9: fault #9, class 3

 KP 11.4: fault #10, class 3

 KP 12.1: fault #11, class 3

 KP 12.9: fault #12, class 3

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4.2.5.2 Southern Evros (KP 13 – 62)

At the mountainous passages of the segment slope stability problems could occur during and after the construction.

 KP 27 – 32: Pefka village area Special care must be taken and further slope stability investigation must be executed at the area of the passage of Pefka where the volcanic-postvolcanic formations usually present landslide danger.

 KP 43 – 62: Kirki Mountains Also special care must be taken at Kirki - Palagiamountainous area where the route must follow a direction vertical to the contour parallel to the existing DESFA pipeline. Special care must be taken at the construction of the ROW at the Schist formations where high cuttings must be avoided.

Faults mapped along this segment

 KP 14.3: fault #13, class 3

 KP 15.3: fault #14, class 3

 KP 16.5: fault #15, class 3

 KP 17.0: fault #16, class 3

 KP 17.9: fault #17, class 3

 KP 18.2: fault #18, class 3

 KP 20.2: fault #19, class 3

 KP 20.6: fault #20, class 3

 KP 20.9: fault #21, class 3

 KP 23.9: fault #22, class 3

 KP 25.4: fault #23, class 3

 KP 26.8: fault #24, class 3

 KP 26.9: fault #25, class 3

 KP 29.6: fault #26, class 3

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 KP 30.0: fault #27, class 3

 KP 30.8: fault #28, class 3

 KP 31.6: fault #29, class 3

 KP 46.6: fault #30, class 4

 KP 49.7: fault #31, class 4

 KP 50.6: fault #32, class 4

 KP 51.0: fault #33, class 4

 KP 58.9: fault #34, class 4

 KP 62.0: fault #35, class 4

4.2.5.3 Lowland of Evros (KP 62 – 86)

 KP 77.0 - 78.0, 81.5 - 82.0, 86.0:Potential Liquefaction Terrain. The danger of a potential liquefaction phenomenon has to be examined especially at the beds of the crossed streams where saturated soil conditions are expected.

4.2.5.4 Komotini – Xanthi Plain (KP 86 – 176)

 KP 86 - 176 at river beds Similar conditions with the above segment of the route. The danger of potential liquefaction phenomenon has to be examined especially at the beds of the crossed rivers. High aquifer also expected at this area.

Faults mapped along this segment:

 KP 95.0: fault #36, class 3

 KP 101.3: fault #37, class 3

 KP 121.2 & 122.4: fault #38, class 1– 2, the route runs parallel and at a distance of up to 1 km from it.  KP 175.8: fault #39, class 1– 2, the route runs parallel and at a distance of up to 1 km from it.

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4.2.5.5 Kavala Mountains (KP 176 – 193)

 KP 185 - 193 Potential slope stability issues especially at the Schist formations. Special care must be taken and further slope stability investigation must be executed at the area.

4.2.5.6 Filippoi Plain (KP 193 – 225)

 KP 201 - 206 Turf area Borders. The route passes at the boundary of the Turf area of the dried Swamps of Filippoi . Potential danger of organic turf content at the clayey soil could create conditions of instability at the foundation of the pipeline. Geotechnical research at this part will be necessary in order to design mitigation measures at the pipeline construction. High aquifer is also anticipated.

4.2.5.7 Serres Plain (KP 225 – 295)

 KP 225.5 - 230.5 Boundaries of Karst Area. The route passes at the boundaries of a karst area near Alistrati Cave. The possibility of cavities has to be examined.

 KP 289 - 294 Strymonas River At the plain of Strimonas the potential liquefaction phenomenon has to be examined. The area also presents high aquifer.

 KP 280 - 289 Flooding areas with rice cultivations near Strymonas River. At the next design stage the necessity of special construction methods have to be examined for this part of the route.

Faults mapped along this segment:

 KP 236.9: fault #40, class 3

 KP 243.3: fault #41, class 3

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4.2.5.8 Kroussia Mountains (KP 295 – 329)

 KP 295- 310 Potential instability area The Gneiss formations of the area are characterized by deep weathering with the effect of the deep eluvial mantles. This could occur to potential instability phenomena such as soil creep. At the next design stages detailed site examination and geotechnical investigation of the route should take place.

Fault mapped along this segment:

 KP 311.1: fault #45, class 3

4.2.5.9 Gallikos Plain (KP 329 – 359)

 KP 340.5 - 350 Calcareous formations At the area of calcareous and limestone formations the existence of karst developments has to be examined.

 KP 353.5-354.5 Liquefaction examination must be undertaken at the vicinity of Gallikos River bed.

Faults mapped along this segment:

 KP 346.7: fault #46, class 4

 KP 349.7: fault #47, class 3

4.3 Classification of faults along the route

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Class 3: Neotectonic faults. Faults that affect post-Alpine and pre-Pleistocene rocks, but there are no indications that they have been activated since. Class 4: Faults with unknown activity. They are mainly basement faults that have no characteristics that can be used to date their recent activity.

4.3.1 Classification of faults in TAP segment

The following table (Table 4-1) summarizes the classification of faults in the TAP buffer zone for the Kipoi - N. Mesimvria segment.

Table 4-1 Group of faults according to their class Fault class Fault # 1-2. Seismic and possibly active 38, 39 3. Neotectonic 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 36, 37, 40, 41, 44, 45, 47 4. Unknown activity 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 42, 43, 46 Source: Department of Geology, A.U.Th., Faulting in the TAP pipeline buffer zone, Part of the environmental report, Dr. AlexandrosChatzipetros, 31.03.2013

The dominant active faults of the area are faults # 38 and 39 (Iasmos and Kavala-Xanthi segments respectively), which are parts of the large Thrace Composite Seismogenic Source (Figure 4-1, Sboras, 2011). This long S-dipping tectonic structure separates the Rhodope Mountain, to the north, from the Kavala-Xanthi-Komotini basin, to the south. The strike of the fault trace varies forming significant angular bends. Extensional faulting has been occurring since at least the Miocene and striations bear evidence of three tectonic phases (Lybéris, 1984; Lybéris and Sauvage, 1985). The trace has been well mapped by several researchers (Lybéris, 1984; Mountrakis and Tranos, 2004; Rondoyanni et al., 2004). Based on sea bottom seismic reflection profiles (Martin, 1987), this structure likely continues offshore westwards within the Gulf of Kavala.

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Figure 4-1 Seismogenic sources at the broader TAP area, with epicenters of significant earthquakes, after Sboras (2011)

Source: Department of Geology, A.U.Th., Faulting in the TAP pipeline buffer zone, Part of the environmental report, Dr.AlexandrosChatzipetros, 31.03.2013

The Iasmos fault (#38) has been tentatively associated with the 1784, November 6 earthquake (Papazachos and Papazachou, 1997; 2003; Mountrakis et al., 2006), though the estimated magnitude (6.7; Papazachos and Papazachou, 1997; 2003) could be much lower (e.g. Ambraseys, 2009).

The more recent earthquake that occurred on April 11, 1829 in Xanthi is attributed to fault #39, but ths is lively debated. Indeed, Papazachos and Papazachou (1997; 2003) consider it as a foreshock of the May 5, 1829 Drama earthquake, while the description in Ambraseys’s (2009) catalogue mentions that the area near Xanthi town was mainly ruined, in contrast with the surrounding area of Drama that was mostly damaged by the second event. If this is the case, then the April 11 earthquake was not a foreshock of the same seismogenic source, but a distinct event that probably triggered the Drama earthquake ca. one month later, as also suggested by Pavlides and Caputo (2004).

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KP 359 – KP 543

5 GEOLOGICAL SETTING

5.1 Overview

This section presents an introduction to the broad geological background of the area across the proposed pipeline route. A detailed and extensive description of the landform is presented at the Technical Route Assessment report (ILF, 2011). The provision of quantitative geomorphological and topographical data lies beyond the scope of this report.

5.2 Major Morphological Features along the Route

The pipeline route is located mainly in lowlands with the exception of the Vermio and Askio mountain passes. The Axios and Loudias river valleys, the Ptolemaida basin, and the area around the KastoriaLake comprise flat areas with low topographical gradients. More detailed features are presented below:

 The Axios Plain (KP 359 – 425) is dominated by the River Axios which is 380 km long out of which 74 km pass through the Greek territory. The current riverbed is a result of a human intervention as 1934 when an American Company was appointed to excavate its current riverbed and divert the river flow to its current estuary which is located to the west of the former one, outside the gulf of Thessaloniki. This prevented the arable lands from flooding and also promoted the farming development in the area.

 The River Loudias (KP 387 to 390) is actually an artificial canal which was constructed in the 1930’s for the drainage of the Lake of Giannitsa. Now it constitutes a natural drain for the collection of all the surface waters of the area from the foot of the mountain Paiko to the North East, the River Aliakmoon and the River Axios. It acts as a natural receptor of all the irrigation return flows from the irrigation canal networks of the wider Thessaloniki – Giannitsa Plain.

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 Vermio Mountain Pass (KP 425 to 466). The landform of this mountain range is characterized by predominantly wide stretched crests and ridges. At some locations gorges and scarps exist. The maximum elevation along the route reaches approx. 1140 m, north of Ano Grammatiko. The flanks of the locally wooded risings are predominately moderately steep. Some steep slopes exist along the banks of the brooks, creeks and torrents which dissect the flanks of diverse crests and ridges.

 The Ptolemaida basin (KP 466 to 486) was formed in the Pleistocene age, due to extensive fault tectonic events which resulted in the subduction of the area between the cities of Florina (near the Greek – Albanian border) and Kozani (to the south of the pipeline route at Ptolemaida). A tectonic trench was formed at this area which was then filled in by lacustrine sediments. The surface elevation varies from around 550 m in the north to 620 m in the south of the Ptolemaida basin. In this area, the route crosses a pediment plain consisting of minor risings and depressions. The depressions were formed by tectonic processes and are usually filled with scree and debris. At the flanks of the risings exist sometimes terrace like features which are made up of fine grained loose alluvial deposits and debris.

 Mount Askion Pass and Kastoria plains (KP 486 to 507): Ascending from the plains of Ptolemaida basin the route reaches its highest elevation within Mount Askion north of Kleisoura with a maximum elevation of 1215 masl. The morphology is characterized by smooth mountain ridges with incision of small creeks with fillings of scree and talus cones beside them. At the foot of Mt. Korissos (KP 499.5 to 501.5) the proposed pipeline route runs on gently inclined terraces dissected by several incised gullies. Moreover stream beds and the almost flat outer fringe of an old, residual talus cone are crossed. At some locations old, erosive stream/torrent cliffs with a maximum height of more than 10 m were observed. After descending through a braided valley system west of Kleisoura the pipeline reaches the flat basin planes east of Kastoria Lake, where almost flat terrain underlain by alluvial sediments is predominant. Occasionally terrace deposits are crossed.

 The surroundings of Kastoria Lake to the Greek-Albanian border (KP 507 to 543) and the upper Aliakmon form a flat land mainly due to the influence of the surface water network. The elevation of the Aliakmonas river terraces is several tens of m higher in altitude than the lakeside of Lake Kastoria and the contiguous alluvial plain. The contemporary Aliakmonas floodplain lies a few tens of m below the edge of the terrace. At the boundary in between the terraces and the incised alluvial plain/recent floodplain occur steep cliffs/scarps with an inclination of up to ~35°. The cliff sections did not feature any apparent

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instability. The top of the terrace is almost flat and slightly undulating respectively. The terrain is predominately made up of gentle hills and ridges featuring wide crests. Peak elevation along this undulating terrain unit amounts to 1090 m at the Albanian border, but most of the terrain crossed by the TAP lies below 1000 m in altitude. In the vicinity of the hamlet Akontion (KP 536 to 539) the route corridor passes dissected, rugged relief. The terrain to the Albanian border is predominately made up of gentle hills and ridges featuring wide crests.

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6 LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY

6.1 Overview

Neogene, tertiary and Holocene sediments dominate along the proposed pipeline route. Solid bedrock lies beneath these sediments; in some cases the bedrock is found several hundred meters deep. The solid bedrock has formed basins or trenches which were later filled by the thick sedimentary sequences present at the areas of Axios, Loudias and Ptolemaida. This section describes the lithostratigraphy of the sediments and the underlying bedrock so that the geological background is depicted. It is based on existing deep borehole data in various locations, on the broader geological and tectonic evolution. Existing work on the combination and collation of the individual stratigraphic units was also used (Stamos, 2009, Veranis, 2010). Data and descriptions from the published 1:50000 scale geological maps of IGME were also used to complete the descriptions of this section. Schematic geological cross sections of various locations within the study area are also included to provide a better understanding of the geometry and tectonism of the geological strata.

In general, the eastern sections of the study region are characterised by ophiolitic bedrock complexes and limestone units, both rather strong and good in rock mass quality. Due to spatially complex tectonic contacts, these units border different sedimentary rocks e.g. limestones, sandstones and siltstones further west. These clastic deposits, with some carbonate intercalations belonging to different Flysch units (Tertiary, Cretaceous), are all generally weak and poor in rock mass quality.

Cretaceous and Triassic Jurassic limestones and marbles are found primarily along Mt. Vermio and Mt. Askion area. In these geological units, ophiolites also occur often containing serpentine and gabbros (igneous rocks). In the western part, from Kastoria Lake to the Albanian border a thick succession of tertiary sedimentary rocks of the Molasse Zone are of major relevance for the route. The rocks found are predominantly schists and marbles, sandstones, conglomerates and limestones.

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6.2 Central Macedonia

6.2.1 Axios Plain Section

The central part of the Axios basin consists of continental and fluvial origin quaternary deposits overlying older neogene lacustrine sediments. Marlylimestones, marles, sandstones, conglomerates, sands, and clays comprise the sedimentary variety of the Neogene.

Holocenic and Pleistocenic deposits of total thickness up to 700 m dominate the southern part of the Axios Valley. Holocene deposits consist of sandy silt, clays, fine sands with occasional intercalations of organic material due to modern swamps. The underlying Pleistocene consists of sediments of marine origin, namely clays interchanged with sand and gravels.

Within the River Loudias catchment, in the area to the south of the town of Giannitsa along the pipeline route quaternary deposits crop out. They consist of fine sands, clays, sandy clays, and clay sands interchanged with layers of loose coarse materials like sands, cobbles and gravels. The Neogene underlies this sedimentary sequence and consists mainly of marls and marly limes tones which dominate, in comparison with fewer occurrences of conglomerates and sandstones.

Figure 6-1 presents the lithological log of a borehole located to the north of the pipeline route between KP 371 and 376 in the vicinity of the town of Halkidona. This log shows the occurrence of clays, limestones, and sandstones in the substrata of the area.

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Figure 6-1 Lithological log from a borehole near Halkidona

Source: Veranis (2010)

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6.3 West Macedonia

Figure 6-2 presents a composite lithostratigraphical column of West Macedonia according to Stamos (2009).

Figure 6-2 Composite lithostratigraphical column of West Macedonia

Source: Stamos (2009)

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6.3.1 Vermio Mountain slopes Section

The Vermio Mountain consists of:

 crystalline schists at the base forming the area’s geological background;

 Highly karstified marbles of Triassic – Jurassic age of a total thickness of 800 m;

 Serpentines, volcanic rocks of the ophiolitic mélange of Jurassic age;

 Upper Cretaceous limestones or limestone conglomerates;

 Flysch consisting of clay schists and clays.

A schematic geological cross section of the Vermio – Ptolemais area is presented in Figure 6-3 below.

Figure 6-3 Schematic cross section of the VermioPtolemaida area

Source: Stamos (2009)

6.3.2 Ptolemaida Basin Section

The Ptolemaida basin is part of the broader tectonic trough, which extends from the area of Servia of Kozani in the south, to the area of Monastery at FYROM. The basin was filled with

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Area Comp. System Disc. Doc.- Ser. Code Code Code Code Type No. Project Title: Trans Adriatic Pipeline – TAP GPL00-ASP-642-Y-TAE-0070 Integrated ESIA Greece Document Title: Rev.: 01 / at16 Annex 6.6.1 - Geology Baseline Report tertiary sediments. Interchanging layers of conglomerates with loose and more compacted sandstones, sands and clays of variable composition comprise the general geological pattern of the basin. IGME drilled three exploratory boreholes in the basin of Ptolemaida (Stamos, 2009), with the following results:

 Borehole ΓΠ03 is located in the vicinity of Filotas to the west of the suggested pipeline around KP 461. It was drilled in April 2005. The total depth reaches 105 m. Loose sediments dominate with sands prevailing. In more detail from ground level to the depth of 51 m., sands of various particle size, from 51 m to 69, slightly coarser sands and gravels, and then from 69 m to the bottom, clays are interbedded with sands and gravels.

 Borehole ΓΠ05is located in the vicinity of Agios Christoforos to the south east of the suggested pipeline around KP 470. It was drilled in April 2005. The total depth reaches 106 m. The presence of green clay is more evident in this log. Clayey coarse sand is present from ground level to 33 m. From 33 m to 42 m there is a thick green clay layer. Clayey sands, conglomerates and sandstones with very thin clay layers are present from 42 m to 76 m transitioning to a thick green clay formation to the bottom of the borehole.

 Borehole ΓΠ03 is located in the vicinity of Drosero to the south of the suggested pipeline around KP 481. It was drilled in April 2005. The total depth reaches 105 m. Sands dominate the lithological log. Very coarse sands dominate at the top, transitioning to finer sands with conglomerates and cobbles with interbedded clay layers.

Figure 6-4 presents a schematic geological cross section of the wider Ptolemais area including all the lignite productive basins.

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Figure 6-4 Geological cross section of the area between Amintaio and Sarigiol

Source: Stamos (2010)

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6.3.3 Askion Mountain slopes Section

Triassic and Jurassic limestones comprise the geological background. These are limestones with dolomites, occasionally pure dolomites or dolomitic limestones of variable colour (grey, white, white-grey, black). They are very karstified, and very tectonic.

6.3.4 Kastoria to Border Section

Tertiary alluvial, river and lacustrine loose sediments comprise the geological setting. Specifically they consist of unconsolidated alluvial and elouvial materials, river terrace deposits, brown yellowish sands, silty sands, sandy silts and swampy areas with silt moist grounds and sands. The river and the lacustrine deposits consist of loose conglomerate and blueish to green clays, sands, loose sandstones and red clays.

Borehole ΓΠ01 drilled by IGME is located in the vicinity of Polikarpi to the north west of the suggested pipeline route around KP 507. The total depth reaches 125 m. Sands of variable grain size prevail. Two clay layers occurred from 18 m to 28 m and also from 37 m to 46 m. Figure 6-5and Figure 6-6 present schematic geological cross sections of the area in the vicinity of Kastoria and Mesopotamia.

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Figure 6-5 Schematic cross section of the area between Kalochori and Ampelokipoi

Source: Stamos (2010)

Figure 6-6 Geological Cross section of the aquifers of the Kastoria plain

Source: Stamos (2010)

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7 GEOHAZARDS

7.1 Overview

This section presents a brief outline on the major types of geohazards that may affect the construction of the suggested pipeline. Furthermore, the main geohazards identified across the suggested pipeline route are presented. This section has been based on work from experts from APPENDIX 2 - Technical Route Assessment Greece (ILF, 2011).

7.2 Types of Geohazards

7.2.1 Landslide and Rockfall

Deep-seated landslide terrain (depth > 5 m) constitutes the most severe geohazard for a pipeline project due to the following reasons:

 The large size of such slides (width and length ranging from a several 100 m to a few kilometers are not uncommon).

The unpredictability of landslide behaviour refers to the frequency/magnitude of movement episodes and to the style of ground disturbance that can be expected within different parts of the landslide mass. Because of the uncertainties associated with the ground behaviour of landslides and the difficulties in achieving significant risk reduction without major investment in time and resources, the crossing of a landslide by the application of mitigation measures is not generally a practicable solution for a pipeline route through deep-seated landslide terrain. Moreover, it should be taken into account that one of the possible landslide triggering events is ground shaking induced by earthquakes (also referred as seismic loading) which cannot be inhibited by man.

Avoidance has been therefore considered to be the most appropriate strategy for route selection in areas of pre-existing deep-seated slides and areas susceptible to deep seated landslides respectively.

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Shallow landslides (depth < 5 m) and areas susceptible to shallow sliding can frequently be crossed by the application of mitigation measures. Mitigation measures include the burial of the pipe below the base of the moving ground and landslide stabilisation (e.g. modification of slope geometry by earthworks, drainage, restraining measures, erosion control, etc.). Moreover it should be noted, that a level of residual landslide risk is the inevitable consequence of routing through mountainous, landslide prone terrain.

7.2.1.1 Types of Landslides and Rockfalls

Falls are abrupt movements of masses of geological materials, such as rocks and boulders that become detached from steep slopes or cliffs. Separation occurs along discontinuities such as fractures, joints, and bedding planes and movement occurs by free-fall, bouncing, and rolling. Falls are strongly influenced by gravity, mechanical weathering, and the presence of interstitial water.

There are five basic categories of flows that differ from one another:

2. Debris avalanche: This is a variety of very rapid to extremely rapid debris flow.

3. Earth flows have a characteristic "hourglass" shape. The slope material liquefies and runs out, forming a bowl or depression at the head. The flow itself is elongate and usually occurs in fine-grained materials or clay-bearing rocks on moderate slopes and under saturated

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conditions. However, dry flows of granular material are also possible. A mudflow is an earth flow consisting of material that is wet enough to flow rapidly and that contains at least 50 percent sand-, silt-, and clay sized particles. In some instances, for example in many newspaper reports, mudflows and debris flows are commonly referred to as "mudslides".

The most common impacts on a pipeline induced by landslide related ground disturbance include:

 Lateral pipe displacement;

 Pipe settlement;

 Uplift (heave) of pipe;

 Significant plastic deformation of the pipe wall material (due to compression, tension or shear strain);

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 Spanning (i.e. the loss of ground support if a landslide removes the ground - material over a significant length of the pipe trench);

 Increase of the static load upon the pipe (i.e. pipe is buried under landslide debris) Temporary increase of the dynamic load upon the pipe (i.e. as is imposed by falling rocks).

7.2.2 Faults

Earthquakes that result in surface fault rupture are an important consideration for buried pipelines, because pipelines crossing fault zones must be able to deform longitudinally and in flexure to accommodate ground surface offsets. If a pipeline crosses a fault that is considered to be active, it is necessary to delineate its location, orientation, slip characteristics, and zone of disturbance and to estimate the amount and type of potential displacement that may occur. The term active fault implies a judgement on the part of a geologist that the fault under consideration is capable and will eventually displace again. The definition of activity depends on the nature of the facility being considered. For a typical pipeline project, a fault is considered active, if it can be demonstrated to have displaced the surface of the ground during the Holocene epoch, i.e., within the past 10,000 years. Design practice in the pipeline industry varies widely with respect to defining a level of fault activity for design purposes. One reason for this lack of uniformity is that there are no reliable means for predicting the probability of future fault displacements. The basic mechanisms that govern such phenomena are measured in terms of geological time (i.e. millions of years) respectively which are orders of magnitude greater than the design life of a pipeline project. Consequently, for the evaluation/design of pipeline crossings of active surface faults, it is necessary to utilise judgement based on extensive experience and observations of fault displacements during past earthquakes.

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7.2.3 Soil Liquefaction

7.2.3.1 Impacts on a Pipeline Induced by Soil Liquefaction

 Pipe disruption due to lateral spreads (Lateral spreads are landslides caused by soil liquefaction and they occur on gentle slopes: < 3 degrees).

 Pipe disruption due to flow slides. Flow slides are landslides which may also be induced by soil liquefaction. They occur usually on slopes over 3 degrees inclination.

7.2.4 Karst Areas

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Area Comp. System Disc. Doc.- Ser. Code Code Code Code Type No. Project Title: Trans Adriatic Pipeline – TAP GPL00-ASP-642-Y-TAE-0070 Integrated ESIA Greece Document Title: Rev.: 01 / at16 Annex 6.6.1 - Geology Baseline Report more rapidly on gypsum than on limestone. The major engineering significance of karst is the existence of underground cavities, which can cause ground subsidence or sudden collapse. Often, but not always a distinctive suite of landforms is formed at the terrain surface (e.g. closed depressions with no outlets for surface drainage, disorganised topography, etc.).

7.2.4.1 Karst Implications for Pipelines

 Pipe deformation due to subsidence: Karst subsidence forms in the soil cover above cavernous rock, due to down washing of soil (ravelling) into bedrock fissures.  Spanning i.e. the loss of ground support if a collapse removes the ground – material over a significant length of the pipe trench.  Pipe rupture if pipe wall cannot withstand the deformation induced by the loss of ground support across a subsidence or collapse sinkhole.

7.2.5 Geohazards along the Proposed Pipeline Route

7.2.5.1 Axios Plain Section (KP 359 – 425)

 KP 370.3 to KP 371.8 Axios floodplain crossing: This river crossing constitutes an area of potential soil liquefaction. The subsurface data that has been acquired, as well as first calculations, indicate, that no soil liquefaction hazard is existent for the earthquake events which are most probable to occur within the next 50 years.

Faults mapped along this segment: KP 366.1: fault #50, class 3

7.2.5.2 Vermio Mountain slopes Section (KP 425 – 466)

 KP 427.3 to KP 444.0 Karst terrain : Limestone karst terrain has to be expected along the following alignment sections:~KP 428.2 - ~KP 428.6; ~KP 429.3 - ~KP 430.2; ~KP 430.6 - ~KP 431.0; ~KP 431.2 - ~KP 431.3;~KP 435.6 - ~KP 435.9 and ~KP 442.7 - ~KP 444.0.

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During the site visits conducted no distinct sinkhole features were found. Karst classification: youthful karst (kII).  KP 431.3 to KP 431.5 landslide terrain in the south of the suggested route: A minor landslide area which affects the soggy residual detritus cover in the vicinity of a spring was avoided in process of route definition (landslide terrain will not be located inside 200 m corridor). Thus no further measures have to be implemented during construction.  KP 432.4 to KP 432.6: A potential landslide area was avoided by re-routing to the north. Thus no further measures will be needed for construction.  KP 433.4 to KP 433.7: In this section soggy talus material which is subject to shallow soil creep will be crossed by the N1 option. Engineering measures (e.g. drainage) may be needed for construction. The complete avoidance of landslide features was impossible within the 2 km wide Preferred Corridor. But the route suggested constitutes an optimized route option which avoids even worse areas, such as the landslide prone flanks uphill the creek in the south of the alignment. The corridor proposed will pass this unfavourable terrain at an almost flat location and over the shortest distance possible. It is suggested that a geotechnical expert supervises the construction works.  KP 448.8 to KP 449.3: Landslide prone area north of route: At this location the route crosses a terrace consisting of loose Quaternary deposits with shallow rotational landslides and erosive features at its upper slope edge to the north. The route suggested avoids the most significant slope instability features existing as it descends on a more or less stable ridge crest which lower part/foot is made up of massive marble. As a result of this route definition only limited mitigation measures may be needed for construction (e.g. stabilisation of the shallow slide at the northern side of the centre line). A further possible mitigation measure is the flattening of the terrace edge. It is suggested that a geotechnical expert attends the construction works.

Limestone karst terrain has to be expected along the following alignment sections:~KP 444.8 - ~KP 444.9; ~KP 445.1 - ~KP 445.4; ~KP445.8 - ~KP 446.3; ~KP 446.7 - ~KP447.0;~KP 447.8 - ~KP 448.0; ; ~KP 448.6 - ~KP 448.8; ~KP 449.0 - ~KP 449.3; ~KP451.6 - ~KP 451.7;~KP 453.1 - ~KP453.7; ~KP 456.8 - ~KP 457.1; ~KP 458.5 - ~KP458.7; ~KP 463.3 - ~KP 463.8 and ~KP 464.8 - ~KP 467.5; During the site visits conducted no distinct sinkhole features were found. Karst classification: youthful karst (kII)

Faults reported along this segment:  KP 426.5: fault #51, class 3

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 KP 427.1: fault #52, class 4  KP 429.0: fault #53, class 4  KP 429.6: fault #54, class 4  KP 429.9: fault #55, class 4  KP 437.6: fault #59, class 3  KP 438.7: fault #60, class 4  KP 442.8: fault #64, class 2  KP 445.4: fault #65, class 2  KP 446.3: fault #66, class 2  KP 446.3: fault #67, class 2  KP 447.6: fault #68, class 2  KP 457.8: fault #71, class 4

7.2.5.3 Ptolemaida basin Section (KP 466 – 486)

Faults reported along this segment:  KP 472.5: fault #74, class 3  KP 473.2: fault #75, class 3  KP 478.7: fault #77, class 3  KP 484.0: fault #78, class 3

7.2.5.4 Askion Mountain slopes Section (KP 486 – 507)

 KP 495.0 to KP 497.5: This area was investigated especially because of landslides expected on the western ascending section north of Kleisoura. The cliff sides at the foot of this section seen during the site visits did not feature any apparent instabilities. Only a small surficial landslide was encountered at ~KP 497.5 which lies south of the proposed pipeline route.

 KP 497.5 to 499.5: The shallow eluvial cover is possibly affected by soil creep. Mitigation measures (i.e. deeper trenching) may be required for construction. It is therefore suggested that a geotechnical expert attends the construction works.

 KP 500.1 to 501.0: Mitigation measures may be needed to stabilize the cliffs at the watercourse crossings. This issue shall be subject to further investigations.

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Faults reported along this segment:

 KP 487.5: fault #81, class 2

 KP 489.2: fault #82, class 3

7.2.5.5 Kastoria to the Border Section (KP 507 – 543)

The proposed route was modified from KP 531 to the border in comparison to the route that was studied by ILF (2011). Therefore, in the absence of any route specific geological study for this modified segment, there is no adequate information on the potential geohazards from KP 531 to the border. KP 525.8 to KP 526.1: Liquefaction prone terrain (1st Aliakmonas river crossing): At this crossing the occurrence of saturated, relatively uniform, fine grained deposits (i.e. usually sand and coarse silt without much clay or stuck together) in a loose state cannot be excluded. Such kind of soil features a very high liquefaction potential. Due to the shallow groundwater table and expected PGA values of up to ~ 0.16 g this crossing area may be subject to soil liquefaction. Thus the liquefaction issue shall be a subject of further investigation during subsequent engineering phases.

Faults reported along this segment:

 KP 530.0: fault #94, class 3

 KP 531.2: fault #95, class 2

 KP 534.2: fault #97, class 3

 KP 534.8: fault #98, class 3

 KP 537.7: fault #101, class 3

 KP 540.2: fault #103, class 3

 KP 540.7: fault #104, class 3

 KP 541.8: fault #107, class 3

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7.3 Classification of faults along the route

For the scope of this text, the following fault classification has been taken into account: Class 1: Seismic faults. Faults that are associated with a known historical or paleoseismological earthquake. Class 2: Possibly active faults. Faults that have sufficient geological and geomorphological evidence to suggest activation since Upper Pleistocene. Class 3: Neotectonic faults. Faults that affect post-Alpine and pre-Pleistocene rocks, but there are no indications that they have been activated since. Class 4: Faults with unknown activity. They are mainly basement faults that have no characteristics that can be used to date their recent activity.

7.3.1 Classification of faults in TAP segment

The following table (Table 7-1) summarizes the classification of faults in TAP buffer zone for the Nea Mesimvria - Albania segment.

Table 7-1 Fault Classification Fault class Fault # 1. Seismic - 2. Possibly active 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 81, 95 3. Neotectonic 48, 49, 50, 51, 59, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 82, 94, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109 4. Unknown activity 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 60, 61, 62, 70, 71, 79, 80, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93 Source: Department of Geology, A.U.Th., Faulting in the TAP pipeline buffer zone, Part of the environmental report, Dr. AlexandrosChatzipetros, 31.03.2013

No fault in this route has been associated with any historical earthquakes; therefore there is no class 1 fault.

Regarding possibly active faults (class 2), faults #63 to 68 have been characterized as possibly active based on their lithology and inferred last reactivation. However, they are very short faults, incapable of producing earthquakes. They may be triggered by a distant earthquake, but they cannot be activated themselves. Therefore, they are of no significant importance to the project.

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Fault #69 is part of the Perea-Maniaki fault, a ca. 10 km long fault. This is a synthetic fault to the much larger (ca. 40 km) Vegoritis-Ptolemais fault system (Pavlides, 1985; Pavlides and Mountrakis, 1987; Mountrakis et al., 2006). Vegoritis-Ptolemais fault system is comprised by independent NE-SW trending segments that define boundary of the Neogene and Quaternary Vegoritis-Ptolemais basin. In the map of Figure 7-1 Perea-Maniaki fault is marked as ISS074 (Sboras 2011). It is considered an active structure close to but antithetic with the Komanos CSS and at the same time synthetic to the Ptolemaida CSS (Pavlides,1985; Pavlides and Mountrakis,1987; Goldsworthy and Jackson, 2000; 2001; Mountrakis et al., 2006). The SE- dipping fault is marked by a discontinuous escarpment that extends for a total length of ca. 14 km. Well preserved slickensides and free faces put in contact the Mesozoic substratum with Holocene deposits (Pavlides,1985; Goldsworthy and Jackson, 2000; 2001).

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Figure 7-1 Seismogenic sources at the broader TAP area, with epicenters of significant earthquakes, after Sboras (2011)

Source: Department of Geology, A.U.Th., Faulting in the TAP pipeline buffer zone, Part of the environmental report, Dr. Alexandros Chatzipetros, 31.03.2013

Fault #81 is a basement fault next to the pipeline, but it evolves into the Chimaditis Lake fault (ISS075 in Figure 7-1). It is parallel and antithetic to the Nymfaeo fault, is a nearly 12 km-long active tectonic structure that lies along the southern shore of Lake Chimaditis (Pavlides, 1985; Pavlides and Mountrakis, 1987). The NW-dipping dip-slip normal Chimaditis ISS has generated a low elongated terrace on its footwall consisting of uplifted Neogene, Pleistocene and Holocene deposits (Pavlides,1985). This structure probably joins the Nymfaeo fault at depth constraining its

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Area Comp. System Disc. Doc.- Ser. Code Code Code Code Type No. Project Title: Trans Adriatic Pipeline – TAP GPL00-ASP-642-Y-TAE-0070 Integrated ESIA Greece Document Title: Rev.: 01 / at16 Annex 6.6.1 - Geology Baseline Report maximum depth to ca. 7.5 km. Accordingly, the maximum expected magnitude is probably below 6.0. Fault #95 is part of a longer (ca. 18 km) vertical structure that strikes NE-SW and deforms Pleistocene sediments. There is however no indication of Quaternary activity, based on geological mapping, therefore this fault is considered possibly active but with low probability.

Trans Adriatic Pipeline AG – Greece (Branch Office) 21st Floor, Athens Tower, 2-4 Messogion Ave., 11527 Athens, Greece Phone.: + 30 210 7454613 Fax: + 30 210 7454300 [email protected] www.trans-adriatic-pipeline.com

Date 06/2013

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