MANGROVES OF PAKISTAN STATUS AND MANAGEMENT

IUCN Pakistan 2005 Mangrove of Pakistan – Status and Management

Contents

List of Tables vi List of Figures vi List of Acronyms vii Acknowledgements viii Preface ix

Chapter 1 Introduction 1 • 1.1 Historical Background 2 • 1.2 Mangrove System – Extent and Distribution 3 • 1.3 Distribution – Sindh Coast 5 • 1.4 Status 6 • 1.5 Distribution – Balochistan Coast 8 • 1.6 Physical Environment 9 - 1.6.1 Climate - 1.6.2 Soils - 1.6.3 Water

Chapter 2 Biological and Ecological Characteristics 11 • 2.1 Flora 11 • 2.2 Fauna 14 • 2.3 Micro Organisms 17 • 2.4 Other Inter-related Ecosystems 16

Chapter 3 Human inhabitation and Traditional Mangrove Usage Patterns 18 • 3.1 Demographic and Social Aspects 19 • 3.2 Commercial Exploitation and Marketing 20 - 3.2.1 Major Forest Products - 3.2.2 Minor Forest Products • 3.3 Conversion for other uses 22 - 3.3.1 Aqua Culture - 3.3.2 Urbanization - 3.3.3 Other uses - 3.3.4 Wildlife

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Chapter 4 Degradation of Mangrove Forests 24 • 4.1 Decrease in the Mangrove Area and Cover 24 - 4.1.1 Report of the National Commission on Agriculture (1988) - 4.1.2 Environmental Profile of Pakistan (1987) - 4.1.3 Pakistan National Conservation Strategy (1992) • 4.2 Adverse Factors Affecting Mangroves 26 - 4.2.1 Decreasing freshwater / floodwater and reduction silt deposition - 4.2.2 Dependence of mangroves on freshwater - 4.2.3 The active delta area • 4.3 Over cutting 31 • 4.4 Grazing, browsing and lopping 31 - 4.4.1 Grazing - 4.4.2 Browsing - 4.4.3 Lopping • 4.5 Pollution and Algal Bloom 33 • 4.6 Erosion 34 • 4.7 Ecotourism 34

Chapter 5 Preservation 35 • 5.1 History of Protection in the Indus Delta 35 • 5.2 The Indus Delta Biosphere Reserve Concept 37 • 5.3 Applicability to the Delta 38 • 5.4 Status of Indus Delta Natural Resources 39 - 5.4.1 Changes in Indus Delta in the period 1990-1998 - 5.4.2 Status of Indus Delta Fisher-folk • 5.5 The Indus Delta Biosphere Reserve / Rehabilitation Area 41 - 5.5.1 The process - 5.5.2 Indus Delta zonation • 5.6 Ideas for Future Work 43 • 5.7 Conclusion 45 • 5.8 The Global 200 – Indus Delta Ecoregion 45 - 5.8.1 Location - 5.8.2 Habitat Types - 5.8.3 Biodiversity - 5.8.4 Legislative Jurisdiction - 5.8.5 Economic Significance - 5.8.6 Issues and Threats

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Chapter 6 Mangrove Management 52 • 6.1 Management of Mangrove Forests 53 • 6.2 Management Policies 54 • 6.3 Research Programmes 55 • 6.4 Mangrove Plantation 57 - 6.4.1 Site Selection - 6.4.2 Mangrove nursery techniques - 6.4.3 Planting methods - 6.4.4 Special plantation - 6.4.5 Mangrove plantations raised by governmental and non governmental organizations - 6.4.6 Mangrove protection and plantation management

Chapter 7 Research and Training 66 • 7.1 Ecophysiology 66 • 7.2 Microbiology of mangrove ecosystems 66 • 7.3 Primary productivity 67 • 7.4 Turnover, decomposition and nutrient cycling 67 • 7.5 Significance of mangrove for fishery resources 67 • 7.6 Food web studies 67 • 7.7 Pest, diseases and human health 68 • 7.8 Concluding remarks 69

Chapter 8 Conclusion and Recommendations 70 • 8.1 Conclusions 70 - 8.1.1 Research - 8.1.2 Scientific mangrove training - 8.1.3 Management - 8.1.4 Information and communication - 8.1.5 Education and awareness • 8.2 Recommendations 72 - 8.2.1 Research and man power training - 8.2.2 Management - 8.2.3 Information and communication - 8.2.4 Education and awareness

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Appendix I Assessment of Mangroves Coastal Resources of Pakistan Using Remote Sensing Technology 75

Appendix II Tasman Spirit Oil Spill (TSOS) Mangrove Resource Study Natural Resource Damage Assessment (NRDA) 87

References 107

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List of Tables

Table 1. Mangrove vegetation in the Indus Delta region Table 2. Mangrove vegetation areas in the protected forests of the Indus Delta Table 3. Mangrove Forest Area Table 4. Mangrove Forest Area under S.F.D during 1985 Table 5 Mangrove Forest Area under different authorities Table 6 Distribution of Mangrove vegetation along the coast of Balochistan Table 7. Associated problems in different categories of coastal low land soils Table 8 The salinity recorded at different locations in mangrove habitat. Table 9. List and distribution of mangroves species in Pakistan Table 10. Mangrove fish Table 11. Average Annual and Seasonal Discharge Volumes Downstream of Kotri Barrage Table 12 Camel population in mangrove forest area. Table 13. Objectives and uses of preservation areas Table 14. Mangrove plantations at different locations Table 15. Rehabilitation of Mangroves in the Indus Delta and Balochistan Coast

List of Figures

Cover A boatman waiting for catch in mature Avicenna marina stand at Korangi creek. Figure 1 World distribution of salt marshes and Mangal (Chapman, 1975) Figure 2 The coastline of Sindh Figure 3 Rhizophora mucronata growing near Shah bunder Figure 4 Normal mangroves Figure 5 Sparse mangroves Figure 6 Browsing by camels Figure 7 Flamingos and jackal in mangrove habitat Figure 8 Discharge Volumes at D/S of Kotri Barrage Figure 9 Overcutting Figure 10 Polluted channels pouring in mangrove to cause algal bloom Figure 11 Stand of stunted A.marina in Keti Bunder Figure 12 The economic dependence on mangrove Figure 13 Nursery Figure 14 Rhizophora mucronata

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ABBERVIATION AND ACRONYMS

ADB Asian Development Bank

ACTMANG Action for Mangroves

BCS Balochistan Conservation Strategy

CBD Convention on Biological Diversity

CBO Community based organization.

COP 7 The 7thConference of Parties of CBD CMPAs Coastal Marine Protected Areas

CEMP Coastal Environmental Management Plan

CNPPA Commission on National Park and Protected Areas (IUCN)

CZMPA Coastal Zone Marine Protected Area.

DGIS Directorate-General for International Cooperation

EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone EIA Environmental Impact Assessment

ENSO El Nino / Southern Oscilation E&UAD Environment and Urban Affairs Division.

ESCAP Economic and Social Commission on Asia and Pacific

GDP Gross Domestic Product GEF Global Environment Facility

GoS Government of Sindh ha Hectare

ICM Integrated coastal management

IPD Irrigation and Power department

IP1 Indo Pacific Marine Region1

ISME International Society for Mangrove Ecosystem

IUCN The world Conservation Union

Kg Kilogram

MAF Million Acre Feet

MCPA Marine Coastal Protected Area. mm Millimeter

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mm/yr Millimeter per year m.t Metric ton

NGO Non Governmental Organization

NIO National Institute of Oceanography NWCS National Wetlands Conservation Strategy

NWFP North Western Frontier Province NW-SE North West- South East

PA’s Protected areas

PEPC Pakistan Environmental Protection Council

PEPA Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency Ppt Parts per thousand

PQA Port Qasim Authority

SFD Sindh Forest department

SUPARCO Space and Upper Atmospheric Research Commission

TEDs Turtle Exclusion Device

UNDP United Nations Development Program

UNEP United Nations Environment Program

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural organization

WSSD World Summit on Sustainable Development

WWF World Wide Fund for Nature

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Acknowledgements

IUCN Pakistan would like to thank Asian Development Bank (ADB) and Canadian International development Agency (CIDA), Royal Netherlands Embassy (RNE) for their support through the funding of this study. IUCNP is indebted to SUPARCO for providing SPOT imageries of Pakistan and their digital interpretation. IUCNP would also like to thank those who have made constructive criticisms and suggestions particularly Vidhishia Samarasakara (ADB) Shamsul Haq Memon (GoS) Mehrunnisa Siddiqui and Ali Raza. All their comments, suggestions and criticism have been taken into account, but the opinions expressed are off course our own, except when we quote from others, and errors and omissions are our responsibility. Our special thanks to Lincoln and Charamine Fernandes for help in editing and typing.

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Preface

One of the major goals of the ADB Regional Environmental Technical Assistance project on ’Coastal and Marine Resources Management and Poverty Reduction in South Asia’ is the sustainable management of regional environmentally sensitive coastal and marine ecosystems that are under heavy pressure due to the high rates of population growth in the South Asian region. ICZM has been identified as an appropriate mechanism for improved management and one that can yield the most positive outcomes to fulfil the objectives of the project.

Over 600,000 hectares of Pakistan’s coastline is under mangrove forestation. The coastal communities as well as the fisheries of the coast are dependent on this ecosystem, their very existence entwined with its well being. However, despite being one of the most extensive mangrove forests in the world and having considerable importance for the national economy due to their role in fisheries, their significance in terms of ecological and economic value have remained undocumented and poorly understood. Mangroves historically have been considered to be wastelands. The vital flow of the Indus River into the Indus Delta, which constitutes one of the most extensive mangrove areas along the Pakistani coast, is heavily polluted by a variety of industrial effluents, sewage, solid waste and nutrient-enriched irrigation water. The area is also affected by increased salinity due to upstream irrigation. The mounting pressure of the rapidly increasing population has led to the clearing of mangrove areas for industrial and agricultural purposes as well as for urban expansion, undermining the livelihoods of the coastal communities and thereby exacerbating their poverty.

Management through sustainable use of mangrove resources, their protection and conservation is a key priority for Pakistan. Understanding the mangrove ecosystems is imperative to improved management in order to derive optimum economic and environmental benefits without destroying this valuable ecosystem. There is a need for the creation of awareness and education among planners and coastal communities regarding the sustainable management of mangrove forests. In this context, it is necessary to understand the dynamics of the mangroves through interdisciplinary studies. A comprehensive Status Report for the country would lead to the formulation of appropriate coastal environmental management strategies.

The last such assessment was undertaken in 1984 and since then there has been no updation of data since that time the figures quoted are not consistent. This Report is also an attempt to provide authentic data on the status of mangroves in the country.

The Status Report would be instrumental in raising awareness on the importance of mangroves. More importantly, it provides guidelines for the formulation of a sustainable management policy of coastal areas based on a better understanding of the structure and function of this ecosystem.

It takes into account the following aspects of Mangrove Ecosystem Management:

• Location and extent of mangrove ecosystems in Pakistan • The existing mangrove management practices • Description of mangrove resources as they are perceived by users and local communities • Mangrove resources utilization practices • Assessment of resource value in relation to the overall economy of the country • Institutional structures • Specific resource management issues in the mangrove areas • Data and information sources • Potentials and recommendations for sustainable development in the mangrove environment • Requirement of funds for capacity building for planning and management of mangrove areas

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1. Mangrove study

1.1. Study objectives: The specific objectives of this study are: • Preparation of an inventory of mangroves forest based of SPOT imageries and demarcation of various land use classes. • Determination of the decrease in the mangrove forest area and cover. • Determination of causes of degradation of the mangrove forests and quantification of the areas destroyed by various factors specially. • Decreasing freshwater and silt flows from Indus river. • Browsing by camels • Industrial and marine pollution. • Recommendation for rehabilitation of mangrove ecosystem, research, training and coastal management. • With these objectives, the following studies/ surveys have been carried. • Coverage of mangrove forest along the coast of Pakistan after independence. • Oceanographic and deltaic changes occurring in the Indus delta due to transgression of Arabian Sea. • Biodiversity survey in the mangrove areas. • Demographic and socio economic survey.

1.2. Study area

The study area comprises the mangrove forests extending from Jiwani to Sir creek on the Indo-Pakistan border. LANDSAT imageries 1983 has shown the area of the mangrove forests to be 640,000 hectares. However the vegetation cover is over a much smaller scale. The area under various land use classes has been demarcated. The area distribution between the various agencies viz. Sindh and Balochistan forest departments, Port Qasim Authority, Sindh and Balochistan board of Revenue, has also been shown.

1.3. Existing Reports and Studies.

The following reports and studies are available on the mangrove forests. • Working plan of coastal forests by S.A. Khan, Sindh Government Printing Press- 1965. • Working plan of Mangroves (Coastal) forest by M. Tahir Qureshi, SFD-1984. • Mangrove ecosystem occasional papers by UNDP/ UNESCO Regional project- 1990. • Restoration of mangrove ecosystem by International Society for Mangrove ecosystem (ISME) and ITTO- 1996.

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Chapter 1

Introduction

The mangrove forest ecosystem consists of the inter tidal flora and fauna found in the tropics and subtropics and dominated by evergreen sclerophyllous broad leaved trees with still roots or pneumatophores and viviparous seedlings (UNESCO, 1973). Mangroves occur approximately between 32oN and 38oS and mostly on the eastern border of the continents (Figure-1). This restricted distribution is due to the sensitivity of mangroves to frost and cold temperatures (Walter, 1977). The forest cover the flats between mean sea level and extreme high water (Macnae, 1966). Site conditions are characterized by the accumulation of loose mud and silt. (Womersley, 1983).

Figure-1 World distribution of salt marshes and Mangal (Chapman, 1975)

Mangrove vegetation is characteristically present in river estuaries and along the coast where the land meets the sea. It proliferates in most of the places to stabilize some of the land which otherwise would be eroded every year due to wave action. The major components of the mangrove swamps are salt tolerant trees.

Tropical coastal communities have utilized mangrove resources for centuries without upsetting the ecological balance in the area. This may largely be attributed to smaller population levels etc. Later, overexploitation and destruction of the mangrove areas become a consequence of population pressures, further compounded by unwise political decisions on mangrove allocation made in some Asian countries in the last 30 years or so. Moreover, colonial exploiters never took to mangroves very kindly, branding them as stinking, impenetrable, mosquito ridden dirty areas. During this time it was commonplace for mangrove land to be readily reclaimed. It was only in the 1960s when there was a gradual realization of their ecological importance Even in developed countries like Australia, mangroves used to be considered as wastelands ripe for development. (Hegerl, 1984)

Early research on mangroves was mostly taxonomic in nature, involving the identification and classification of plants and animals. In addition a number of ecological and plant sociological studies were conducted by Schimper. The unique growth characters and adaptability of mangroves organisms was recognized a long time back but details of the structure to function relationship began to be worked on systematically only in the last 15-20 years. Thus,

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mangrove eco-physiology remains incompletely understood even today. Both general and particular details as they refer to certain localities, countries, regions and the world as a whole need to be obtained. Meanwhile, the use of the mangrove as a renewable natural resource is given priority attention in many countries with the consequence of replacing the original habitat with man-made growth conditions. The total biota in the altered environment will certainly be different when compared with the original natural mangrove habitat.

During the last 20 years a renewed interest in the study of the mangrove ecosystem has come about as evidenced by various scientific meetings held in the Asia-Pacific region. Identified during these gathering were many common objectives and interests as well as the necessary collaborative research programme. Numerous papers have been published, which outlined the extent of mangrove distribution in various Asian countries, the species composition in each of indiscriminate human activities that have resulted in damaging the ecosystem. Most of their observations and records provide piecemeal information and thus a good coordinated account becomes highly desirable.

It is also necessary to point out that inspite of the many publications that have come out in the recent past, our knowledge on mangroves is still rather very limited due to the fact that the mangroves ecosystems is a complex system governed by various physical, chemical and biological elements. Further, we are dealing with a biological system, which changes and assures a different working order under the influence of many dynamic factors. Therefore, it will perhaps take many years to obtain a fairly complete picture of the whole system. Also, scientific researchers who are interested in studying mangrove productivity are limited and well outnumbered by administrators and politicians who hold the power to dispose natural resources for economic gains with or without due consideration of the long term ecological losses and the various scientific principles involved.

This adverse situation needs to be rectified immediately if all are to benefit from the meaningful role mangroves play. The program carried out under UNDP/UNESCO Regional Mangrove Project for the Asia and the Pacific and International Society for Mangroves Ecosystem (ISME) gave a tremendous boost in this direction both in terms of assessing our present knowledge on mangroves and in providing training for young workers in various areas of mangrove research. In addition, a common platform was created for scientists and managers to meet and discuss various and common mangrove problems.

1.1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Although no authentic record is available on the use of mangroves in Indo-Pakistan, the traditional methods being continued prove that the mangrove ecosystem was used extensively in earlier days.

The use of mangrove forests as site of human settlements and their reclamation for other conversion purposes have been a persistent danger to the existence of said forests in later period along the Pakistan coast. With the rapid development of industries and increase in population, the mangrove became a major victim of exploitation. Initially these forests were used for fishing, as a source of fuel wood and for agriculture. Most of the Indus delta mangroves have been deforested and reclaimed a very small area either for industries or human settlements. Since most estuaries and backwater along the Sindh Coast are fringed with mangroves, these areas form an ideal environment for fish farming. It is interesting to note that the fishermen community even in the earlier days empirically knew the utility of mangrove swamps. Till today the same age old tradition of fishing is seen in certain parts of the coastline.

The reclamation of mangrove areas in Karachi have brought about permanent geomorphological changes as observed today. Presently Karachi, which in the seventeen century was made up of several islands with fringing mangroves, is now limited to a very

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sparse growth of mangrove, the result of continued unabted and uncontrolled deforestation and reclamation. This process has continued till today. Some of the mangrove forests in Keti Bunder and Shah Bunder were used in the Indus flotilla and railways.

The natural geomorphological changes which have taken place are as a result of earthquakes, sea level changes, floods, siltation and changes in the river courses because of tectonic movements that have been recorded in Indian history. The southward shift of Indus, in particular, complete siltation and eventual drying of by rivers and sea intrusion in coastal areas must have adversely affected mangrove forests. The first scientific account of Indo – Pakistan mangroves was given by Van Rheede (1678) in his famous book Hortas Malabaricus. After a span of about two centuries, Schimper (1891) gave detailed information on the littoral flora of the Indo-Malayan coast in Die Indo-Malayische Strand flora. Two decades later, the mangrove vegetation of the Gangetic Sunder bans was studied by Prain (1903). The contributions of Cook (1903) to the understanding of mangroves flora of the erstwhile Bombay Presidency are also noteworthy. Some historical background on the forest resources of the Indus Delta is provided by the Gazetteer of Sindh (1907) which mentions three specific species of mangroves.

1.2 MANGROVE SYSTEM – EXTENT AND DISTRIBUTION

The coastline of Pakistan spans a total area of 885 km, of which 241 km covers the province of Sindh on the south eastern side and 664 km within the province of Balochistan ( western side) The mangrove forests lie between 24o 10’ and 25o 37’ latitude North and 61o 38’ and 68o 10’ longitude east. They are concentrated mainly in the Indus Deltaic swamps in the Province of Sindh along the Arabian Sea coastline. The entire coastline of Sindh is densely covered with mangroves, whereas that of Balochistan is barren except for a few small patches in Miani Hor, Kalmat Hor and Gwater bay. (Figure-2)

Figure-2 The coastline of Sindh

Several attempts have been made earlier to survey the mangrove areas along the Pakistan coast. The joint estimate or the mangroves covered was published by Khan (1966) who mentioned that 249,486 ha in the Indus Delta and some 20 ha along the Makran coast in Balochistan are occupied by mangrove areas of Pakistan ranked fifth or sixth in the world. A

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survey of mangroves forests by satellite remote sensing showed that 44% of the Korangi – Phitti Creek area of Indus delta or 0.64 million hectares (Table-1) is populated by mangroves (Mirza et. al, 1983). An estimate given by T.A.Ansari in his country report (unpublished) states that the total land areas under mangroves is 220,000 ha, with an estimate wood at 16,000 cubic metres.

Table 1. Mangrove vegetation in the Indus Delta region S No. Mangrove Categories Area Percentage of Percentage of Total (million ha) Total Area covered area (i) Mangrove Vegetation a. Dense 0.05 9 11 b. Normal 0.21 35 48 c. Sparse or no vegetation 0.14 22 32 0.44 66 91 (ii) Sand 0.04 7 9 0.48 73 100 (iii) Area under water channels 0.16 27 0.64 100 Source : Mirza et al (1983a, b, 1986)

Another estimate of mangrove cover in Pakistan was made by Amjad and Khan (1983), covering an area of about 283,000 ha consisting of 281,000 ha in Sindh and 2000 ha in Balochistan.

According to Tahir Qureshi (1983-84) a forest department survey for preparation of Management Plan was made 20 years ago, gave the mangrove areas in protected forests of Indus delta an estimated 344,846 hectares (Table-2)

Table 2. Mangrove vegetation areas in the protected forests of the Indus Delta Name of range Forest (mangrove) area in Area under Blank sandy Total hectares water area Good Medium Poor Keti Bundar South 24,419 30,620 40,102 23,046 65,429 183,616 Keti Bundar North 14,770 19,316 8,185 8,948 28,268 80,487 Korangi 8,507 16,324 23,455 17,872 14,585 80,743 Total for Division 47,696 66,260 71,742 49,866 109,282 344,846

The latest mangrove vegetation, map at 1.50000 scale was prepared by SUPARCO with the use of SPOT imageries in January 2003. The ground truthing was carried out by a team of IUCN-Pakistan and its result are given in the attached report as Appendix-II. According to the report 86,727 hectares are under the mangrove forests along the coast of Pakistan (Table-3)

Table 3.The area summary of mangroves forests along the coast of Pakistan based on SPOTXS data of 2003 # Region Area in hectares Area in acres % 1 Karachi Harbour area 985.50 2435.00 1.14 2 Indus Delta region 81684.00 201841.00 94.18 3 Miani Hor 3431.36 8479.00 3.96 4 Kalmat Hor 194.00 479.00 0.22 5 Jiwani 433.00 1070.00 0.50 Total 86727.86 214304.00 100.00 1.3 DISTRIBUTION – SINDH COAST

The Indus Delta is the most prominent feature of the Sindh Coast. Its seaward coastline is about 150 km long. The land forms are remarkably uniform and the region consists of a

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network of small and large tidal channels, which meander upto 10-50 km towards land from the open sea. Many of the tidal channels are remanant courses of the Indus River. Most of the material making up the delta consists of fine silts and clays with a high percentage of micaceous sand. At the coast, the fine materials are carried offshore and coarser sands are left to form a series of barrier bars with hooks and spits at the end. Most of the beaches along the outer bars are very wide, with gradients of 1 to 3 degrees. The sand tracks on the bars are almost completely devoid of vegetation. In places there are low shifting dunes which reach a height of 3-5 metres but most of the bars are barren and flat. The sand bars are continuously changing as tidal currents and waves move the fine white sand to all parts of the bars.

Behind the barriers bars are mudflats covered with mangroves, Avicennia marina predominates. South of the present active Indus delta, large salt flats occur. These higher, drier flats, 16-24 km wide, became more extensive towards the south and east. They lead into the Rann of Kutch.

The inner limit of tidal channels and mudflats in the Indus delta form a straight line, which runs almost north-south. The present coastline runs in a more north-west to south-east direction. The two lines come close together south of Keti Bunder. In the north, the tidal channels are longer and generally wider with more extensive mangrove swamps than in the south. The north-south line is a scarp 3-4 meter height. The surface in the northern part of the delta is largely composed of loose micaceous sand. At high tide the coastal strip is submerged 5-6 km inland because the land is so low and flat. During the monsoon season, when the river is at its greatest height, the delta is flooded up to about 30 km from the coast. Tidal water, which can ascend the Indus river for 60 km near Thatta, at times form a tidal bone which is destructive to small boats. When the tide recedes and the old creeks dry, salt covers their surface or is buried in the mud and silts.

The Delta system of the Indus is responsible for the major mangrove forests along the Sindh coast. Earlier the coast has luxuriant mangrove vegetation till 1932, but since then large scale upstream development and population pressure has constantly destroyed the mangroves vegetation. However, some creeks and estuaries along the Karachi coast have extensive mangroves.

Some historical background on the forest resources of the Indus delta is provided by the “ Gazetteer of Sindh (1907)” which mentions three specific species:

1) Mangroves (Rhizophora mucronata, “Kandal”) and white mangroves (Avicennia officinalis, “Timer”). Mangroves, which grow where the fresh water meets seawater are said to bind the soil with far reaching roots and effectively prevent erosion and to provide a breeding ground for marine life. It is reported that much damage has been done to the mangrove resources by unrestricted destruction for fuel. The wood furnished the best fuel available for river streamers as in the early years of British rule and the foliage provided excellent fodder for camels. Its is also reported that mangroves Timer and Kirri (Ceriops candollenea) were used for boat building. 2) Tamarix (Tamarix gallica and T. dioca, “Lai”, Jhao”) grew above the immediate influence of the sea and its wood was also used as fuel by streamers.

3) Elephant Grass ( Typha elephantina, “Pan” ). grew further upland also bound the soil with far reaching roots and prevented erosion. “ The Gazetteer reports that the natives were well aware of its environmental function and although they used it in the manufacture of matting and baskets, they were careful to cut the plants close to the soil without disturbing the roots” the interesting point relates to the differing practices with respect to the conservation of Elephant Grass and mangroves. It is not clear whether there was a different in the environmental awareness regarding the two resources or whether the pressures on the use of mangroves were unavoidable such as the external demands of the British steamers and the camel breeders.

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1.4 STATUS

a. Mangrove Forest in the Indus Delta :

The area under mangrove forests in Sindh has been estimated during the attempts made since the independence in 1947. The first serious efforts were made by Khan (1966) based on the first survey of the area. Second serious effort was made by Mirza et al (1983) based on the landsat data. A third effort was made by Qureshi, Sindh Forestry Department in 1985. The status included details of the area under mangrove forest, determined during these surveys are summarized below:

i. Sindh Forest Department(SFD) 1966

A major portion of the mangroves areas were surveyed in the 1960s by the Sindh Forests department (SFD) and the first estimates of the mangroves areas were published by Khan (1966) at 344,870 ha. This survey of the mangroves was, however, limited to two compact blocks of land under mangroves transferred to SFD in 1958. One block of mangroves from Korangi, near Karachi to Chann creek called the western block was 80,744 ha and the other from Mal creek to Sir creek at Indo Pakistan border, referred to as the Eastern block was 264,126 ha.

The area in between Chann Creek and Mal Creek, was not transferred to the SFD, and the area west of Korangi creek up to the Sindh – Balochistan have not been surveyed, as these areas remained outside the jurisdiction of SFD. During the survey, the Sindh Forest department prepared an inventory and delineated the areas under forest cover, blank areas under water. The land under the forest crop was further subdivided into areas having good crop, medium crop and poor crop depending on the density.

ii) S.F.D 1985

a. A third vegetation estimate was made by SFD for the area in direct control in 1985 (Qureshi), using the landstat data and ecological surveys. 348 compartments ranging in area from 18 to 1,943 ha have been reformed. The area transferred by SFD has been excluded. The area under different categories has been estimated as given in (Table-4)

Table 4. Mangrove Forest Area Under S.F.D During 1985

S No. Mangrove Categories Area Percentage of Percentage of Land (in Hectare) Total Area Area (i) Mangrove Vegetation d. Dense vegetation 42,591 15 17 e. Normal vegetation 67,355 24 27 f. Sparse vegetation 118,866 42 49 228,812 81 93 (ii) Area under Sand 16,608 6 7 245,420 87 100 (iii) Area under water channels 35,050 13 280,470 100 Source : Qureshi (1985)

b. Mangrove forests in Karachi district.

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All the above details of mangrove forests pertain to the area east of Karachi upto the Pak-India border. These mangroves fall in Thatta and Badin districts. In Karachi district also there are small islands carrying mangrove forests. The area has not been properly managed and the estimates are that the total area is about 500 hectares. These forests are also with Karachi Port Trust and district government.

c. Ownership and legal position.

An area of 344,870 ha was transferred to the Forest department in the year 1958 and declared “ Protected Forest ” under the Forest Act of 1927. In 1973, an area of 64,400 ha was transferred by SFD to Port Qasim Authority (PQA). However, the areas with PQA continue legally to be “Protected Forests”. The remaining mangrove forests at the mouth of the River Indus is with the Sindh Board of Revenue, which are listed as “Waste land”

The mangrove forests are thus under the control of the organizations given below: Table 5. Mangrove Forest Area Under different authorities

Organizations Area in Hectares Thatta and Badin Districts i. Sindh Forest Department 280,470 ii. Sindh Board of Revenue 260,000 TOTAL 540,470

Karachi District i. Port Qasim Authority 64,400 ii. Karachi Port Trust / Karachi District 500 (approx.) government GRAND TOTAL 605,370

(Source) Coastal Environmental Management Plan for Pakistan - 1996

In the final analysis the mangroves area with the various authorities are as under:

1. Sindh Forest Department 280,470 hectares 2. Sindh Board of Revenue 260,000 hectares 3. Port Qasim Authority 64,400 hectares 4. Karachi Port Trust / Karachi District government. 500 hectares

Total 605,370 hectares

With the revised estimates for the mangroves forests area (605, 370 hectares) the Indus Delta mangrove ranks as one of the largest single mangrove forest in the world

1.5 DISTRIBUTION – BALOCHISTAN COAST

The mangrove forest area along the coast of Balochistan is very limited. Different estimates have been reported; Khan (1986) have estimated an area of 2000 ha, while Mirza et al (1988) have estimated an area of about 7340 ha under mangrove forests along Balochistan coast using remote sensing techniques. Since satellite derived information is increasingly becoming an integral and indispensable part of various research studies involving earth and its environment. IUCN in collaboration with SUPARCO generated the stock map of Mangroves of Balochistan. According to this latest stock taking in Miani Hor, Kalmat Hor and gawater bay (Jiwani) in 2003, the total mangroves forest are 4058.36 hectares along the coast of Balochistan(Table 6)

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Miani Hor

Miani Hor tidal estuary extends for 45 km from the delta of the Winder river west behind Adispit to the accretion ridges on the West Side of the valley. Because of the large tidal flow, from 2 to 3 meters, the lagoon changes greatly between high and low water. Extensive mud flats are exposed on the West Side of the lagoon at low water. Around the eastern side of the lagoon are mangroves consisting of three main species, Avicennia marina, Rhizophora mucronata and Ceriops tagal. Of three A. marina occupies large area. Except Miani Hor the R. mucronata does not have a natural stand anywhere along the coast of Pakistan. The mangrove area is estimated to be 3431.36 ha Out of which only 294.33 ha has been declared as “Protected Forest” and in 1958 it has been transferred to Balochistan Forest department and the rest of the mangroves are with Balochistan Board of Revenue.

Table 6. Distribution of Mangrove vegetation along the coast of Balochistan

Site Acres Hectares Percentage Miani Hor 8479 3431.36 84.00 Kalmat Hor 479 194.00 5.10 Gwatar Bay 1070 433.00 10.90 Total 10028 4058.36 100 Source: SUPARCO(2003)

Kalmat Khor

The Kalmat Khor coastal plain is 55km long and 19 km wide. It has a tidal lagoon consisting of mud and salt flats and tidal channels. This is the mangrove area consisting of Avicennia marina originated from the sweet water of Basol River. The area under the mangroves is roughly estimated at 194 ha. The mangroves are stunted and are in a degraded state.

Gwatar Bay

The Balochistan area near Iran border is a coastal plan with a low swampy region forming the delta of Dasht River, one of the longest rivers of Balochistan. Although this river drains a large section of central Balochistan, it does not bring large sedimentation to the coast. Being in a region receiving an average of 130 mm of rainfall per year the Dasht is an intermittent stream that floods only once in two or three years. Most of the water sinks into the sands and gravels of the river bed. The Mirani Dam is under construction upstream on the Dasht. This would reduce even more the fresh water flow to the delta.

The wide beach along this section of the coast averages to 120 metres with a gentle gradient of 1 to 3 degrees. Behind the back are barriers bar and island, mud flats and tidal lagoons. Clumps of mangroves can be formed across the tidal position of the plain. These mangroves are mostly scattered and belong to different age classes. Only one species Avicennia marina occurs. The mangrove area is estimated at 433 hectares.

1.6 PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

1.6.1 Climate

The entire coastal area of Pakistan is included in the warm monsoon region. The climate is characterized by pleasant weather due to sea breeze, which blows all the year round except when local disturbances during winter and summer months take place. Mild winter extends from November to February and few cold waves occur occasionally due to western weather disturbances. Summer extends from March to June and hot weather sets in when hot winds

- 8 Mangrove of Pakistan – Status and Management

blow from the desert area. When the pressure vacuum builds up in the north Arabian Sea, it stops sea breeze over the entire coast. Temperature then shoots up to 41oC and above making the weather very hot.

Seasonal fluctuations in temperature and monsoon rains characteristically indicate the climate of dry tropical and sub tropical zone. Atmospheric acidity is the chief characteristic feature of this area. January is a cooler month with minimum temperature of 10oC and temperature increases with the setting in of the summer season in March / April. In June – July it shoots upto 41o – 42oC.

The annual precipitation takes place mainly during summer. It is erratic and unevenly distributed. Average rainfall is 200-220 mm, most of which falls during three months of the year, that’s June, July and August.

Humidity is an important factor in the coastal region. It is generally higher in the morning than in the afternoon. It also varies from place to place depending upon nearness to the sea. Wind is another important feature of the coastal region. It is variable and is stronger in summer than in the winter. Its highest speed has been observed during monsoon. The speed increases during the day from morning to evening. In the morning hours, northerly and northwesterly winds prevail during winter and during the rest of the year they are westerly and southwesterly. The wind travels at the rate of 7.5 to 20.5 km/h during summer, but when tropical depressions are created in the Arabian Sea winds develop into cyclonic storms and bring rains. As a result, high tidal wave sweeps over large areas. This phenomenon occurs from June to September. The worst storm, with a speed of 130 km/h, was recorded in June 1936, at Karachi.

1.6.2 Soils

Along the Pakistan Coast, large variations exist in the soil of mangrove forests. The soil of mangrove islands is alluvium with plenty of clay derived from land drainage and river discharge. It is rich in salts, like sodium chloride, sodium carbonate and nitrate, with some calcium which comes from shell fragments. A general idea of the proportion of these salts can be derived from the fact that large tracts are covered with white crust of salts and the land in many places appears white with solid deposits of salts. The muddy clayey soil is poor in other mineral substances. It has a very bad drainage and is not the various soil types along the coast mainly restricted to tidal flats. The subsoil water table to the sea, which is from 1.5 to 3.0 m deep with the water being completely brackish.

The estuary plains cover about two-third of the survey area. The surface features resemble those of meander flood plains. Levee deposits are more numerous, prominent and continuous than those normally found on meander flood plains. Water often collects in the troughs lying between distributaries, forming permanent or temporary swamps.

The most prominent feature of the estuary plain is its saline surface that contains mainly hygroscopic salts; these salts absorb moisture from the air as soon as the relative humidity rises above 30 percent, oily looking and coloured. Vast uniformly level silty flats and clay basins characterize the estuary plain.

Saline estuary soil characteristically contains hygroscopic (calcium and magnesium) chlorides and gypsum. The levies and bars are nearly level to very gently sloping, silty clays, silty clay loams, silt loams and very fine sandy loams; and are usually dark grayish brown, greenish brown or brown. The soils are sticky to very sticky when wet, firm to very firm when moist and hard to very hard when dry. The PH range from 8.0 to 8.2 and the organic matter contents is less than one percent.

The soils of the coastal belt have been formed in mixed coastal deposits brought to the coast by the Indus River and subsequently invaded by coastal tides. The soils are deep to

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moderately deep and poor to very poorly drained, strongly saline medium to fine texture. The soils are stratified and some are homogenized. The subsoil ranges in color from brown / dark brown to dark yellowish brown. The PH of the soil ranges from 8.2 to 8.4. Various problems (Shabbir, personal communications, 95) associated with the coastal soil, change, its nature and chemistry (Table-7)

Table 7 Associated problems in different categories of coastal low land soils

Category Associated Problems a. Coastal non-saline soil All problems associated with deep water logging b. Coastal saline soil Salinity and problem associated with water logging c. Coastal neutral to slightly Alkalinity, zinc deficiency and problem associated alkaline soil d. Coastal acid saline soil Acidity, non toxicity, phosphorus deficiency and problem associated with water logging e. Coastal acid sulphate Acidity, iron and aluminum toxicity, phosphorus deficiency and some time water logging. f. Coastal organic soils Toxicities of iron and hydrogen sulphide, deficiency of zinc and problems associated with water logging Source: Syed Shabbir, personal communication, 1995

1.6.3 Water

Mangrove waters of Pakistan have been studied by several workers along the coast of Sindh and Balochistan for their physical properties, chemistry, biochemistry and biology. The seasonal and diurnal variations of various parameters like temperature, salinity, oxygen, pH, nutrient regeneration have investigated (Qureshi, 1990) The entire coastal region depends for supply of fresh water for agriculture as well as drinking purposes on the Indus River and its main distributaries Khobar and Ghorawari. Since geological times, the Indus River has been changing its course frequently and then this is evidence that it once used to flow over Karachi. Presently, Indus and its main tributaries flow about 120-km south east of the Karachi coastline. Before the construction of a series of storage dams and barrages have considerably decreased the extent and duration of flood discharge. Kharochan and Shah Bunder, which had a good agrarian economy in the past and produced plenty of red rice, are now facing acute drought due to lack of freshwater from the Indus. During flood season, water is stored in shallow ponds for humans and cattle consumption. After the flood season, their streams and main distributaries of the Indus are filled with seawater for the rest of the year.

The mangrove vegetation needs regular supply of seawater to survive in the deltaic belt. Tidal water runs over the islands twice in 24 hours, irrigating the growing vegetation. The growth of Avicennia, main crop of the area, is determined by the extent and reach of tidal water. As regards to the condition and the composition of the growing crop, its growth near the creek is better, but deteriorates progressively inside the island.

Salinity of seawater is relatively high due to the arid climate and less influence of river water. Records of salinity of seawater are as follows: -(Table 8)

Table 8 The salinity recorded at different locations in mangrove habitat

River / Creek Salinity (AV) Date Recorded Korangi Creek 28 July 2002 Khudi Creek 30 October 2002 Keti Bunder 41 July 2002 Shah Bunder 39-41 October 2002 Source : IUCN-Pakistan

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Chapter 2

Biological and Ecological Characteristics

2.1 FLORA AND VEGETATION

About 80 species of the mangrove trees/shrubs are recognized, of which around 50-60 species make a significant contribution to the structure of mangrove forests. Species diversity is much higher in the Southeast Asian region, where approximately two-thirds of all species are found, while approximately 15 species occur in Africa and 10 in America. The trees of several genera are valuable for timber or fuel wood, especially Rhizophora species, which occur in all three regions. Although mangroves survive best along sheltered humid tropical coastlines where alluvial sediment can accumulate as a substratum for mangrove colonisation, mangroves also occur as fringes or patches in carbonate sediments along small shores, as in the Caribbean.

Arid climates also reduce species diversity and restrict mangrove growth to low shrub formations in extreme cases, as in the Northern Queensland and along the Persian Gulf and Red Sea coasts. The effect of aridity rather than latitude on mangrove community is well demonstrated in India. Excluding the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, about 50% of India’s mangrove resources is found in the Ganges delta of West Bengal (Sunder-bans) and comprises more than 20 species, whereas at similar latitudes on the arid west coast (Gujrat) only about 12% of the total resource and 9 species occur (Untawale 1993).

According to Flora of Pakistan (1972) eight species of mangroves have been reported from Pakistan (Table-9).

Table 9. List and distribution of mangrove species in Pakistan

Species Distribution RHIZOPHORACEAE Bruguiera gymnorhiza (L) Lamk. Karachi and Indus delta (Hassan) Estuary of Indus (Murray); no specimen in Kew, Edinburgh and Pakistan Ceriops tagal (Perr.) C.B. Robin Karachi and Coast of Sindh (stocks) Mouth of Indus and “Salt water creek” (Murray) Ceriops decandra (G.) Ding Hou Sindh tidal zone; existence considered doubtful Rhizophora apiculata Blume Tidal marshes at the mouth of Indus: Miani Hor, Las Bella (T & S) Rhizophora mucronata Lamk. Mouth of Indus on muddy shores and tidal creeks (Henslow; Las Bella and Makran Coast (Burkill) MYRSINACEAE Aegiceras corniculatum (L.) Blco. Mangrove swamps at mouth of the Indus (Stocks, Ritchie) Karachi (Jafri): Miani Hor AVICENNIACEAE Avicennia marina (Forsk.) Vierh. Tidal mangrove swamps; Sand spit (stern) China creek, etc. (Jafri), Kalmat Hor SONNERATIACEAE Sonneratia caseolaris (L.) Engler Mouth of Indus and Tidal Zone (Common, fide Murray); Indus delta no specimen seen.

Avicennia marina is the most dominant and widespread species. Other species have been reduced considerably if not lost completely. Rhizophora mucronata occupies a large area in Miani Hor, Balochistan. Ceriops tagal occur in scattered form in Miani Hor and Daboo and

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Khai creeks. Aegiceras corniculatum has almost been exterminated from the Sindh Coast except few small stands in Daboo creeks and Pakar creek near Shah Bunder. Bruguiera gymnorhiza and Ceriops tagal, which once occurred in the Hub River delta (Champion et al, 1965) can no longer be found and even A.marina has disappeared.

Three other species i.e. Ceriops decandra, Rhizophora apiculata and Sonneratia caseolaris though included in the Flora of Pakistan (Nasir and Ali, 1972) cold neither be traced by Sindh Forest department and IUCNP (Draft Management Plan of Mangroves Ecosystem for Indus Delta, 1995) nor by Mohummad Tahir Qureshi in his extensive survey of Mangroves of Pakistan from 1982.

Mangrove swamps of Sindh Coast are monospecific in the sense that Avicennia marina occupies about 99.9% of the total forest area (Qureshi, 1991, 1995). The dominance of this species on the coast is due to its resistance against adverse environmental conditions (including habitat, hydrology and climate) and over exploitation of the other species of mangroves.

For purpose of description of the growing stock, the mangrove can be divided broadly into the following three main categories: Dense Mangroves, Normal / Medium Mangroves and Sparse Mangroves.

Dense Mangroves

These forests are found either in narrow stretches in blocks of more or less rectangular form along creeks, carrying profuse growth of Avicennia marina locally known as timer which grows abundantly on muddy shattered shores and subjected to periodic inundation daily due to tidal action of sea water. The forests vary in width from few hundred metres to even a kilometer or so, usually along the periphery of islands. The soil of the area bearing dense growth of Avicennia is almost recent formation due to accretion. The soil is well-drained, low lying and is of better composition. All the factors are probably conducive for replacement of palatable grasses by Avicennia, which grows faster and flourishes well throughout its ages, till these favourable factors degenerate due to mounting up of deposits of silt and clay, making the land higher. It, therefore, does not get daily submersion, and access of tidal water limited to areas of relatively lower level, and as such, the growth retards and crops deteriorates.

Avicennia marina, a colonizing and pioneer species adapted to newly formed or relatively poor habitat conditions, is the major species of mangrove forests in deltaic belt. It attains a height of about 9m and girth of 50cm in areas with good soil and drainage and where incidence of inundation by tidal water is more effective. In dense formation, the Avicennia grows straight with a small crown; in place where growth is sporadic, trees have short trunk and lateral branches develop in the form of an umbrella, and about a meter above the ground.

Besides the Avicennia spp: the only other species found are Ceriops tagal and Ageciras corniculatum. These occur mostly in Khai, Daboo and Pakhar creeks. Maximum salt tolerance of these species is 60 ppt: but adaptability to ground conditions are limited. The trunk of Ceriops is single, straight and solid and the leaves are not browsed.

They attain a height of about 2-2.5m in best conditions and produces propagate from the end of June to middle of August. Presently Rhizophora crop. These plantations established in Indus delta have become the seed source for IUCN and Sindh Forest department. Dense mangroves are present in Korangi, Phitti, Khudi, Khai, Patiani, Daboo, Sisa creeks of northern area and Kajhar, Pakar and Sir creeks of southern area. Traditionally few camel graziers come to these areas due to their closeness to the Indian border.(Figure-3)

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Figure-3 – Rhizophora mucronata growing near Shah bunder

Medium / Normal Mangroves

This type is widely scattered in the Indus Delta. It forms about 35% of the total vegetation. Normal mangrove occurs in the areas where conditions are fairly good. Avicennia is the main species. Behind the coastline and above the high waterline in sheltered areas receiving freshwater during rains from small streams, some growth of Tamarix spp, Acacia nilotica and Prosopis juliflora are frequently seen. Small bushes of Calotropis procera along with Atriplex griffithhi, Aerva javanica and Polycarpa corymbosa also occur as undergrowth. (Fig 4)

Figure-4 - Normal Mangroves

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Sparse Mangroves

This type of vegetation occurs in dry and sandy areas. Sand dunes are common all along the main coastline. They appear as small hill-locks of sand derived from the sandstone beneath and carry practically no vegetation towards seaside. The vegetation however starts as the site factors improve on the landward side. The vegetation mainly consists of shrubs and are Suaeda fruiticosa, Salsola barysoma, Abutilon indicum, Sericostma panciflorum, Cressa creatica, Heliotropium undulatum, H.curassavicum, Solanum suretense, Cyperus conglomeratus and grasses such as Heleochloa spp, Halopyrum macronatum, Cenchrus spp, Urochondra setulosa and Aleuropus. Dry areas are unproductive wastelands and are found mostly in the northern side once extensive tracts. These areas are swept over by the tidal water during monsoon when high velocity winds give rise to cyclones. In these areas, the sea salt can be fund in the form of thick layers covering larger patches. Vegetation growth in dry areas is practically absent except for some occasionally salt bushes in localized land. (Figure-5)

Figure-5 – Sparse Mangrove

The isolated pockets of stunted mangroves found on high lying areas in the inter tidal zone. The mangroves do not get regular flushing of sea water. Near coastal villages the mangroves are under cutting and grazing pressure which results in their poor and sparse growth.

2.2 FAUNA

The distinguishing characteristics of the mangrove community are the great variety of land and water organisms that live together there because the habitats of land and sea overlap. Probably no other habitat in the marine environment is associated with such a variety of fauna as the mangrove swamps. They provide food and shelter to fish and waterfowl as well as jackals, wild boars, bats and dolphins etc. The mangrove swaps act as nurseries and nutrients suppliers for economically important fish species on which many coastal communities in developing countries depend. Some of the forest birds move seawards to live amongst the branches of mangrove forests; on the surface of the mud, the marine animals migrate inland, so far as salinity permits. Many marine animals live on the trunks and roots of the mangrove attached in the same way as they are on rocks elsewhere.

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Nearly 100 species of fish have so far been recorded from the mangroves, of which 46 species were in fingerling or young stages while 52 in sub-adult or adult stages. Among the fish fauna of the swamps, mudskippers (Periophthalmidae) are the best adapted for this peculiar type of habitat. Many mudskippers (Genus: Boleopthalmus) have become partially independent of water. They jump about in the swamps and when alarmed or when the tide begins to recede they burrow into the ground. In these fishes respiration is taken over by skin; well vascularised papillae on the bark and the sides of the body allow gaseous exchange between humid air and the blood.

Another type of mudskipper (Genus: Periophthalmidae) has gone a step forward: it lives about entirely out of water. As the tide comes in, some species actually flee from the water, clinging to the trunks or prop roots of the mangrove a few centimeters above surface; when the tides recedes, they descend and hunt for food. During the breeding season, these fish build funnel shaped nests in the mud; leading down to the ground water when the young grow until they have become adapted to life on land.

Bottom dwelling fish such as Pleuronectiformes living on muddy bottom in channels or other water masses near mangrove swamps generally move towards the swamps to share the food at high tide.

Many detritus feeders like elupeids, gray mullets etc find this region perfectly suitable and pony fish (Leiognathidae) also like this environment, as they are safer here compared to the open environment where there is little or no refuge against their predators.

Most of the adult stages of the fish were observed / collected at high tide. The order and the number of mangrove fish fauna found are listed in (Table-10).

Table 10. Mangrove fish species

Order No. of Species Clupeiformes 15 Scopeliformes 4 Cypriniformes 6 Anguiliformes 2 Pereiformes 46 Beloniformes 3 Syngnathiformes 5 Mugiliformes 6 Polynemiformes 4 Pleuronectiformes 6 Batrachoidformes 1 Total 196

Source: Study of the Vertebrate Fauna of Mangrove Swamps of Sindh Coast – Pakistan Agriculture Research Council – 1989

Most of these species are attracted towards mangrove swamps during high tide due to nutrients present in these areas.

A toad, Bufo andersoni, has frequently been observed on the drier landward side of the mangrove swamps.

The presence of certain lizards adjacent to the mangrove forests is very interesting and exhibits a very good example of overlapping of the land – sea fauna. The following lizards have been observed.

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1. Stenodactyhes orientalis (Blanford) : found on the sea coast within a hundred meters of the high water mark, 2. Ophionorus tridactylus (Dlyth) : on beaches upto the limit of vegetation; and 3. Acanthodagtylus cantoris cantois (Gunther): common on the sea coast.

Among the sea snakes, the following have been collected from swamps: Hydrophis cyanocinctus (Daudin) (annolated sea snake); H caerulescens (George Shaw) (many toothed sea snake); H mamillaris; (Daudin) (Beaked sea snake);Microcephalophis gracilis gracilis (Shaw) (common small headed sea snake); Pelamis platurns (Himaens) (pelagic sea snake); and Ephydrina schistosa (beaked sea snake).

The crustaceans form a major component of the fauna with highest density and biomass. The fauna includes crab, penaeid prawns, caridians, squillas, barnacles, upogebians, isopods, amphipods, sergestids and leptostracans.

Brachyuran crabs form a major component of the microfauna. They occur virtually throughout the intertidal zone with abundance from mean low tide level to mean high water level of spring tide. The mangroves along the backwaters of sandspit have the species referable to Grapsidae, Ocypodiadae, Xanthidae and Portunidae; the graprids and Ocypodids are dominant, the family Grapsidae is represented by an assortment of crabs mostly belonging to sub family Sesarmidae. They include Sesarmea, Utica, Nanosesarma, Metapographus, Metaplex, Ilyograpsus and Illyoplax. The ocypodid genera associated with mangroves include Uea, Comptandrium and some of the numerous species of Macrophthalmus, Cliesto ceoloma and Serenella; on the xanthids; one of the most conspicuous family of crabs on the tropical shores, only a few representatives have penetrated the mangroves. This includes Euycarinus orienlatis and Heteropanope glabra. Swimming crabs, Scylla senata (family Portunidae), can be seen darting for safety under the root cover of mangroves, or the holes of the trunks of mangroves.

Crabs are harvested, mainly for export, with very little consumed locally. Their ecological role in recycling nutrients and enhancing the rate of decay of plant material is very significant. Organic material is produced through a complex detrital based food web and represents a major source of food for a variety of marine and brackish water organisms, juveniles and adult species of crustacea.

The prawn species utilize the mangrove ecosystem as a temporary habitat maybe for spawning, nursery or for temporary shelter. In countries like Indonesia, Thailand and Malaysia the shrimp fisheries are corelated with the distributions of mangrove forests and prawn production has been reported to have been significantly reduced where mangrove vegetation has been removed. In Pakistan, Penaeus and Metapenaeus have been collected in shallow pools.

One very interesting crustacean collected are leptostracans. They are collected for the first time from the Arabian Sea.

Recently, it is found that the wood boring isopods are destroying the prop roots of the Rhizophora spp. in the Indus Delta.These isopods enter prop roots of seedlings and saplings within 24 hours and are able to hollow out roots in a few days. The prop roots of the plants give shelter to isopods and amphipods.

2.3 MICRO ORGANISMS

Bacteria, algae, fungi and Protozoa comprise a well known group of micro organisms. Ten species of bacteria, 5 species of fungi, 65 species of algae and 18 species of protozoa have been recognized in the indo pacific region. At present, the actual number of species from Pakistan mangroves is not known.

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2.4 OTHER INTER RELATED ECOSYSTEMS

Benthic community

This community includes the microbes, detritus feeders, small and large herbivores and small and large carnivores. Environmental conditions change gradually with increase in the depth. In the mangrove ecosystem, the benthic community of the adjacent shallow water is a subject of interest. Here, the microbes decompose the plant litter into organic detritus – a fundamental commodity of energy of the system. This detrital matter is picked up by the detritus feeders over the bottom such as some fishes, shrimps and shell fishes and then carried to the littoral zone by the wave actions, shared by the intertidal fauna such as crabs, shrimps, mudskippers, invertebrates and waders etc. Gray mullets, gizzard shads, flat fishes many skates and rays are some of the fishes which prefer to live on soft bottom and feed on bottom detritus. The suspended detritus is picked by plankton and pelagic forms. The detritus feeders readily pick up plankton also. At low tide, when a large part of muddy bottom is exposed, crabs, mudskippers and waders are seen in large number picking up their food which include worms, different animals left behind by the receding tide in pools and organic matter left by the sea.

Pelagic Community

This community includes powerful swimmers, which are exclusively carnivore in nature like predaceous fishes, croakers, snappers, barnacudes, sharks mackerels and sea snakes. Dolphin and seagulls are some important forms which readily pickup fishes, shrimps, cephalopods, etc. for food. In the mangrove ecosystem the predaceous forms are often small in size and easily wander among the mangroves at high tide.

Supratidal community

Part of the coastal belt beyond tidal influence is dry and deserted and includes characteristics xerophytic plantation. Through this part, land fauna enters the system for food and sometimes for shelter also. Land vertebrates constitute most part of the community.

Rodents, hares, squirrels, wild boars, etc are the herbivores, whereas snakes, lizards, cats and jackals are omnivores. Water and land birds are also found here which are to some extent omnivores, as also in the case with jackals and foxes.

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Chapter 3

Human Inhabitation and Traditional mangrove Usage

3.1 DEMOGRAPHIC AND SOCIAL ASPECTS

The coastal belt is almost uninhabited with the exception of Karachi and a few fishing towns and villages. The total population living along Sindh coast (upto 2-5km land-use and) is estimated to be less then 1,000,000. Similarly, the total population living along Balochistan coast is less than 250,000. Accordingly, the average population density in densely populated area is 1785/sq.km, while the average population density in scarcely populated area is about 87/sq.km. The Karachi coastal belt has a population of about half a million.

The local inhabitants are mostly fishermen, professional graziers and agriculturists who cultivate rice during the monsoon season, when the Indus is in floods and sweeps over their lands, making uncultivable. During this period, mangrove timber and fuelwood demand is for house construction material and for cooking Use of mangroves in coastal villages of Sindh fuel respectively. Fishermen are mostly Mangroves are used exhaustively by residents of the coastal busy from October to villages of Sindh, regardless of their income. There is very May, when many of them little that distinguishes the usage of mangroves by the poor move out with their versus the affluent except in degree. families from their In the coastal villages of Sindh mangroves have traditionally villages and camp in served three main functions: they have been a source of temporary huts on wood for construction; source of fodder for livestock; and suitable sites along lastly (and most importantly) a source of fuel. coastal creeks to fish The mangroves of Sindh are used for construction only by and catch prawn. the poorest of the poor. The mangrove species Avicennia Temporary villages thus marina that is found in abundance in this region has a curving crop up during the fishing bark that is not suitable as scaffolding or for use as the season in Khudi creek, skeleton. So only those who cannot afford good quality Daboo creek, Pitani timber opt to use it. creek, Chann creek, Mangroves were once used extensively for grazing in the Pakhar creek and others. coastal areas of Sindh. However, there has been a significant Many isolated huts can decline in this usage. The reasons are improvement of forest also be found in localized management techniques and the reduction in the number of areas, belonging to household animals in the area due to rising poverty. Bengalis and Burmese, The most pervasive use of mangrove wood is in the form of which provide good fuel-wood. Mangroves provide a cheap and accessible place for fishing and source. Usage of mangroves as a source of fuel is relatively prawn catching. lower in areas, which have been connected to the natural gas pipeline network. Nonetheless, the average use of mangrove The hutting material is wood per week per household is estimated at slightly less collected from the than 30 kg. Most of this wood is bought from the local tal mangrove adjoining such (wood store) or collected from the nearby forests. An IUCN sites. Fishermen also report notes, “this continual human pressure by cutting and require fishing poles of grazing has had its effects. Large stretches of mangrove Avicennia of about 3 m have disappeared … normal trees that grow to an average long to hold the fishing height of 25 ft are not more than 2-3 ft high.” Source: Poverty And Environment Nexus Study: Rehri Mian, Korangi nets in small creeks. This Creek Area demand for poles has now decreased with the introduction of fishing trawlers and boats fitted with marine diesel engines. Due to high price

- 18 Mangrove of Pakistan – Status and Management

of shrimps, which earn plenty of foreign exchange on export, there is now a growing practice to bring fresh shrimps to Karachi from all easily accessible areas in fast moving motor boats.

Professional graziers own large number of camels, which graze on coastal lands mainly during the flood season. They come from the interior of Sindh province. These camels have adjusted themselves to live on the coastal islands surrounded by the creeks and can even swim and stand in knee deep water during high tide. Usually camping sites are more or less the same each year. When the flood season is over, the camels are taken back to the interior area. However, some camel owners keep some limited stock in suitable places in the mangroves all year round for breeding purposes. This trend has now changed due to reduction in the frequency of Indus River floods. Local villagers of the coast also graze their cattle in easily accessible places and Avicennia leaves for feeding them.

The chief marketable products are timber in the form of poles, fuelwood and fodder. Fuelwood is taken mostly to Karachi and other small towns along the coast of Pakistan.

The removal of the wood and leaf fodder is invariably done through country boats and launches which are the cheapest methods of transport in the sea.

So far, exploitation is in its initial stages of development. Filling, conversion and transport are usually done by the local people. They move out in their boats to collect dead and dry wood and bring it back for sale to Karachi. These boasts go as far as the farthest limits of the mangroves.

Controlled exploitation was initiated in 1959 with the system of issuing permits authorizing boatmen to collect and transport dead and dry fuelwood previously weighed upon unloading at checkpoints. This system was soon replaced by another, which registered all boats used in transporting forest produce, together with their carrying capacities for Avicennia wood. On the basis of the carrying capacities, permits fees are now charged in advance to the boatmen.

The role of mangroves as a potential sustainable source of fuelwood is considered important to meet the increasing needs of Pakistan for wood energy. It is anticipated that establishment and proper management of these renewable fuelwood resources will become an essential part of the national forestry and energy programmes of the country.

Shrimps, which are exported, are caught in mangrove waters. The leaves of mangrove trees are good fodder for camel and cattle.

3.2 COMMERCIAL EXPLOITATION AND MARKETING

There had been a wide range of economic and ecologic uses of mangroves in Pakistan spanning the last two centuries. It is a historical fact that the mangrove in the past was not so degraded, deformed and depleted as it appears to be today as resource use patterns and development activities have changed…. For instance, at a point where the River Indus used to enter the sea some 200 years back and which place was known as Shah Bunder, there existed highly dense mangrove forests with optimum growth and density. The wood from these forests were abundantly used as fuel by all incoming and outgoing steamers on their long trading route connecting Middle East countries with Asia. Not only this, the people of the tract have been using this forest resource for their multifarious needs. The marketable goods thus comprise of forest products from Avicennia marina, Rhizophora mucronata and R apiculata timber, poles, fire wood and fodder. During the late sixties and early seventies some experimental felling were carried out in Keti Bunder blocks. The best area produced a yield of 45.6 cu.m/hectare.

No commercial exploitation of mangrove is going on in Pakistan at present. The reasons quite obvious; nearly all mangrove forests there are now either too degraded or have been

- 19 Mangrove of Pakistan – Status and Management

converted to salt pans, port and harbours or to other uses. Broadly speaking, forest products obtained from mangroves in Pakistan can be classified into the following categories and classes: -

3.2.1 Major Forest Products

The major products include firewood, timber, timber poles and charcoal. Firewood is the most important product and one that is mainly used by the entire coastal communities for domestic as well as outdoor uses by fishermen.

Although Avicennia provides an inferior type of firewood, it is used in the absence of other woods and stoves by these fishermen for cooking their meals, while moving in their boats, launches etc. Each household uses about 180kg of Avicennia wood per month and about 17 percent of household use mangrove wood as fuel on regular basis. Avicennia firewood billets are often mixed with 50% of Acacia or Prosopis species for better burning efficiency.

Avicennia does not produce good timber due to saline conditions in the Indus delta. The only use is that of its poles for various purposes e.g. Anchorage, fencing material, fishing enclosures, boating fences, ponds enclosure, hut making. Timber used in terms of quantity amounts to 1600 tons per year.

Due to its low calorific value, charcoal is not often produced and neither it is a common product. However, with the reintroduction of Rhizophora mucronata, the chances of charcoal production have increased in the Indus delta. The best charcoal is being produced in South East Asian countries form Rhizophora species and they are earning millions of dollars on its export to Europe, America and other countries.

3.2.2 Minor Forest Products

The minor products obtained from mangroves is no less important and these include fodder, honey and tanin. Avicennia marina provides a good amount of foliage and is intensively used as fodder for cattle. When the bigger trees are not accessible to the animals, the common practice is to pluck the leaves) from the forest and transport them through small country boats.

In places near urban areas and when cattle farms have been established like Ibrahim Hyderi, Rehri, the buffaloes and camels cross the small creeks and move over into the forest to graze and browse on mangrove flora. (Figure-6)

Figure-6 – Browsing by camels

- 20 Mangrove of Pakistan – Status and Management

In Shah Bunder, Keti Bunder and Miani Hor, local fishermen use the bark of Ceriops tagal and Rhizophora mucronata for extracting tanin used in dyeing their fish nets and hide skin.

3.3 CONVERSION FOR OTHER USES

3.3.1 Aqua Culture

So far, no serious attempt has been made in this direction but there are strong possibilities in Pakistan for such studies and eventual commercial practice to be introduced. Initially an area of 6070 ha was allotted by the Board of Revenue, Government of Sindh to the Fisheries department for shrimp farming in Mirpur Sakro Subdivision. Out of which 3794 ha of land were allotted to 83 parties including Lipton Ltd., on purpose of building private shrimp farms. Possession of only 1060 ha was handed over to the parties, however, because much of the area, which was allotted on the basis of surveys made in 1938 and 1958, is now under seawater and the Indus delta has attended its topography. Only Fisheries department and M/s Lipton Ltd. initiated shrimp farming, which was a complete failure. Some of the interested private parties could not establish shrimp farms due to lack of infrastructure, water supply and discharge channels and electricity lines. During this initial state there was no pressure on mangroves from expansion of shrimp culture because the shrimp culture area was devoid of mangroves. The next stage of the aquaculture project, however, envisages shrimp farming in the dense mangrove areas near Keti Bunder / Kharo Chan.

3.3.2 Urbanization

Urbanization is often a slow process and is experienced in every community of human beings, especially due to the growing population which requires more and more land for development as human settlements. At present, however, most of the coastal belt is occupies by fishermen only, whose needs on the mangroves are mainly for poles and fuelwood. Between September to March is the season (small pelagic fish season). During this period the sea is calm and almost 20 percent of the population engaged in fishing, migrate to Karachi coast along with their families from the interior Sindh temporarily. They do fishing in the open sea.

3.3.3 Other uses

Sea Salt Extraction is a small-scale industry located in mangrove areas, yielding products for local consumption and for exporting abroad.

3.3.4 Wildlife

Dolphins, jackals and birds are the prized wildlife of the mangrove ecosystem. The oil of dolphin and pelican migratory bird fetches high price. These animals are becoming rare in the area. The habitat also provides nesting ground for a large variety of migratory birds, which provide hunting and recreation to the public.

- 21 Mangrove of Pakistan – Status and Management

Fig 7. Flamingos and jackal in Mangrove habitat

- 22 Mangrove of Pakistan – Status and Management

Chapter 4

Degradation of Mangrove Forests

4.1 DECREASE IN THE MANGROVE AREA AND COVER

There is no doubt that a substantial reduction in the extent of mangroves, both in area and density (thickness) has taken place. This has been reported by the various national and international agencies. Their conclusions are briefly covered below.

4.1.1 Report of the “National Commission on Agriculture”(1988)

In this report it has been stated that no category of forests has suffered more from human interference and none is more seriously threatened than the mangrove forests. The area of the Indus delta at one time had large areas covered with mangrove forests. With decreasing discharge of water at the mouth of the Indus the active delta area itself, with its ecosystem has shrunk to ten percent of the original 26,000 sq.km. The mangroves have been disastrously hit by this and now occupy only a fraction of their former area. With the destruction of the mangroves has come erosion of the coastline and increasing salinity in the delta. There has been severe deterioration of Pakistan’s finest breeding ground for valuable shrimp and fish species, though whether this is as a result of a reduction of river water in the area of mangroves or as a consequence of overfishing has not been determined.

4.1.2 Environmental Profile of Pakistan (1987)

In the Environmental Profile it has been stated:

“ There is an absence of reliable quantitative data on the status of the Indus delta mangroves, particularly with respect to changes that may have taken place over the past several decades in association with the upstream withdrawal of Indus River water for irrigation. This is mainly due to the great logistic difficulty involved in travelling to, and within, the extensive Indus delta region. However, Dr. C. Snedakar, who visited the Indus second time - once in 1977(as a representative of UNESCO’s Division of Marine Sciences) and again in 1982 (during the US-Pakistan Workshop on Marine Sciences) made some important observations. Comparing the existing conditions with the historical record, he wrote:

“ Mangrove Forests in the mangrove thrived where freshwater provided ideal growing conditions along the coast, east and west of the Indus Delta end in the delta itself. They provided an important source of wood along with the environment for crustaceans and fish. The coastal mangroves have now been greatly reduced and represent a fraction of their earlier luxuriance. If the Indus waters are further harnessed and the dry period at the mouth of the Indus is lengthened from the present two to three months, if present heavy development pressure on the coastal areas continues and if domestic and industrial pollution continues unchecked, it is possible that the mangrove forests will largely disappear in the next fifteen to twenty years.”

It was apparent that the tall and extensive forests of the Indus delta (cited in colonial records) were no longer present. Instead the existing forests generally reflected the imposition of an environmental stress associated with reduced freshwater availability that led to hypersalinity and nutrient impoverishment. Apparently the best developed trees only occurred along well-furnished tidal channels. Whereas the interiors of the deltaic

- 23 Mangrove of Pakistan – Status and Management

islands (i.e. poorly flushed areas) were sparsely inhabited by the dwarf form of Avicennia spp., the village of Keti Bunder showed dramatic evidence (eg. Surface salt accumulation and corrosive deterioration of domestic structures) of the effects of hypersalinity that presumably led to the associated partial collapse of the fishing industry. 1 These observations are consistent with other reports on mangrove degradation due to the reduction in freshwater discharge from the Indus because of upstream diversion and use in irrigation. At present, the Indus has a significant discharge only during the south- west monsoon while during the low water season, the freshwater is diverted by upstream dams and barrages. The future water resource development plans appear to be oriented towards the total capture and diversion of Indus water for agricultural irrigation, suggesting, that at some point in the relatively near future (measured in decades) the Indus will no longer have a regular freshwater discharge into the delta area and the Arabian sea leading to the total destruction of the mangrove ecosystem. 2

1. A summary of knowledge with emphasis on Pakistan. Proceedings of a workshop, held at National Institute of Oceanography, Karachi – Sc Snedaker (1984). 2. Pakistan: Environmental Rehabilitation, Protection & Management. Reconnaissance Mission Report – International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (1985).

4.1.3 Pakistan National Conservation Strategy (1992)

IUCN-Pakistan in their proposal for preparation of the management plan for Korangi – Phitti creek have estimated that the mangrove forest cover has decreased by 10 to 15% in the last about twenty years because of reduction in freshwater flow. (1985)

Further in the “ Pakistan National Conservation Strategy Phase I Report ” (1986), IUCN has further stated that if the Indus water are further harnessed and the dry period at the mouth of the Indus is lengthened from the present two to three months, it is possible that the mangrove forest will largely disappear in the next fifteen to twenty years.

All these reports emphasize the process of environmental degradation in the mangrove forests of the Indus Delta, which is the main stay in Pakistan. There is no doubt that the Indus Delta mangrove forests have over the past 60 – 70 years suffered a reduction in area and density and what now remains is under severe stress.

There has been a wide range of economic and ecologic uses of mangroves in Pakistan since over two centuries. It is a historical fact that the mangroves in the past were not so degraded, deformed and depleted as it appears today. For instance, at a point where the Indus river used to enter the sea some 200 years back and which place is known as Shah Bunder, there existed highly densed mangrove forests with optimum growth and density. The fuelwood from the forests was abundantly used as fuel by all incoming and outgoing streamers on their long trading routes connecting mid-east countries with Asia, including timber, fuelwood and fodder.

- 24 Mangrove of Pakistan – Status and Management

4.2 ADVERSE FACTORS AFFECTING MANGROVES Major Factors

4.2.1 Decreasing Freshwater / Flood Water and reduction Silt deposition

The decreasing floodwater from the Indus river and other seasonal rivers is reported to be a major cause of degradation of the mangroves along Pakistan coast. The construction of a series of dams, barrages and other engineering structures has diverted a large quantity of water for irrigation use with the result that flood quantities reaching the mangroves have decreased substantially. The silt reaching the mangroves has tremendously decreased. There are the two interconnected and most important factors affecting the mangrove forests.

The mangroves of the Indus delta are almost wholly dependent upon the freshwater discharges from the River Indus. The average rainfall is very low (221 mm), and in some years, there is virtually no rain at all. Historically, the abundant freshwater discharges and nutrients-rich sediment load was conducive to a highly productive coastal ecosystem, including mangrove stands and fish which form the livelihood basis of local communities around the Indus delta. Human activities however, have progressively altered the discharge pattern of the Indus and therefore the transport of sediments. It is suspected that most severe environmental stress, which the mangroves are facing results from the reduction of freshwater flows down the Indus carrying with it reduced loads of silt and nutrients.

The estimated available flow from the river Indus is about 150 MAF (180 billion cubic) per year. Substantial quantities of freshwater have been harnessed through large scale engineering projects such as building of irrigation channels, barrages, embankments, dykes and multipurpose dams. For example, the Kotri barrage, which is closest to the sea, was built in 1956. Subsequently, two huge dams were constructed on the Indus system, the Mangla and Tarbela dams completed in 1967 and 1974, respectively. As a result of these interventions, the Indus River freshwater discharge in the deltaic region has been reduced to one-fifth of its natural flow and the river has been confined to a single channel almost down to coastal area. After Indus Water Apportioned Accord, 10 MAF environmental flows per year has been allotted down the Kotri barrage for down stream ecosystems and livelihood of local population. However, due to various reasons very little water is flowing to Indus delta at present and there are plans for building new dams that will further reduce the freshwater input in the future (Table 9). This graphically represented in (Figure-8)

- 25 Mangrove of Pakistan – Status and Management

Fig. 8 Discharge Volumes at D/S of Kotri Barrage, Period (1940 – 1992)

Figure-8 Source : IPD Data

- 26 Mangrove of Pakistan – Status and Management

Table 9 Average Annual (and Seasonal) Discharge Volumes Downstream of Kotri Barrage

Period Discharge Volume MAF Percentag Construction with Year Silt Load e (million Reduction tonnes) Annual Kharif Rabi 1880-92 150.0 - - - Canal System 400.0 1940-54 79.9 69.7 10.2 12.9 Barrages : 213.0 Kalabagh (Jinnah) 1955 Kotri – 1955 Marala – 1956 Taunsa – 1958 Guddu – 1962 1966-76 46.0 44.4 1.6 45.7 Warsak dam – 1965 123.0 Mangla dam Chashma barrage – 1971 1977-92 35.2 33.1 2.1 58.4 Tarbela dam – 1975 100.0 1992 10.0 - - - - 30.0 onwards. After water accord between the provinces

Source: Irrigation and Power Department, GOS

- 27 Mangrove of Pakistan – Status and Management

4.2.2 Dependence of Mangroves on Freshwater

The availability of water to mangrove plants depend upon the a. Frequency and volume of tidal exchange b. Frequency and volume of freshwater supply, and c. Evaporative demand of the atmosphere

“ Where tides occur no less than once per day and there are no other modifying influences, the salinity of the surface soils will, in most cases, equilibrate to approximately that of the deficient water body (estuary or ocean). Mangrove plants are physiologically capable of making use of water of this salinity. However, reduced root aeration of temperature stress may inhibit water uptake.”

“ When there are no diluting factors (rainfall, ground water discharge, run off), and the frequency of tidal influence is less than once per day, the effect of atmosphere evaporation and transpiration of water by the plants causes soil salinities to rise very rapidly. As salinities rise, there is a corresponding increase in the osmotic potential of the interstitial soil water, which makes water uptake by the plant roots more difficult. Under these conditions the exclusion, storage or excretion of excess salt increases the expenditure of the energy by the plant. The efficiency which each species deals with high soil salinities largely determines its position in the intertidal zone.”

“ In the absence of any freshwater addition to the upper intertidal sites by rainfall or river water (seepage), the concentration of salts in the soil solution may exceed the physiological tolerances of the plant species. In these arid conditions mangrove communities are restricted to a narrow band on the coastline, and much of the tidally affected zone becomes bare of vegetation. “

“ The best development of mangrove ecosystem occurs where upper tidal areas are exposed to a continuous supply of freshwater. This occur either:

- Where rainfall exceeds evaporation through the year. - Where hinterland swamps provide a continued seepage of water - Where large freshwater catchments allow storage dilution of estuarine water, reducing alt additions to the soil, - Where large freshwater catchments and heavy seasonal rains provide regular and prolonged freshwater flooding of the tidal zone 3 In each of these cases the effects of the freshwater is to remove salt from the soil by leaching and to maintain soil water content above the permanent wilting point. The efficiency with which the regulation occurs depends upon soil type and internal drainage. Because the availability of water and its salinity concentration controls the metabolic efficiency of the whole ecosystem, any changes in the rate of freshwater entering the ecosystem will have a significant impact.

It is a popular misconception that mangroves are salt demanding plants when, infact, mangrove development is best in areas, which have significant input of freshwater. Accordingly mangroves in arid, semi arid, and or seasonally and environments are highly dependant on periodic input of freshwater.

Mangroves are tolerant of salt water but depend on a stead supply of freshwater to keep the salinity levels within certain limits. The decrease in freshwater affects the mangroves in a variety of ways. The actual mechanisms are not fully understood. The dominant effects result from the progressive increase in dry season soil salinity. The reduced water supplies lead to

3. The Environmentalist – Vol. 3 Supplement No. 3 (1983)

- 28 Mangrove of Pakistan – Status and Management

a variety of stress conditions causing damages in dominant species, reduced structural complexity and lowered productivity.

The cover of mangroves may not have changed that much in the past 60 years. Mangrove trees will not die off very rapidly once they are established even under conditions of minimum freshwater flow ( the life span of a mangrove tree is about 40-60 years ). However, new seedlings will not grow and the old trees will not be replaced. Mangroves require a small but consistent input of freshwater to flourish. Mangrove seedlings, which do not survive will grow very slowly and develop into stunted bushes. There is evidence in the Indus Delta of the following:-

a. stunted growth, b. stands of mature trees with few young trees to replace them, c. receding and barren areas where mangrove stands once flourished, d. Erosion of banks and collapse of mangrove stands.

Reduced river flood also effects suspended transport of sediments by capturing the material and preventing its uniform dispersal once mangrove areas during the flood seasons. Thus the mangroves were deprived of the annual silting ( and input of inorganic nutrients ) and the depositional character of the mangrove environment is severely altered. Further in the absence of flushing, distributory rivers in the Delta region become silted and cease to function. The filling and death of distributory rivers has occurred and is taking place in the Indus delta.

In the case of the mangrove forests of Bangladesh, popularly known as ‘ Sunder bans ‘, it has been established that the deterioration of the mangrove forests is co-related with the reduction of dry season freshwater flow down the Ganges as a result of diversion barrages, withdrawals for irrigation, ground water flow drawn down from pumping and natural death of distributing rivers in the mangroves. Although the ‘ Sunder bans ‘ are inundated with massive quantities of freshwater during the monsoon flooding, it appears that this flushing is inadequate to stop or reverse the deterioration.

4.2.3 The Active delta Area

The confinement of the Indus within flood bunds and the reduction of freshwater has reduced the original estimated delta area of 26,000 sq. km to an active delta of 1190 sq. km. The mangroves outside the present active Indus delta both on north east and western side are more dense than the mangroves inside the present delta. Infact the mangrove vegetation inside the present delta is minimised. The reason for this seems complicated. The area is under the control of the Board of Revenue and is subjected to unrestricted grazing by camels and cuttings and fellings and consequently regeneration is restrained as seedlings are destroyed and larger trees are weakened. The area within the main branches of the Indus is also the principal remnant of the active delta and receives larger amounts of sediments than other areas, and as consequence is marginally higher. This marginal increase is in deviation puts the majority of the area outside the normal tidal zone and thus makes it unsuitable for mangrove colonization.

The residents of Keti bunder reported that before the construction of Sukkur barrage, the river water used to flow 9 months in the year. After its construction, this was reduced to 7 months and following the commissioning of the Kotri barrage the flow virtually dwindled away. Keti bunder, which had the status of a municipality upto 1932 was depopulated with almost 75% of its population migrating out to nearby areas most of them to continue their agricultural vocation elsewhere. The lack of drainage, the incursion of the sea and consequent increase in salinity meant that the land was no more capable of supporting the cultivation of rice as it has in the past. The damming of the Indus waters transformed the economy of the Indus

- 29 Mangrove of Pakistan – Status and Management

delta from one based on agriculture to one dominated by fishing. The conclusion it may be said that due to decreasing flood water, the mangroves forests are being adversely affected, due mainly to salinity resulting from lack of freshwater inflows. The decreasing floodwater would also mean reduction in sediments. Furthermore the freshwater is available now for only about 3 months to the Indus delta.

With the reduction in freshwater flows, seawater intrusion has become more extensive in the delta. It is believed, by some authorities, to be threatening the survival of the mangrove ecosystem and is covering other environmental hazards, including the ability of small communities to remain in the delta.

4.3 OVER CUTTING

Since time immemorial the mangrove forests have been without any control and the people have cut the trees as they wished. The local people have been cutting the trees adjacent to their habitations, with the result that the areas near the habitation have been denuded of the tree growth. There has been no control on the cuttings whatsoever up to the year 1958, when some of the areas of mangroves were transferred to Sindh and Balochistan Forests departments. Since then dead, dying and moribund trees only are permitted to be cut for meeting the domestic requirements. (Figure-9)

Figure-9 - Overcutting

4.4 GRAZING, BROWSING AND LOPPING

The mangroves play an important role in providing animal feed to coastal population. Mangrove lands serve as rangelands. Cattle, camels, goats and buffalo are the domestic animal which graze on mangrove foliage.

- 30 Mangrove of Pakistan – Status and Management

4.4.1 Grazing

The damage to the mangrove forest on account of grazing is not extensive and serious and it is localized to areas that are inclose proximity to the coastal villages. Normally the people keep cows and buffaloes, which develop the habit of eating Avicennia leaves. Sometimes, the buffaloes swim across a small creek to an island adjoining the village in the morning and spend the evening in the village.

4.4.2 Browsing

The damage on account of browsing by camels is serious and extensive. During flood season in the River Indus, the camels from the interior of Sindh migrate to mangrove forests in herd. These are owned by the professional graziers or by Waderas and Zamindars. Camels bred and raised in Thatta district are favoured in Sindh and exported to Persian Gulf. They move in hundreds during the months of June and July each year and stay in mangrove areas upto October, i.e. during the entire flooding season. Usually the camel herds are left on coastal islands, where they are looked after by one or two attendants. Once in a week, the people bring freshwater in their country boat when the camels collect and drink freshwater from shallow pools, where the water from boat is unloaded. All the camels come and collect at the watering place for drinking freshwater. Year after year these camels come and collect at the watering places, which suffer heavy browsing without any rest so that in many places the islands are becoming a barren waste with little Avicennia left. Since the frequency of river floods have appreciably decreased during the last 20 years, this trend of bringing camels from the interior of Sindh to the delta has also reduced.

The coastal villages/settlements are the areas where these camels are bred, fed and grown to marketable size. Camel farming is the major profession of the well known tribe of Sindh known as ‘Jat’ settled on both side of the Indus river especially in the deltaic areas near the sea creeks. The Jats farm the camels for various reasons particularly to sell within the country as well as to Arabs or their representatives for export to Arabian countries of the Persian Gulf. The camels are used within the country for transporting goods between the remote areas of the Indus delta and nearby coastal towns while exported camels are used in games by Arabs.

According to knowledge people at Keti bunder most of the camels in the coastal villages are sent to the mud flats / small islands between the creeks near the sea, where they feed on mangrove plants locally known as Timer plants. All these areas feeding are usually located at a distance of about 7-10 miles from their settlements to the mud flats. The newly born baby camels are temporarily taken to the nearby settlements and after six months to a year are sent back to the feeding grounds in the mangrove forest for further growth.

Every year during the different occasions of fairs the camels are sold. Most of the buyers are Arabs or their representatives from U.A.E who come to Sindh for purchasing these camels from Jat villages. During the feeding time on the mud flats everyday open boats filled with freshwater are sent to the feeding areas in the mud flats for camels. An estimate of the population of camels is required to assess the intensity of grazing pressure by camels on the mangroves. The last census of camels was carried out by Sindh Forest Department in 1995 under the World Bank’s Mangrove Rehabilitation project. The estimates of the total population of camels in the area provides an insight to the issue of pressure on mangroves by camel browsing in the Indus Delta. According to the locals the camels browsing on the mangroves does not affect the growth of mangrove trees seriously as the mangrove growth compensates for this loss. The estimates obtained during recent surveys of the coastal area of Sindh are given below.( Table 12)

- 31 Mangrove of Pakistan – Status and Management

Table 12. Camel population in Mangrove Forest Area

Towards left bank side No of Camels Shah bunder area 1000 approx. Jati (Mughal Bhim) area 500 approx. Towards right bank side No. of Camels Mirpur Sakro area (village Jhor Patar and Mahal) 1500 Gharo to Mirpur Sakro 500 approx. Rehri / Bhambore / Dhabeji 500 approx. Keti bunder / Village Bhambto 1000 Total 5000

Assuming that on an average 30 kg of mangrove leaves and branches constitute the daily diet of a camel during feeding in the mangrove forests, the total loss of the mangroves comes to about 120,000 kg / day. Considering the total area of mangrove forests in the Indus delta (82,000 hectares), the camel browsing rate comes to about 0.71 kg / hectares / day. These figures demonstrate that the camel browsing pressure on the mangroves is not a very serious problem except in the localized patches where this could cause serious problem except in the localized areas, where this could cause a significant denuding pressure on the mangrove trees.

4.4.3 Lopping

The villagers along the coast feed their cattle on Avicennia leaves, which is quite nutritive. Usually they fetch the Avicennia leaves in their small boats in the forenoon from the adjoining mangroves. The Avicenna fodder is either directly fed to the cattle or is chaffed and mixed with wheat straw and other cattle feed. In addition, Avicenna fodder is also lopped for feeding young camels who are unable to live independently on the coastal islands with the herds.

The lopping along the Korangi-Phitti creek system has been developed to perfection. The villagers lop the leaves in rotation from a fixed area and the Avicennia forest presents a look of a tea plantation

4.5 POLLUTION AND ALGAL BLOOM

Karachi, which is on the northern edge of the mangrove forests of the Indus Delta, has rapidly grown in population and level of industrial activity. This has increased the pollution load on the mangroves. Along the Korangi creek a number of villages are rapidly growing and their waste is adding to the pollution problem. For the entire sewage of Karachi city, there are only three sewage treatment plants capable of providing partial treatment for only a fraction of waste produced. (Figure-10) A new sugar mill near Gharo discharges its waste to local creeks without treatment.

Fig 10. Polluted channels pouring in mangroves to cause algal bloom

- 32 Mangrove of Pakistan – Status and Management

The other serious kind of pollution is oil discharged by the ships visiting Karachi harbour. Oil activity in the mangroves causes a number of environmental impacts, including the interruption of fresh water flow to the mangroves, alteration in the flow of tidal sea water to the mangrove, and , in the forest itself, the alteration of drainage patterns, vegetation and soil and general instability in the area. In 2004 a major oil spillage occurred in Karachi port and the case study of this incidence is attached as Annexure II.

A particularly active problem occurs along the Lyari and Malir rivers, which pass through the main industrial areas of Karachi. About 6000 small large industrial units discharge effluents containing detergents, heavy metals, toxic chemicals directly into the river and then into the sea. Outside of Karachi, along the Korangi – Phitti Creek system, there has been large-scale industrial development over the last two decades. The Pakistan Steel Mills Complex, Port Qasim and two Oil refineries constitute the largest single sector industries in the country. The major thermal and nuclear power stations of the country are located along the Karachi coast and all untreated industrial effluents from the large and small industries located in the area ultimately find their way into the creek system. In the next few years, more industries will be established in the Port Qasim industrial site, which will further enhance the quantum of pollution in the mangrove areas.

The toxic pollutants from the Korangi – Phitti creeks area include high concentration of heavy metal but reach only the mangrove areas in the north west of the delta. More widespread throughout the mangrove areas is pollution from integrated lands: the salt fertilizers and biocides residues conveyed in the drain waters. Some studies indicate that pollution from sewage (or other biodegradable such as fish processing water) causes eutrophication and increase overall biomass in the form of algal blooms, which effect and reduce economically important marine fauna. The algal bloom exerts pressure or stress on mangrove seedlings. These algal blooms grow profusely and cover the seedlings stopping their growth partially or completely and causing mortality on large scale

4.6 EROSION

Mangrove plants provide a useful cover for coastal edges and protect the land from stormy winds and wave action. Once the cover is removed, the edge is exposed and erosion starts, which in due course of time results in submerged soft mud flats causing problems in fishing and easy rowing of boats.

Erosion caused by tide and tidal current is also considered as a result of human activities. Once the vegetation cover is removed, the edge is exposed and erosion starts, which in due course of time results in submerged soft mud flats. As the coastal lands are subject to periodic tidal action , some places are continually disintegrating. Erosion forces leads to the loss of seaward young mangrove growth.

The construction of dam and barrages on the upper reaches of Indus river had adverse impact on the mangrove ecosysytems. Less and less water supplies are making the mangrove vegetation less vigorous and stunted. This has resulted in heavy erosion in adjoining islands due to monsonic sea currents.

4.7 ECOTOURISM

Within the next ten years, it is expected that major new developments in the tourism sector will open up in the area adjacent to and including the mangrove areas. The creeks represent an important resource for recreation, water sports and ecotourism for Karachi, which has relatively few such amenities nearby. Such development will change the relationship of the local people with the mangroves and will add additional stresses to the environment unless the developments are planned sensitively preservation of the area for viewing wildlife, such

- 33 Mangrove of Pakistan – Status and Management

as migrating water fowl, dolphins and mangrove jackals is being considered, and the idea of a mangrove national park.

A summary of the stress on the Indus Delta mangrove ecosystem is shown in (Figure-11) together with the implications if degradation continues. The solutions to the various underlying problems can be used as an objective for sustainable management initiatives.

Figure-11 – Stand of stunted A.marina in Keti Bunder

- 34 Mangrove of Pakistan – Status and Management

Chapter 5

Preservation

Reserves have been established for the preservation of mangroves ecosystems or to enhance the survival of particular species within these ecosystems in atleast thirty-six countries in the world, (Vannucci, 1996). In most of these countries, the individual areas under preservation are less than 1000 ha. However, protection is afforded to a total of over 11,000 ha in form reserves in Venezuela, and twenty-six reserves totaling more than 80,000 ha have been established in Australia. Everglades National Park in the United States, containing almost 100,000 ha of mangrove forest, is the world’s largest mangrove preservation area. The total area of mangrove forests presently under some degree of preservation status represents less than 1 percent of the total world mangrove resource, and few reserves are subject to a adequate level of management. In terrestrial ecosystems, preservation of such a small sample of a particular ecosystem would be regarded as inadequate. The importance of mangrove ecosystems and the broad objectives of mangrove preservation make the declaration of many more reserves a matter of urgency in virtually every country with mangrove resources.

Mangrove preservation areas can have many objectives in addition to ensuring that essential ecological processes and genetic diversity are maintained (Table-13), while full lists of preservation objectives is not applicable in every situation, it should indicate that preservation areas are valuable economic and social assets and prevent the extinction of species that may be tangible economic value in the future. Mangrove preservation areas should be seen not as a luxury only suitable for developed nations. Preservation areas should be incorporated into management plans even where the resource has already been degraded but when a reasonable level of recovery in the future can be expected.

The Indus Delta is a region of Pakistan that has been overlooked in government planning and decision making. The set up the country's irrigation infrastructure, the development of its fisheries and the growth of the coastal population have all, from an ecological standpoint, had devastating effects on this area. However, this is an area of critical ecological and socio- economic importance for Pakistan. Attempts have been made in the past to conserve the resources of this area, however, most have been relegated to old files. This degraded system must be adequately managed in the future for there to be any hope of its existing. To that end, the biosphere reserve concept is proposed as an option. Though the concept may be applicable to the delta, more information and a serious concerted effort to protect and work for sustainable development of the delta is needed if pursuit of the biosphere reserve designation is this to be more than an exercise in polemics.

5.1 HISTORY OF PROTECTION IN THE INDUS DELTA The first real protection came to the delta when 344 870 ha was transferred from the Sindh Board of Revenue to the Sindh Forest Department and declared Protected Forest under the Forestry Act of 1927. These forests, minus the 64 000 ha given to the Port Qasim Authority in 1973, are still legally protected even as harvesting and camel grazing continue.

The only protection, which the marine resources are accorded, is the two month fishing ban on shrimp from mid-may to mid-July, during the time of recruitment. However this is not followed by all local people (35% observed closure period in 1987) because there is no alternative income sources for fisherman during this period (imposed in 1983). And a ban on trawlers fishing within the mangroves also not enforced due to a lack of enforcement of legislation.

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Under the UNDP/ UNESCO Regional Mangrove Project on Research and Training for Asia Pacific (1982-88), A national Mangrove Committee (NATMANCOM) was constituted in Pakistan in 1985 under the chairmanship of Inspector General of Forest, GOP. It was aimed at strengthening integrated interdisciplinary management, research and training activities within the country. One of the main recommendations of the committee. Its meeting was to improve the understanding of the mangrove ecosystem and to strengthen the competence and capability for protection and conservation of coastal ecosystem.

In March 1986, an International Conference was held in Karachi on Biology of Arabian Sea under the auspices of Karachi University. Substantial support was given to NATMANCOM as the organization most qualified to respect the interest of country in the field of mangroves and to develop a conservation strategy for mangrove ecosystem in Pakistan.

Various proposals have been put forward to make a national park in the delta. These proposals have not been accepted because of they have largely been the initiatives of individual departments and were not supported by others. In 1992 vvhen WWF and the Sindh Wildlife Management Board developed a project to determine park feasibility; however, this project was postponed due to the law and order situation in Sindh. As recently as 1994 the government was considering a proposal for a coastal national park.

The concept of a biosphere reserve is being discussed by IUCN a alternative because of its flexible nature in allowing for conservation and sustainable developrnent and its integrated approach. IUCN's coastal ecosystem unit (CEU) began working alongside the Sindh Forest department initiative in the early 1990's. In May 1994, IUCN in collaboration with Port Qasim Authority and the Sindh Forest and Wildlife Department, held an International workshop on the subject for various stakeholders. Though the idea was lauded as a good one, no real support was offered. Issues about who would oversee such a program, where the funding would come from, and the jurisdiction of Federal and provincial departments seem to have lead to decline in momentum

In October 1994, the National Institute of Oceanography, a department of the Ministry of Science and Technology GOP, organized an International workshop on integrated coastal zone management. The Indus delta was considered as one of Pakistan's important coastal regions. Several resolutions were made about how to best proceed; however, there was no real follow-up, again due to a lack of political will and funding.

In continuing along the lines of the biosphere reserve, a tour of the Sunderbans Biosphere Reserve in India was organized by IUCN in which a few individuals from relevant government departments participated. The concept is again being considered by IUCN as an approach to conservation in the delta. Given past experience and the current reality of the delta and departments and governments involved, the process of protection will be difficult. Blind pursuit of the biosphere reserve designation is a danger that must be discouraged. The concept offers some useful tools that should be used in planning future activities in the area. And the pursuit of a biosphere reserve concept may provide advocacy to Indus Delta and overfishing and help Spur thought and work in the direction of integrated coastal zone management for the entire coastline. Regardless, one thing remains, the delta is in drastic need of some conservation and management plan.

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Table 13: Objectives and uses of preservation areas.

Objectives Use Preservation of ecological processes Preservation areas can provide buffer areas to ensure that exploited areas remain productive Natural restocking of adjacent exploited areas Preservation areas can act as a vital seed resource Preservation of rare and endangered species Preservation areas can provide a source for and habitats and also the common manually restocking exploited areas where “representative” species and habitats economically important species have been depleted; they also ensure the survival of species that might be of economic benefit in the future Protection of commercial and recreational Preservation areas ensure a supply of organic fisheries carbon for the benefit of inshore fisheries and can ensure that productivity fry or nursery grounds are not alienated or overexploited Establishment of reserve for scientific study Preservation areas are important to management of exploited areas as they can provide reference sites for scientist to compare unexploited areas and species to the exploited areas and species. Establishment of reserves for educational study Preservation areas may provide students with their only opportunity to study the national environment and to better understand the need for sustainable management of exploited areas. Maximization of recreational opportunities and Preservation areas offer far more for human preservation of aesthetic qualities enjoyment than degraded or altered areas and can be a tourist attraction. Protection of coastlines and river banks from Properly sited preservation areas offer erosion and storm damages maximum protection to human life and property Containment of flood waters within natural Preservation of estuarine flood plains, flood plains mangroves ecosystems can also maximize protection to human life and property Maintenance of navigational channels Preservation of mangrove islands and coastal and estuarine vegetation can maintain the hydrological conditions necessary to prevent siltation in many navigational channels.

5.2 THE INDUS DELTA BIOSPHERE RESERVE CONCEPT

The original concept was fairly simple and over time has evolved to become as complex as local situations around the world deem necessary. Over 20 years of lessons exist which need to be further explored before aggressively pursuing this model of conservation and development.

Sites are designated conservation areas (core) recognizing their inherent natural value, e.g., for biodiversity, and the practicality of them being monitored and protected. Equally important are the buffer zones, which engulf the core zones. These areas allow for limited human activity and recognize settlements and local patterns of living. The Transition Area lies outside the Buffer Zones and is designed to allow for development, but on a sustainable basis. These boundaries may shift with the passage of time as the development scenario changes or new information is gained.

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Three main roles are defined in the concept:

• Conservation: providing protection of genetic resources, species and ecosystems on a World-wide basis • Logistics: providing interconnected facilities for a research and monitoring to link local endeavors with an internationally co-ordinated scientific programme • Development: searching for rational and sustainable use of ecosystem resources and hence for close co-operation with the human populations involved

Successful implementation means considering the viewpoints of all stakeholders, recognizing local resource use patterns as well as internal and external pressures.

Also outlined is the step by step process that lead to the consideration of an area for designation as a biosphere reserve. This includes:

• Recognition of need for conservation and management • Setting up a panel to oversee the next stages in BR set-up • Setting general objectives of Indus Delta CBR • Gathering key scientific and management information • Preparation of feasibility studies • Preparation of nomination • Submitting nominations • Establishing a governing council • Periodic reporting and public hearings

Presently, we are at stage one where there is a recognized need to conserve delta resources. Though it appeared that in the 1994 workshop that there was a desire to follow the biosphere reserve model, the initiative died. Again we are at a stage where we must consider the relevance of this concept to the Pakistan Indus Delta context, and if feasible, gather support from key individuals to begin the process a new.

5.3 APPLICABILITY TO THE DELTA

The purpose of a biosphere reserve would be largely to conserve and manage the delta’s resources through conflict resolution and sustainable development, but what actually needs to be conserved, and to what end?

• The mangroves themselves need to be conserved because their roles in the protection of the coast, nutrient retention, providing fuel wood and fodder to local people and their livestock, and providing habitat to spawning fish, crustaceans and over-wintering birds. • The fish and crustaceans in turn need to be conserved because of their contribution to the Pakistani economy, the livelihoods of local people, biodiversity and to fill their ecological niche • The coastal lands themselves need to be protected from erosion to slow the rate of attrition and salt water intrusion • The waters around the port of Karachi need to be monitored to ensure pollution levels are acceptable and the freshwater rights of the coastal areas need to be protected and if possible, enhanced

The concept itself can not save the delta, however, it can provide a useful tool in providing management planning for the area. This should fit into and not take the place of a future integrated coastal management plan for the entire coast of Pakistan. Whether or not the delta fits all the criterion of UNESCO’s biosphere reserve is to be determined. What is needed now is a will of the various stakeholders to work together to protect the delta and reliable

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information on the components, processes and interactions in this ecosystem. Presumably, what this goal mostly needs to be realized are strong proponents familiar with the delta who have adequate funding who can liase between government, civil society and delta residents. With support gathered and a common goal defined all parties can move forward in whatever capacity they may in observance of the goals of the biosphere reserve.

The situation of the Indus delta differs from the traditional definition of a biosphere reserve because delta in its entirety is a degraded system subjected to the impacts of human pressures-both largely from the damming of the Indus and the resource utilization by local people and their livestock. Hence, core areas, at the present time, would not be areas that could be left for just monitoring purposes. They would need some rehabilitation work. In fact, at the present time, a biosphere reserve in the delta would be more of a biosphere rehabilitation area. The value of the ecosystem is unquestionable; however, its future and the utility of rehabilitation work needs to be questioned in light of the current environmental variables. Does it make sense to plant mangrove species that can not recruit due to the current high salinity values? What are the conditions necessary for acceptable levels of mangrove recruitment? Why are the species left in the delta found as abundant as they are and distributed as they are? What are the reasons for the loss in biodiversity in the delta? What are the chances of securing rights to Indus water and how can the system sustain itself with or without those rights?

It is difficult to apply the conventional biosphere concept to the delta since there are no pristine wilderness areas. As well, one potential core must have continued human activity because of its proximity to infrastructure and the Indian border. As a consequence, core areas would be more of a goal in this scheme.

There is some research of varying quality on many aspects of the delta; however, there are not studies looking at the system. WWF is currently conducting a multidisciplinary study to look at the root causes of biodiversity loss in the delta and this study would be valuable to decision making. Because there is little reliable research done on the ecology of the delta and resource use patterns of its inhabitants, one can only propose possible areas to be designated as core, buffer and transition zones. Government research departments and universities, in general, are not active in the delta due to the expense of conducting studies there and the lack of priority it is accorded. In addition, the government departments require capacity building in order for them to properly analyse their data and organise their surveys with regards to the data needed. NGOs and CBOs are more active on the Karachi coast than in the delta proper, again because of the expense and difficulty associated with working there. In the current economic crisis in Pakistan it is difficult to see a future time when the government would be able to commit funds to financing adequate studies of the delta. The support of local people would be crucial to any protection scheme. Initial work would have to be the initiative of NGOs or groups funded from foreign sources.

5.4 STATUS OF INDUS DELTA NATURAL RESOURCES

The Indus delta harbours the largest tract of arid mangroves in the world, however, their continued survival is not assured. In the early eighties estimates of mangrove coverage ranged from about 250,000 to 283,000 ha, while in the early 1990’s this number fell to approximately 160,000ha. The reductions in silt and freshwater flows from the river Indus have made the environment much harsher for the mangroves. Natural recruitment is too low to ensure the survival of all but one mangrove species in the delta. Avicennia marina, already making up over 99.9% of mangroves itself can presumably only have high enough recruitment in areas where it is not seriously affected by grazing animals or wood harvesters. Consequently, plantations and assisted regeneration techniques are being used to increase the mangrove coverage and species diversity. Mangrove species diversity was reportedly

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eight in the early part of this century and now is four, with once species confined to plantations and two others to small pockets in the central delta.

Because the delta has been and is being so modified, the steady-state scenario is unknown. Studies to determine what the delta could look like under various scenarios from no protection to complete protection should be done so we can adequately understand what the sustainable gain would be from a biosphere reserve. Studies into the recruitment of plantation species would be a part of this. Regardless aggressive afforestation coupled with protection measures would seem to be required.

Though the Indus delta is on a major flyway for migratory birds, it does not appear to be critical to their continued survival. The Zoological Survey department has said that in the four small wetlands in the tidal link area of the delta, more birds were counted than in the rest of the delta and it is currently unknown if bird populations have declined. Indeed many migratory birds can bypass Pakistan and fly on to the neighbouring Indian State of Gujarat. However, there are many resident birds that make this area their home.

Fisheries form the most economically important aspect of the deltaic ecosystem. Biodiversity is also highest in the marine part of the system. Stocks are in danger because of over fishing and the use of fine-mesh nets. There is a lack of good statistics and long-term studies suggest that productivity have also been decreased by the reduction in nutrients flowing down the Indus.

The backwaters of the delta are hypersaline, with only a small part of the delta being periodically flushed by freshwater from the Indus. The only other freshwater inputs are from the sparse rainfall. Waters adjacent the Karachi coasts are extremely polluted in areas. This pollution requires careful monitoring.

5.4.1 Changes in Indus Delta in the period 1990-1998

The interpretation of the Landsat images of the Indus Delta were concentrated on two sections; part of the Port Qasim Authority area and the area in the vicinity of Keti Bandar, at the mouth of the River Indus, with a size of respectively 160,000 and 130,000ha. When looking to the two examined sections individually the report concludes that in the Port Qasim Authority area the total surface area covered with natural regenerated mangroves increased with 3%. This increase might be due to an actual increase of mangrove coverage or due to misinterpretation of the Landsat data in which seaweed covered areas where interpreted as mangrove coverage. The conclusions drawn in the SUPARCO report suggests that in the two areas combined, the surface area covered with dense mangroves have decreased with approximately 14%. The area covered with medium and sparse mangroves increased from 1990 to 1998 with approximately 23%. But since approximately 4500 ha of mangroves have been reforested in the examined area during this period, the area covered with natural regenerated medium and sparse mangroves has decreased with approximately 4%.

5.4.2 Status of Indus Delta Fisher-folk

In early 1998, various fishermen groups and NGOs gathered to form a new body to advocate for and represent fisher-folk’s interests. The main occupation of residents of the delta is in fisheries and these people will be the stewards of any biosphere reserve that comes into being. The fisher-folk are divided into many tribes and there is some history of antagonism between them. The main issues they face are debts to middlemen who force them to sell their catches below market price, the influx of drugs like heroine, illegal immigrants from Burma and Bangladesh, competition and over fishing by trawlers and the capture of Pakistani

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fisherman by the Indian navy near the border. In addition, there is the powerful influence of a few individuals and their significance warrants further study.

Research has been conducted regarding the changes in the livelihoods of fisher-folk on the Karachi coast. Through the Korangi Ecosystem Project of IUCN there has been a marked decrease in reliance on mangroves for fuel wood, and the introduction of a rotating mangrove harvesting system. The successes of this project need to be evaluated to see if they can be replicated in other parts of the delta.

5.5 THE INDUS DELTA BIOSPHERE RESERVE / REHABILITATION AREA

5.5.1 The Process

Though the Indus Delta may not fit the conventional definition of a Biosphere Reserve as outlined by UNESCO, the approach is useful in looking at the delta as a unit made of resources that need to be conserved. In particular the integrated development and zoning approach are of particular use. The various stakeholders in the delta need to be brought together to discuss what is known about it, what the concerns of each are and what the future direction should be. Efforts can be geared in a common direction to the benefit of the delta and its people when a common vision and framework is set up that outlines the need and concerns of the area and its inhabitants and provides a direction for future collaboration and work. Comparisons with existing biosphere reserves, further research into the resource use patterns in the various parts of the delta and local attitudes towards conservation will be useful in this regard.

Little has changed since the 1994 Biosphere Reserve Workshop in terms of what needs to be done. Again what is needed now is serious commitment by an agency willing to see the idea through. Support for the idea should be strong as long as the process is participatory and non-exclusive. IUCN’s experience with conservation strategies and the delta would make it ideal for this role and help can be procured from NGOs who may be stronger in participatory methods.

Suggested steps for implementation of the biosphere reserve concept:

1. Circulate a paper regarding the concept and its applicability to the

Delta to all concerned government departments, academic institutions NGOs, CBOs and local leaders. Ask these organisations if there is anyone not included on the mailing list who should be. Engage each of these organisations directly through phone or personal calls. (Alternatively a meeting can be convened of these major stakeholders to discuss the idea and form a preliminary coordinating committee to oversee the initial stages of procuring funding and organising the first main workshop.)

2. Circulate a questionnaire at the same time to gather feedback about the proposal and determine the extent of their involvement in the delta area. Ask for recommendations regarding who should be on the Biosphere Reserve panel.

3. Engage in discussions/correspondence with UNESCO, IUCN and other agencies with experts working on protected area management and gather their feedback.

4. Arrange a preliminary meeting of stakeholders to determine expectations, the exact make up of the panel, and to verify understanding and commitment

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5. Arrange a second panel meeting to set the general objectives of the biosphere reserve and identify, which scientific information needs to be gathered and what already exists. It may be useful to have a consultant who has knowledge of other functioning biosphere reserves in the developing world. Circulate minutes to stakeholders for comment. Discuss funding options and executing agencies for scientific work. This includes participatory research throughout the delta communities and the beginning of scientific studies that could turn into longer term monitoring projects. Links with foreign universities and research organisations should be pursued, as should links with other biosphere reserves.)

6. Arrange a third meeting in order to review the studies to be initiated.

7. Periodic meetings to monitor ongoing studies, finances and review the development going on in the delta in the interim. Liase with government.

8. The above information would eventually need to be summarized so that a feasibility report could be prepared that determines what purpose the biosphere reserve could play in the conservation and development of the delta. This would be presented to stakeholders and would lead to a preparation of a nomination.

Concurrently, the process could be used beneficially to help organize the NGOs and CBOs working in the delta to integrate and synergise their work. Early in the process, a forum for all CBOs, NGOs, and departments working in the delta can be arranged to discuss ideas of zonation, learning so far, commitment, and areas where research is required and to set up information lines. NGOs and CBOs can then meet regularly to form a coastal network.

5.5.2 Indus Delta Zonation

The zonation in the delta is made difficult by the fact that it is a coast. It is easier to say for instance which land areas are in specific need of attention; however, the corresponding data on the individual creeks does not exist. The link between mangroves as fish nurseries is understood, but it is more difficult to protect a moving resource. More discussion is needed on how to best protect the waters of the delta.

Any discussion at this time is premature as the size and zonation of a biosphere reserve needs to be discussed with stakeholders. It may, for instance, be wiser to make a much smaller biosphere reserve that does not include the Karachi coast. In this way, the biosphere reserve can devote more attention to other issues of development and fisheries and less to industry and urban expansion. The biosphere reserve may expand its boundaries at a future date when it can better tackle these other issues after it has dealt with some of the key management issues of the undeveloped parts of the delta.

A few key areas seem ideal for specific conservation activities.

Core Rehabilitation Areas

The islands where significant forests still exist within the areas protected by the Sindh Forestry Department would be ideal core areas. Studies need to be conducted regarding local resource use patterns. These areas may be subdivided into areas for only conservation, areas for afforestation and protection and areas where sustainable forestry practices predominate (relegated to buffer zone). Since these areas are already protected legally, there is no need to go through the process of enacting new legislation.

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A third core area could be located south of Keti Bandar in the only area where naturally occurring individuals of species other than Avicennia marina exist. This could be an ideal area for monitoring.

A fourth core area could be set up around the wetlands near the Indian border. This area is of specific importance to avian fauna. More birds are thought to over-winter here than in the rest of the delta. Because of the presence of the border and the tidal link this area could not be free for human interference. As well there is a history of crabbing and fishing in the area and a study on the history and effects of these practices should be conducted to determine their impact.

Buffer Zone

This area would surround the core areas and extend up to perhaps the high tide watermark. It would itself be made up of sub zones. This would perhaps be broken into two at Keti Bandar, the proposed site of a new port. The buffer zones would include areas where the sustainable development aspect of the reserve could be tested. More aggressive afforestation may occur here as well as an active engagement with the local population regarding sustainable forestry, fisheries and alternate sources of income. Here pilot projects on shrimp farming, mangrove honey production and cottage industries would be ideal.

Transition Areas

The transition would engulf the buffer zone to include the rest of the delta including Keti Bandar and Shah Bandar and perhaps having indistinct boundaries to the landward side or ending where agricultural land begins. It would also include the Indian border and the areas adjacent the Port Qasim. There need not be a question of ownership of this area as it is more serves the purpose for monitoring development to ensure is not detrimental to the rest of the biosphere reserve. An agreed upon depth can form its seaward boundary.

The area adjacent Keti Bandar is the current functional mouth of the river Indus. Thought there are plans for port development they are currently stalled and this is an ideal area for rehabilitation. Being the only area to receive freshwater, the ecosystem should be at its most productive in this area. Currently much of the area is barren due to over harvesting. This would be an ideal site for development of a community forestry project and afforestation. Being the property of the Sindh Board of Revenue, there are currently no protection measures.

5.6 IDEAS FOR FUTURE WORK

There is a dearth of reliable scientific information on the fisheries and ecosystem functioning of the Indus delta. In order for government to make proper decisions research needs to be carried out that is both relevant and contributing to our understanding of the delta. To this end, studies can be undertaken of both the socio-economic and ecological aspects. Moreover, these studies can take advantage of the expertise of the local university and government departments.

The following are some areas where quality research is needed in order to make informed management decisions:

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Fisheries:

What is the annual catch from the delta, it’s make up and the amount of effort being put into it. What is the spatial pattern in fishing effort and why? What is being caught by the trawlers outside the delta creeks?

Fisher-folk:

What are the methods of fishing in use throughout the delta today (there is some information on this)? Why is this so? Of that which is caught in the delta, how much is channeled through middlemen and ‘Mafia’ in the fishing villages throughout the delta. How do local power structures support or combat this? What are the impact and rights of the immigrant populations?

Ecosystem Dynamics:

How does energy cycle in the mangrove ecosystem? Where do the most of the nutrients and energy that makes it up to higher tropic levels come from? What is the contribution from the mangroves?

Basic Ecology :

What determines the current distribution and abundance of mangrove species? Fish species?

Multisectoral:

What factors have led to the current loss in biodiversity in the delta.

Possible pilot projects which can be set up:

Aqua-culture: -

A potential Pandora’s box – does it go against principles of conservation? Much of the delta land is barren; can land that is unsuitable for mangrove afforestation be used to raise shrimp? Is it an economical alternative income scheme that can be used to take pressure off deltaic shrimp populations? Can it be controlled?

Mangrove Honey:

What is the potential for mangrove honey production and can this be used to provide alternate income to local people.

Indus Delta / Coastal Network

A couple of the main problems regarding the delta are that there is no effective voice representing its concerns and that there is no one place to go to find information about the situation in the delta. To this end a couple of things can and should be done. Initiating the biosphere reserve process may catalyze these.

1) Set up of a coastal network of NGOs and CBOs and perhaps academic institutions that are involved in the coastal areas. This group can meet quarterly to provide a forum to for

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discussion of their work. (Along the lines of Sindnet). Perhaps twice a year relevant government institutions can also meet with the group.

This network would keep people informed about who is doing what in the coast and provide an opportunity to share learning, collaborate and critique. It could also be used as a vehicle for coastal advocacy and ensuring that endeavors in the delta area are in line with a certain set of objectives defined by the group (perhaps those of the biosphere reserve).

2) Create of a newsletter on coastal issues.

As part of the process to increase awareness and advocate a quarterly or semi-annual newsletter can be produced by one agency or the chair agency of the coastal network. This can highlight projects being undertaken in the delta, research on specific subjects and describe the progress of the biosphere reserve.

3) Centralized library on Indus Delta/Coastal Issues.

4) Community Forestry.

IUCN already has some expertise in this area through the experience of its Korangi Ecosystem project. The CEU with the SFD has rehabilitated many degraded mangrove lands and is involved in several areas throughout the delta including the town of Shah bunder. In an effort to move from strict rehabilitation work, the CEU could look into approaching some of the coastal communities in other degraded parts of the delta and receiving their views regarding their concerns on mangroves. The importance of mangroves can be discussed and awareness raising along with pilot community mangrove forestry projects could be set up. The Shah bunder and Keti bunder vicinity or the areas being illegally harvested in the SFD area may be ideal.

5.7 CONCLUSION

The Indus delta is not only one of the longest delta in the world, it is also the largest area of arid climate mangroves in the world. The natural resources it contains are of significant economic importance to Pakistan, and the time is now to conserve what is left whilst it is still in a viable condition, rather than wait until it is too late. What the biosphere concept offers is the potential for integrating this urgent need for conservation and development. It does this by developing zones where various activities can take place, by regulating the levels of these activities to sustainable limits and by encouraging in the participation of local people. The commitment of the main land-owning agencies in the Indus delta is required to make the concept of the Indus delta Biosphere secures a reality.

Consultation

For further details of the Indus delta and other protected areas in Sundarban, Bangladesh, the reports of Biosphere Reserve Workshop, Sundarban visit and SUPARCO’s Coastal Ecosystem Monitoring are enclosed as Annexure-II..

5.8 THE GLOBAL 200– INDUS DELTA ECOREGION

Nature’s fragile web is increasingly at risk as human activities threaten biodiversity - the variety of plants and animals that make up the tapestry of life on earth. While it is important to conserve nature everywhere, we face a recurrent dilemma: with bewildering number of species and habitats, how should we prioritize our efforts? To answer this question, WWF

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has identified biological regions – collectively known as the Global 200 – which are crucial to the conservation of global biodiversity.

Only if we conserve the full variety of the world’s wild habitats can we protect the broadest variety of species and the ecological and evolutionary processes that maintain the web of life. While it may never be possible to conserve all remaining natural habitats, we must aim to ensure that all ecosystem types are represented within a unified global conservation strategy. The Global 200 provides the foundation for such a strategy. It is a science – based global ranking of the earth’s most outstanding terrestrial, freshwater and marine habitats, designed to serve as a blue print for biodiversity conservation at a global scale. Developed by WWF scientist in collaboration with experts around the world, the Global zoo covers every major habitat type, spanning five continents and all the world’s oceans.

The Global 200 is composed of 3 major categories: terrestrial, freshwater and marine. These categories contain 26 major habitat type. Some habitats, such as tropical forests and coral reefs, support extremely rich assemblages of species, while others, such as tundras and deserts, are more austere. But all one unique expressions of life. We must, at a minimum, aim to hold on to key examples of every part of the web of life.

The Global 200 includes a full complement of freshwater and marine ecosystems, which despite their high importance to global biodiversity, have often received inadequate attention in conservation priority setting. The analysis cover seven different major habitat types for freshwater and five major habitat types for marine ecoregions including Indus delta.

WWF – Pakistan organized a workshop to bring together stakeholders to develop a common vision for the Indus delta Ecoregion. Focused group discussions were held on the following proposed Indus delta Ecoregion.

5.8.1 Location

The Indus Delta eco-region lies in the south of Pakistan. It partially or fully covers several districts of Sindh including Thatta, Badin, Hyderabad, Kot GM, Dadu, Nawab Shah, Sangar and Umer Kot. The delta itself, which mostly lies in Thatta District, is fan-shaped and covers an area of 600,000 hectares. The Indus Delta Ecoregion is bordered on the east by India and on the south by the Arabian Sea.

5.8.2 Habitat Types

The region can be divided into five major habitats

• Main river course

• Riverine forests

• Freshwater lakes

• Brackish and salt lakes

• Main delta region

Each of these habitats supports various ecosystems with their own associated biodiversity.

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5.8.3 Biodiversity

The land along the main river course is very fertile and a variety of crops are cultivated there. Fisheries of the area include the Indus Baril, Indus Garua and the Golden Mahaseer. The area is also the habitat of the blind Indus Dolphin.

The riverine forests on the banks of the Indus comprise of Tamarix and Prosopis spp. The mammals found here are wild boar, jackals, foxes and Asian wolves.

The main freshwater lakes in the area are Haleji and Kinjhar. These lakes are located on the Indus Flyway and have been classified as Ramsar sites. Both are important for being the habitat of several species of resident and migratory birds such as

Brackish lakes in the Indus Delta Ecoregion include Shah Bunder salt waste, Jafri Lake, Hadero, Nurri and Jubo (Ramsar sites) and Mahboob Shah Lake. All of these wetlands serve as wintering grounds for waterfowl such as flamingoes, ducks and shorebirds.

The Indus Delta comprises of seventeen major creeks, a large number of minor creeks and mud flats. The vegetation in the Indus Delta is dominated by mangrove forests that cover about 160,000 hectares. Though eight species of mangroves have been reported in the are, only four continue to thrive. These are Avicennia marina, Aegiceras corniculatum, Ceriops tagal and Rhizophora mucronata. This ecosystem provides a rich habitat for wildlife of terrestrial and marine origin. The mammals of the mangrove forest in the Indus Delta include Humpback and bottlenose dolphins, porpoises and the occasional toothed whales. Three species of lizard, one specie of poisonous snake and two species of marine snakes have been reported. In addition, about 200 species of fishes have been reported from the Delta area. The Indus Delta with its coastal wetlands attracts a number of migratory birds, particularly waterfowl. In all, 56 species of birds belonging to 6 orders and 14 families are found in the Sindh coastal waters. Some of these birds are residents and others are migratory in nature. The Green Turtle and Olive Ridley Turtles frequent the shores of the Karachi coast, where they come to nest.

5.8.4 Legislative Jurisdiction

The Indus Delta comes under the control of several agencies. These include :

• Port Qasim Authority and Karachi Port Trust

• Sindh Forest and Wildlife Department

• Sindh Board of Revenue

• Sindh coastal Development Authority

5.8.5 Economic Significance

The delta region is home to about 100,000 people. Traditionally agriculture, forestry and fishing played almost equal roles in the socio-economic patterns of the coastal communities. The lesser availability of fresh water and the mechanization of the fishing industry have caused fishing to become the dominant economic activity. Most of the inhabitants of this area are now fisher folk who fish in the creeks and estuaries. The forestry sector, however, continues to play a role in the life of the coastal communities. They serve to meet the needs of the local communities for fuel, construction material and fodder.

- 47 Mangrove of Pakistan – Status and Management

Currently, the dominant occupations in the study area can be categorised as follows : fishing and related activities that employ an estimated 90% of the population; agriculture and forestry, in which 8% of the population is involved, and the services sector that engages a mere 2% of the population.

The Sindh province holds a premier position in the fisheries sector of the country. It commands 100% of brackish water and 71% of the marine resources of the total fisheries resources of Pakistan1. Export of fisheries products constitutes 2% of national exports and contributes significantly to the national income. The average annual income from export of this commodity amounts to Rs.8.8 billion, of which 60% is attributable to shrimp and 40% to fish. The total production of the fisheries sector in the year 2000 was estimated at 6,65,000 metric tons of which Sindh produced 318,770 metric tons (48% of the total)2. Besides providing valuable export earnings to the country, it is the primary livelihood of a vast majority of coastal population and also a source of cheap protein in the diet of the local communities.

The riverine forests downstream of Kotri Barrage cover an area of 434,000 hectares and produced 170,617m3 of timber between 1962 to 1992. This area directly supports a population of over 130,000 people predominantly engaged in activities related to the direct or indirect use of the River Indus and a significant population indirectly.

Fig. 12 . The economic dependence on mangroves

1 Effect & Economic Losses on Marine Life and Aqua culture due to Shortage of Fresh Water in Downstream Kotri Barrage up to Sea and Encroachment of Sea in Coastal Areas, Fisheries Wing, Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries Department, Government of Sindh. 2 Economic Survey of Pakistan, 2000-2001 3 Meynell and Qureshi, 1993

- 48 Mangrove of Pakistan – Status and Management

The mangrove forests serve the multiple functions of coastline stabilization, protection of ports against natural disasters, and form an integral component of the economy of coastal communities, provided fuel wood, fodder and various other products. It has been estimated that about 100,000 people in the delta use a total of 18,000 t of mangrove firewood each year3. The annual value of legally collected firewood is around Rs.4,900,000 and cut fodder alone is valued at Rs.2,000,0004. In addition to these direct uses, mangroves constitute a significant part of the productivity base of several important fisheries. Pakistan has a large and lucrative prawn fishery, generating annual revenues of around USD 60 million. An estimate cites that 70% of the Pakistan prawn fishery is dependent on mangroves5. The situation is similar with respect to fish. Around 155 species of fish have been recorded from the mangroves of Pakistan, many of them of commercial importance. The export of marine fish, shrimp, lobsters and crabs help the national economy earn Rs.2.2 billion annually besides providing employment and livelihood to more than 100,000 people associated with the fishing industry. If the mangroves are degraded, much of the 250,000 tons of fish caught off the Sindh Coast will be at risk6. (Fig-12)

5.8.6 Issues and Threats

• The reduction of freshwater and silt flow down the Indus as a result of upstream dams and irrigation schemes

• Habitat destruction

• The changing patterns of marine deposition, leading to encroachment of sand and reduction in coastal productivity

• Pollution from the city of Karachi and the industrial complexes associated with rapid organization

• Encroachment on the mangrove areas by the growth of ports and harbours

• Population pressure

• Over exploitation of fisheries and use of unsustainable fishing techniques

• Over-cutting of mangroves for fuel wood and fodder and over-grazing by camels

• Clearing of forests for agricultural purposes

• Salt pans

Role of Sindh Forest Department for Management of Indus Delta

• The Indus Delta mangrove forests were declared as “Protected Forests” in 1958.

• The First Working / Management Plan for twenty years duration was produced in 1961-62.

4 Meynell and Qureshi, 1993; Beg 1991; Qureshi 1991; Sindh Forest Department, 1991 5 Beg, 1991 6 IUCN

- 49 Mangrove of Pakistan – Status and Management

• After its expiry, the Second Management Plan was prepared for the next twenty years and is in vogue.

• Since 1985 to date, over 20,000 hectares have been replanted with Avicennia marina and Rhizophora mucronata in different parts of the Indus Delta under a World Bank project and other Sindh government projects.

• A national mangrove workshop was organized and the experience / results of World Bank projects were shared and disseminated.

• SFD has also declared the Indus Delta a Game Sanctuary in 1974 under the Sindh Wildlife Ordinance 1977.

Recommendations

The functions of the different agencies that will be involved in the conservation and sustainable use of the Indus Delta are as follows:

Planning and control Functions

- Port Qasim Authority

- Coastal Development Authority

- Sindh Forest and Wildlife Department

- Sindh Board of Revenue

- Sindh Environmental Protection Agency

- Karachi Development Authority

- Maritime Security Agency

- Pakistan Navy

Natural Resource Management Functions

- Sindh Forest Department

- Sindh Fisheries Department

- Resource users from coastal communities

Research and Environmental Monitoring Functions

- Marine Fisheries Department

- National Institute of Oceanography

- Zoological Survey Department

- 50 Mangrove of Pakistan – Status and Management

- Karachi University

- NED University

- Jamshoro University, Hyderabad

- Sindh Environmental Protection Agency

Coastal Community Development Functions

- Coastal Development Authority

- District Governments (Karachi, Thatta, Badin districts.)

- Development NGOs

- Community Based Organisations

Environmental Awareness Functions

- Environmental NGOs

- Schools, Colleges and Universities

- Media

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Chapter 6

Mangrove Management

The mangrove ecosystem is a complex ecosystem composed of various inter-related elements in the land-sea interface zone and linked with other natural systems in the coastal region such as corals, sea grasses, coastal fisheries and beach vegetation (Dagar et al, 1991). The mangrove ecosystem consists of water, muddy soil, trees, shrubs and their associated flora fauna and microbes, tolerant of fluctuating water salinity. This is a life sustaining and highly productive ecosystem whose waters are nursery grounds for fish, crustacea and molluses and provide habitats for a wide range of aquatic life, while the land supports rich and diverse flora and fauna. The ecosystem influences climate, prevents coastal erosion, contributes to land accretion and acts as a buffer zone in cyclone prone areas. It also supports human populations living in and around and dependant on this ecosystem for centuries (Vannucci, 1986)

The importance of mangrove resources is increasingly being recognized in Pakistan. However, the present understanding of the importance of these areas is not adequate. It is imperative, therefore, that mangrove management is pursued in a scientific manner. Necessary studies and research for the generation of information for the development of an appropriate management regime would be initiated. It is also important that an appropriate set of legal, regulatory and policy instruments are available to support the implementation of the management activities.

The management of the different resources of the mangrove ecosystem are placed under the different agencies of the government, both at central and provincial levels. Forestry, fisheries and land administration agencies, for example, have specific jurisdiction over specific resources in the same geographic area.

The provincial governments are primarily responsible for the management of different resources. The federal government provides policy or regulatory directives when necessary. The provinces have a very high degree of independence in management of resources, with almost no interference from the federal government in Pakistan.

Forestry and fishery resources in the mangrove areas are managed by Forests and Fisheries Departments of the provincial administration. In both the provinces where mangrove formations are located, Forest department is better organized and equipped than the Fisheries department. Fisheries officials are mostly located in town and cities with very limited representation in the fields.

Forestry activities are conducted through Forests department of the provincial government. In Sindh province, where a major portion of the mangrove forest of the country is located, the Forest department is headed by the ‘Secretary’, who is an experienced professional forester, and field activities are conducted through Working Divisions and support field staff. Even though some of the enterprises have taken up fishery production activities, none of the field units have fishery personnel on their staff.

In this chapter, an effort has been made to collate available information on forestry management, regulation and research.

- 52 Mangrove of Pakistan – Status and Management

6.1 MANAGEMENT OF MANGROVE FORESTS

Exploitation of Indus delta mangroves forests resources has occurred over a long period of time. Recognition of their value as forest resources is a relatively recent phenomenon and there has been virtually no scientific management of mangroves in sub-continent in the past. Instead the harvest of timber, fuel wood and other mangroves resources was carried out in an arbitrary and implanned manner. However, because of a relatively small population, particularly Indus Delta, exploitation of mangroves for local use by the inhabitants did not pose a major threat to the existence of the forest.

It is believed that local people living in the coastal areas have been able to manage mangrove forests for their communities. However, no report is available on this. During the British occupation period, forest management was introduced. After World War II, in 1946, E.A.Garland, development conservator of forests, suggested that mangrove vegetation be brought under systematic forest management. However, said areas continued to be under the charge of revenue authorities (Qureshi, 1984)

In 1955, the Inspector General of Forests pressed for the systematic management of mangrove forests because the country was already very short in forest resources. He recommended the creation of a division to study silviculture, protection, improvement and systematic exploitation of mangrove forests which were fast disappearing.

A development scheme was approved and a forest division was established in 1958 to manage mangrove forests. In 1959, ‘protected forests’ were taken under the Forest Act. However, enforcement of the forest act was a very difficult task as the local people were not aware of forest law and regulations (Kogo, 1985).

In 1964, a Working Plan of the coastal zone Afforestation Division (1963-1983) was submitted by S.A.Khan, a divisional forest officer. This was the first working plan with the objective of protecting the existing mangrove forests and in improving them. The 20-year working plan for these forests has working circles for improvement and development of mangroves. These were:

(i) Selection – cum – improvement working circle (ii) Afforestation working circle and (iii) Lopping, grazing and browsing working circle.

Unfortunately none if its suggestion and prescription were practiced for the management of mangrove forests. As such, no development works were carried out as per the prescription of the working plan and the coastal forest division was also abolished in 1971. This plan expired in 1984.

The current working plan titled “Working Plan of Mangrove Forests for a 20 year period from 1985-2005 has been prepared (Qureshi, 1985) with the objectives:

(i) To conserve, protect and extend the growing stock by proper silvicultural systems and treatments. (ii) To introduce commercially valuable salt tolerant exotic species inorder to improve the economic viability of the present mangrove forests. (iii) To provide sustained quantities of forest products viz. Fuelwood, small poles for construction of huts and fodder to meet the demands of the local communities. (iv) To protect the coastline from erosion and to protect the cultivated fields behind the coastal region from severe winds and storms. (v) To check siltation of Karachi and Bin Qasim ports.

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This management plan is in vogue and some of its prescriptions / suggestions have been followed by the department. A full-fledged Coastal Forest Division is functioning with full strength of field and supporting staff. Recently the World Bank’s rehabilitation project has completed and two follow on mangrove projects are under execution. The plan will terminate in 2005.

6.2 MANAGEMENT POLICIES

A management plan is not just a collection of recommendations for a series of measures, however correct in themselves, it needs a coherence and an overall objectives and conceptual framework upon an understanding of the ecosystem, the uses to which it is put and pressures that it is under. It is also not a multi-disciplinary approach, which tends to break down the components into different parts and provides prescription for each discipline. It has to be an interdisciplinary approach, which integrates the different disciplines.

Since the principal characteristic of the coastal ecosystem is the mangrove forest cover without which the ecosystem would loose most if not all of the products, functions and attributes outlined above. The main objective of the forestry component of the management plan should be aimed at maintaining the mangrove forests in a healthy and viable state. The forestry objective may thus be stated as: -

The mangrove forest cover along the coast of Pakistan maintained at or above the present level of coverage, health and viability, with the principal aim of maintaining the ecosystem for its non-forestry related benefit, rather than for large scale commercial forestry.

This does not mean that the mangrove cover will always stay in the same place. For instance port development may mean that certain areas of mangroves are lost, but that these should be compensated for active-planting measures, such has been proven to be successful by IUCNP and Sindh Forest Department. Also the planting of mangroves cannot be done in every blank spot or empty mud flats, since the topographical and environmental conditions limit the suitability of many sites, so careful choice of sites is a necessary element of management. However, the rehabilitation of those areas, which have been clear cut, as evidenced by the stumps should be a first priority, provided that soil conditions are still favourable for mangrove growth and survival. In addition, to replanting efforts should be made to facilitate the survival of natural seedlings.

The overall emphasis of mangrove rehabilitation should be the maintenance of the ecosystem as a whole. Whilst there are some direct benefits such as fuelwood products, fodder and camel grazing, its is considered unlikely that they will acquire a significant commercial importance in view of extreme climatic conditions. The low rainfall and lack of freshwater discharge in this particular area means that the rate of growth both Avicennia and the reintroduced Rhizophora will not sustain rates of cropping which should satisfy commercial logging enterprise. It is suspected that all fuelwood activities will remain essentially local with cutting limited to local needs.

However, with the population growing in the coastal villages as Karachi, spreads the local demand for fuelwood and fodder from the mangroves will also increase. More active management of the resources by the Forest department with the local wood and fodder collectors are required. The most direct method for this will be zoning and rotational cutting of the areas may also be tried with the wood collectors, but this may be less easy to control.

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6.3 RESEARCH PROGRAMMES

There has been no research programmes for development of the mangrove forests in the past. The forests were still intact and people exploited them as they wished. Accordingly the mangroves suffered heavily and at places, became extinct.

Because of this multifarious important, particularly for the protection of ports and harbours against siltation, these forests have been put on the research programme of Pakistan Forest Institute, Centre of Excellence of Marine Biology, Karachi University, National Institute of Oceanography, Sindh Forest Department and IUCN – Pakistan. Among other aspects, researches on habitat types, forest zonation, recession, regeneration, status of tree species and ecological relationships of forest are intended. Possibility of the introduction of more economic tree species is also to be explored.

Literature surveys show that reports on mangroves in Pakistan have only been descriptive in nature with no emphasis placed on the functioning of the mangrove ecosystem and its components.

Recognizing the importance of mangroves in maintaining the sustainability of Pakistan’s marine resources, IUCNP has actively supported mangrove research since 1987. The primary goal IUCNP’s effort is to assess biological feasibility for large scale reintroduction of mangroves along Pakistan’s coastline and to facilitate the establishment of extensive mangrove plantations as a part of the Mangrove rehabilitation programme.

As a demonstration of its commitment to mangrove research, IUCNP initiated several mangrove projects. The first step of the mangrove project was to enable the educational systems at all levels, public in general, planners, managers and governments to have a clear picture of the important roles played by mangroves as a life sustaining system. Thus the projects were successful in creating awareness on the importance of developing correct system of management of the resources from the mangrove ecosystem.

In the course of implementation of these projects, much basic scientific information was generated, with far reaching practical importance, on the mangrove coverage and bio-mass density, the invertebrate fauna, the geology of the area, the bird and socio economic conditions, of the coastal population in the Indus delta. These studies have been carried out in collaboration with different department including Pakistan Space and Upper Atmospheric Commission (SUPARCO), Karachi University, Zoological Survey Department, National Institute of Oceanography and Shirkat gah.

We now know what ecological parameters are of decisive importance, what soil and water analysis are to be carried out before embarking on a massive afforestation and reforestation schemes. For instance, the measurements of Aluminum and Molybdenum in soils should be down, the first (AL) because of its negative role and the accord (Mo) because of the necessity of its presence. We know through precisely the effects of latitude compounds, local constraints imposed by tidal regime and amplitude, temperature, water and soil salinity; we know what are the species and strains of a species most suitable for replanting in different intertidal areas. We can also predict what we may expect in terms of productivity of the forests, once it becomes stabilised. We know that dependent systems upstream and downstream will be adversely affected if the mangroves are totally converted to other uses, however, the degree to which they will be damaged cannot be pre estimated without making a detailed study of the site.

Taking the advantage of a small fund from World Bank’s project entitled ‘Environment protection and resource conservation’, Sindh Forest department in collaboration with IUCNP and Karachi and Chittagong Universities, initiated research works on marine biological aspects with emphasis on fisheries, oceanography and silviculture of mangroves in the Indus

- 55 Mangrove of Pakistan – Status and Management

Delta. An inventory of shell and fin fishes found in catches of fishermen in different area of the Indus delta mangrove ecosystem has been made, which reveals presence of all the major groups of mangrove loving species reported else where (Singh, 1996). Record of physiochemical parameters reveals a great variation especially of sweet water during monsoons e.g., as recorded for Shah bunder and Keti bunder ranges. Analyzed net plankton and neklon samples collected from catches of meshed destructive gears (Bola and Gujo) found being operated through the coast of Sindh, indicate presence of egg, juveniles and adolescents of many economically important shell and fin fishes to underline the importance of the Indus delta mangroves ecosystem as an ideal habitat of fishing and other resources.

New perspectives of research and most of the use of research results need to be introduced in the day to day dealing mangrove ecosystem problems, through the expertise acquired in the country dealing with the highly dynamic mangrove coastal belt. Equally promising for management in the future, is the research of the past history of the tropical coastline, using polynological methods of research. More suggest fields of research studies are :

1. Mangrove water relations, an important study because freshwater discharges into the sea from the River Indus has decreased substantially due to construction of a series of barrages and dams; 2. Floristic composition and quantitative characteristics of mangrove vegetation; 3. A better understanding of the microbiology of the soils and waters from the mangrove, a subject in which very little is known, is a new angle from which to analyze recycling of nutrients and a rate production or productivity, in mangrove ecosystems. 4. Geomorphological aspects of mangrove swamp development; 5. Mangrove biogeography and taxonomy 6. Mangrove forests: a) Site productivity classification for use to indicate the type of silviculture and management to be given to a particular area and also to predict the type and quality of a new crop; b) Natural and artificial regeneration including production, dispersal and storage capability of Avicennia marina, the most abundant species occurring in the mangroves of Pakistan; c) Introduction of other mangroves species which are salt tolerant and natural durability and the fuelwood has high calorific value; d) Management studies, including growth rate, spacing, thinning and rotation and study of clear fellings vs. selection strip felling and e) Bio chemical taxonomy of Avicennia marina, phenology and better production. 7. Ecological relationship between coastal fisheries and mangrove forests. (there is an urgent need to establish, both qualitatively, the dependence of commercial species of marine life on mangroves ecosystem, in the wake of diversion of the River Indus water down the Kotri Barrage); 8. Studies on composition and distribution of molluses and crustaceans in mangrove. (the importance of mangrove as a nursery and breeding ground to many commercial species of prawns and fish is very great. Comprehensive studies need to be carried out on fishing production of shallow waters adjoining undisturbed mangrove forests compared to that of disturbed mangrove land. Special study of fish Hilsa tennulosa is strongly emphasized.

As to the aspect of management and utilization of mangrove resources of Pakistan, there is need for :

1. Better understanding of the dynamics of ecosystems; 2. More efficient management technology; 3. More effective utilization of mangrove resources without degradation of the environment; and 4. Better understanding of possible environment impacts of pollution, scarcity of freshwater and utilization of mangrove resources.

There is also a need for inventory of mangrove areas using modern technology of remote sensing. This will include mapping, distribution, estimation of total mangrove ecosystem and identification of their status. Summary of available information on mangrove ecosystem

- 56 Mangrove of Pakistan – Status and Management

based on available survey reports, forest management plans and results of research and reviews also need to be drawn on regular intervals.

The research program should likewise be able to:

1. Identify and define mangrove areas immediate environment concern and assess the existing conditions therein with special reference to silviculture, biology, ecology and increasing productivity; 2. Study the environmental, social and economic aspects of development and management programs, including the strategies such as industrialization and urbanization. 3. Prepare a conceptual framework for cooperative and collaborative research / study efforts; and 4. Draw viable, dynamic, interdisciplinary and multilevel research programs using the ecosystem approach with special reference to ecosystem dynamics.

The research in mangrove in Pakistan is considered very important since its findings will be very valuable in providing guidelines for more efficient mangrove resource management for forestry, fishery and other disciplines. When the ultimate objective of sustained yield and multiple use management of mangrove ecosystems is achieved, it will lead to increasing potential resources for improving the socio-economic conditions of the people who live in or around the mangrove forests and who traditionally have made a living from the mangrove ecosystem. Finally the national income from this natural resource can also be increased.

6.4 MANGROVE PLANTATION

In recent years anthropogenic pressures have caused significant destruction of mangrove resources. The degradation of mangrove ecosystems has promoted a worldwide movement for mangrove restoration. There is also a move in parts of Africa and the Middle East to revegetate arid zone region where mangrove once flourished. Several terms have been used to describe the efforts to rebuild mangrove ecosystems. These include restoration, reclamation, rehabilitation, eco development, ecosystem management and regeneration.

The main rationale of mangrove restoration in the Indus delta and along the coast of Balochistan is to maintain a contribution to the national economy. The estimated contribution of mangroves to the shrimp and fishery industry was 8.8 billion rupees in 2003. This could certainly be maintained, provided the restoration efforts are improved. After successful reintroduction of Rhizophora mucronata in the Indus Delta, the possibility of charcoal production has increased which will enhance the economic importance of the mangrove forests. The maintenance of mangrove forests has also protected parts of the coast from wind erosion.

Mangrove management has markedly improved following the establishment of Coastal Ecosystem Unit in IUCN-Pakistan and Coastal Forest Division in Sindh Forest Department. Afforestation and reforestation activities are being undertaken on a small and large scale by IUCN in collaboration with Sindh Forest Department. The International Society for Mangroves Ecosystem ( ISME ) with its headquarters in Okinawa, Japan is encouraging mangrove studies and plantations along the coast of Pakistan.

Restoration work involving afforestation and protection operations, recently started with mangrove along the Pakistan coast. Under afforestation programmes, many exotic and indigenous species were tried on an experimental basis throughout the Indus Delta. It was observed that exotic species could not survive in the existing extreme arid and saline conditions of the Sindh Coast. However, some of the indigenous species such as Avicennia marina and Rhizophora mucronata were well suited to the existing conditions (Table-14). So far 20,000 hectares have been brought under the mangrove plantations in the Indus delta and Miani Hor, Balochistan. There is a chain of mangrove plantations of different age

- 57 Mangrove of Pakistan – Status and Management

gradation and network of container plants nurseries in the Indus Delta (Table-12). But the most important part of the rehabilitation work is that IUCNP has developed some innovative planting and nursery techniques which are not only being applied within Pakistan even outside Pakistan in the Persian Gulf, Red Sea and some counties in South East Asia.

Table 14 Mangrove plantation at different locations

Species with origin Coastal nursery (Bakran) DFO nursery Nursery Beds Pot GP** N*** GP N GP N R.mucronata Chanta Buri / Singapore / Johor - - 40 (10) 80 (30) R.apiculata Trad 50 (12) 100 (10) 97 (60) Johor - - - - 98 (42) Chanta Buri - - - - 94 (18) Singapore - - - - 100 (11) R.stylosa # Miani Hor (Pak) 65 (17) 100 (20) 98 (84) Singapore - - - - 92 (12) C.tagal 0 0 Miani Hor (Pak) 00 (12) 10 (10) 97 (36) Chanta Buri / Trad 78 (9) 100 (10) 97 (36) C.decandra Chanta Buri - - 25 (4) 96 (24) B.gymnorrhiza Johor - - - - 90 (10) B.sexangula Johor - - - - 59 (27) B.cylindrica Singapore / Johor - - 30 (10) 94 (72) K.candel Chanta Buri - - - - 00 (1) A.marina Klong Yai - - 80 (10) 99 (84) Korangi (Pak) - - - - 100 (48)

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Table 15. Rehabilitation of Mangroves in the Indus Delta and Balochistan Coast

Year Year (hac) Hectares 1985 (SFD) 100.00 1986 (SFD) 100.00 1987 (SFD) 253.00 1988 (SFD) 430.00 1989 (SFD) 518.00 1990 (SFD) 500.00 1991 (SFD, IUCN) 1,200.00 1992 (SFD, IUCN) 1,000.00 1993 (SFD, IUCN) 1,110.00 1994 (SFD, IUCN) 2,200.00 1995 (SFD, IUCN, ISME) 2,500.00 1996 (SFD, IUCN, ISME) 2,500.00 1997 (SFD, IUCN, Shirkat Gah, ISME) 2,000.00 1998 (SFD, IUCN, Shirkat Gah, ISME) 2,000.00 1999 (SFD, IUCN, Shirkat Gah, ACTMANG) 500.00 2000 (ACTMANG) 10.00 2001 IUCN, WWF 285.00 2003 SFD 1100.00 2004 SFD 2345.00 2005 IUCN, BFD, RNE 1000.00

60% Rhizophora Mucronata 40% Avicennia marina, Ceriops tagal and Aegiceras corniculatum

6.4.1 Site Selection

Intensive surveys of the area have to be undertaken before mangrove planting. The planting of mangroves cannot be done in every blank sport or empty mud flats, since the topographical and environmental conditions limit the sustainability of many mangroves, so careful choice of sites is a necessary element of management. Whilst, there are many blank areas where mangroves are not presently growing, either because the mangroves have been clear cut or because they were not there in the first place, not all of these blanks are suitable for replanting. Normally low lying blank areas and mud flats are selected for new plantations. These areas get regular flushing by sea water and the seedlings or saplings have little difficulty in developing root systems.

In selecting sites for particular species it was noted:

1. Rhizophora mucronata is best planted along the frontage of the creeks. Sites down to the low-water line may be selected. However, with trenching R. mucronata can be planted in the higher lying backwater areas. 2. Avicennia marina is hardy and colonizing species and is the climax species in the Indus delta. It is selected in all those areas, which are degraded due to biotic factors or due to adverse hydrological and oceanographic regimes. 3. Ceriops tagal and Aegiceras corniculatum are sensitive species and are raised in those areas which get inputs of freshwater from river or drainage canals for atleast 2 to 3 months. In saline conditions these species have a prolonged germination period and their rate of survival is very poor. The areas along Khobar, Goriwari and Kharo chan creeks are ideal for their growth.

6.4.2 Mangrove nursery techniques

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The seeds of Avicennia marina are almond shaped and those of Aegiceras corniculatum are very small. The seeds of these species are easily washed away by the currents. Indeed, this is their normal means of dispersal. For cultivation, however, these species are not easily raised in containers and then the seedlings are transplanted into the field after six months to a year. Container plants and bedded plants are raised in the inter tidal zone Figure-13)

Top left. Two year old Rhizophora mucronata plantation.

Above. Four year old Rhizophora mucronata plantation, with flowers and propagules (Indus Delta) Photograph M Vannucci

Left. Bag of Avicennia seeds.

Below. Nursery at Korang, near Karachi. Photograph M Vannucci

The propagules of Rhizophora mucronata and Ceriops tagal are long and thin and can be planted directly into the field. However, for planting these species under special conditions,

- 60 Mangrove of Pakistan – Status and Management

container saplings of these species may also be raised in an inter tidal nursery. The size of a container plant nursery is normally 15 m by 15 m, which is large enough to allow beds to be prepared containing some 30,000 plants. Such nurseries are protected by an earthen embarkment against wind and water currents but with an inlet and outlet for natural irrigation by the tide.

6.4.3 Planting Methods

There are different techniques for planting the various species. The most common method is direct planting of the propagules / seed in the mud flats.

Avicennia marina

An A marina plantation can be raised by three methods, deep pitting, trenching and broadcasting of the seed. In the case of the site having a coverage of Porteresia grass, the broadcasting method is most economical and effective. The number of seeds per hectare should be about 6000 and the average rate of successful germination is about 60%. The trench method is the most appropriate when the area has degraded due to over cutting, overgrazing or accumulation of salt on the highlying areas. The seedlings receive seawater regularly from the creek at high tide through a ‘herring bone’ system of trenches. A marina seed may be planted in pits, which serve to retain the water and protect the seed from being washed away, when the areas are medium lying and submersion occurs regularly at high tide. In all methods the success rates varies from 75 to 90% provided the site has been selected correctly.

An alternative method of protecting seeds of A marina is by covering the planted seed with a plastic pot, with its top opened for light and air. After eight days, when germination has taken place, the pot is removed and reused. This effectively protects the seeds from being washed away until the roots have begun to form.

Rhizophora mucronata

The source of propagules for the replanting programme in the Indus Delta was the mangrove forest in Miani Hor, Balochistan. However, more than 10,000 hectares of R mucronata have been planted in the Indus Delta, and are now producing fruit and seeds. These have become the seed source for the future. Propagules are planted out directly into the mudflats. This method is simple and requires a gang of five labourers / people working on each chain, with a spacing of 1.5 m x 1.5 m between each propagules planted. In the case of high lying areas using trench system, direct planting of R mucronata propagules can give good results. In certain situations, where well established seedlings need to be used, R mucronata seedlings in polypots grown in nurseries may be transplanted.

Ripe propagules from the R mucronata trees are plucked from tree or collected when they have fallen. They are usually about 20 cm to 30 cm long and the hypocotyl may need to be separated from the fruit from which the propagules grow. This is done by gentle pulling to reveal a pale green or pinkish shoot from which the leaves will develop. The propagules should be planted by pushing the rooting end into mud upto about one-third of its length.(Figure-14)

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Figure-14– Rhizophora mucronata

Ceriops tagal and Aegiceras corniculatum

These species are best raised in a container plant nursery and transplanted into the field. Sometimes in the absence of nursery stock, Aegiceras corniculatum seeds can be broadcast into grass growing on the mud flats. In all cases the percentage of survival does not exceed 40 to 50%.

6.4.4 Special Plantation

In certain situations mangrove can be used for the specific purpose of protecting and strengthening engineering structures, rather than for reforestation. Engineers and designers design port and coastal structures ought to consider the use of protective mangrove plantations Mangroves have been used on the tidal link of the Left Bank Outfall Drain (LBOD). In Jati, where LBOD was under construction in the Rann of Kutch, the northern and southern earthen embankments were subjected to pressure from wind and tidal current. A linear plantation of Avicennia marina was raised to strengthen the embankments. As well as small block plantations were also established to act as shelter belt against the wind erosion and to stabilize the banks of tidal link.

Similarly, under Fauji Oil Terminal Company (FOTCO) mangrove project, linear and block plantations of mangroves were raised on the dredged material and along the approach canal for checking and reducing the sedimentation and stabilizing the dredged material.. All these mangrove plantations are surviving and are achieving their objectives.

Vegetative propagation is a method of producing plants identical in genotype with the mother plant. It is a method of producing large number of plants from the vegetative part of a mother

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plant. Any part of the plant such as stem, leaf, propagule and root can be used to produce plants through vegetative propagation. It is an asexual method of propagation.

The vegetative propagation form an integral part of tree improvement program in many countries. In this approach, the best planting stock with highest genetic quality can be obtained which is not always possible with the sexually propagated progenies. Under mangrove rehabilitation programme in 1998 IUCN-Pakistan experimented vegetative propagation through propagules cuttings of Rhizophora species in the Indus Delta. Due to high salinity in soil and seawater the cuttings could not be sprouted and the experiment was abandoned. But there are certain success stories of vegetative propagation in Rangong Forest, Thailand and in Orissa and Tamil Nadu, India.

6.4.5 Mangrove Plantations Raised by Governmental and Non Governmental Organizations

The first field trial for raising mangrove plantation was made in 1960 by Sindh Forest Department (Khan 1965). The seeds were obtained from Sunder-bans Mangroves of Bangladesh and were sown along the Korangi Creek. These results were not encouraging probably because the species selected for trial was not sufficiently salt tolerant. On the request of the Sindh Forest Department to the Chief Technical Advisor UNDP / UNESCO Regional Mangrove project, a consultation mission of UNDP / UNESCO visited Pakistan in 1985 and strongly recommended a programme of afforestation of mangroves in Pakistan. A five year research project of experimental mangrove rehabilitation was thus initiated by the Sindh Forest Department in 1986 under UNDP / UNESCO sponsorship.

Besides nursery experiments, species such as A marina, Ceriops tagal and R mucronata were also planted on the barren sites of some deltaic islands of Ratoo Kot, Sipli, Batano, Keti bunder and Shah bunder areas. However, major emphasis was on the raising of mangrove plantations. Data collected on germination and subsequent seedling growth and mortality indicated that besides the method and texture and water conditions related to the tidal inundation strongly affected the performance of the species.

The Korangi-Ecosystem project initiated in 1991 ad was IUCNP’s first field project. Working in collaboration with Sindh forest department and the Port Qasim Authority, Over 6000 hectares were replanted in Korangi-Phitti creek areas. The important part of this work was to develop some innovative planting techniques which are being offered within Pakistan and even outside Pakistan in Persian Gulf and Red Sea areas. Various studies on mangrove coverage and biomass density, the invertebrate fauna, the geology of mangrove area and socio economic studies on natural resource use by coastal communities were carried out. These studies have been carried out in collaboration with different organizations including SUPARCO, Karachi University, Zoological Survey department etc. Issues paper have been prepared on impact of reduction of river Indus water on mangrove ecosystem; sea level rise and sustainable management of mangrove ecosystem in Indus delta. Community dependent work was started in few coastal villages with the aim of improving the environmental conditions of the villages and increasing awareness about threats to mangrove ecosystem.

WWF Pakistan with the financial assistance of DGIS-WWF started a mangrove project entitled “Conservation of Mangrove Forests at the coastal areas of Balochistan and Sindh” in 1996. In Miani Hor, Balochistan 150 ha of degraded areas were planted against the target of 140 ha. The planting works was carried out with participation of coastal communities, CBOs in those areas. In addition, the CBO trained by WWF planted 50 ha under a separate project funded by Small Grants Program of the Ministry of Environment, Government of Pakistan in the same area of Miani Hor for DGIS – WWF. The project was completed in 2001.

The Asian Development Bank in partnership with IUCN – The World Conservation Union, with a technical assistance grant from the Japan Support Fund implemented the Regional Technical Assistance project (October 2001 – June 2003) “Coastal and Marine Resources

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Management and Poverty Reduction in South Asia “. India, Maldives, Srilanka and Pakistan participated in the project.

During the course of this project implementation, different field activities and studies were undertaken to pilot test some of the recommended ICZM approaches. In the context of the Korangi Creek system the sustainable mangrove forestry was initiated. As envisioned in the work plan, 135 hectares of degraded mangrove forests in Korangi High Priority Area (HPAs) were successfully replanted, using Avicennia marina and Rhizophora mucronata. A 70,000 container plant nursery was established to carry out the restocking of both the old and new plantations.

Over 100 hectares of existing plantations and vegetation were maintained by undertaking cleaning and pruning operations; barbwire fences were repaired to protect the plantations from browsing stray camels and other livestock. A field training programme of nursery and planting techniques was conducted for the community in Rehri coastal village as a part of the suitable mangrove forestry.

Sindh Forest Department executed a long term World Bank mangrove rehabilitation project entitled “ Environmental Protection and Resource Management “. This project commenced in 1991 in the Indus Delta and was completed in 1997. Under the SFD established mangrove plantation on 16,000 ha. Community plantations were raised in Keti bunder and Shah bunder on 300 ha. Research studies were undertaken on socio economic conditions of coastal population in the Indus Delta Silvicultural of Indus Delta mangroves and coastal and marine fisheries in Sindh.

As a follow up of the World Bank project Government of Sindh has sanctioned two mangrove rehabilitation projects, which are ongoing in the Indus delta.

Recently Coastal Ecosystem Unit is implementing the mangrove rehabilitation component of Balochistan Programme Office funded by Royal Netherlands Embassy. So far over 1000 hectares have been planted on four sites of Balochistan coast namely Miani Hor, Hingol national park Estuary, Pushkan Bay and Jiwani. A network of container plants mangrove nurseries have been established along the coast. Additionally, the community development programme is attempting an attitudinal and behavioral change among the communities througheducation and awareness raising . All the stakeholders will be trained to play an active role in involving communities for sustainable management of mangroves in particular and sustainable use of coastal resources in general. The project will replant over 2000 hectares of degraded mangroves areas by pit/ trench sowing and assist in natural regeneration . Through community involvement, over 1500 hectares of existing mangroves growth will be protected from cutting and grazing. The project will complete in 2007.

6.4.6 Mangrove Protection and Plantation Management Natural regeneration is normal in mangrove forests and is characterized by discrete pockets of seedlings growing very close to one another, where the high tide has deposited them. This high density of seedlings appears to give protection from the sun, wind and tide whilst the seedlings are taking root. Over time the strongest ones survive and the mature trees are more evenly spaced. Very few A marina seedlings appear to survive directly under the mature trees. In poor rainfall years the seed setting and survival of A marina is much reduced compared to high rainfall years. This results in a very patchy age gradation in many mangrove stands.

Natural regeneration needs to he assisted because the reduction of fresh water input from the River Indus , the succession of poor rainfall years, the intensity of camel grazing in some areas and the smothering effects of seaweed in the northern creeks, all hinder regrowth. Whenever there are very thick pockets of natural seedlings, they can be thinned out by

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transplanting into adjoining blank areas. Care must be taken to ensure that the root structures of the young plants are riot managed. Transplanting cannot be done after a certain age, usually about 6 to 9 months, and certainly not after the formation of pneumatophores.

Another method to assist natural regeneration is to place old fishing nets in front of the mother plants growing along the fringes of the creeks at the time of seedfall. The seeds are caught by the net which prevents them from being washed away by the tide, and gives them a chance to take root. Similarly, nets can be set to trap seeds brought in by the tide where plantation is required, and a uniform growth of seedlings can be obtained.

In the face of widespread marine pollution, which encourages the growth of seaweed, it is not feasible to protect all the seedlings and saplings from damage due to smothering. There are several measures that can be taken to protect the seedlings. These include the physical removal on. a regular monthly basis of sea-weeds entangling the seedlings and saplings. It is a cumbersome labour-intensive and care must be taken not to damage the seedlings during the process. Normally, the nursery stock is planted in the high lying areas or the large polypots seedings are used in the low-lying areas. In this way when planting in areas where seaweed may be a problem, the complete coverage of the seedling by the water, and hence the floating seaweed, may be minimized. In some countries the plants are protected from seaweed, as well as currents and winds, by fixing a breakwater or tree guard. This has been tried in the Indus Delta, without much success, because of physical damage to the breakwater and because of its removal by fishermen.

Due to grazing pressure, young plantations need to be protected from the damage caused by herds of camels and buffaloes. There are two measures, which can be taken to avoid this. One is to get the agreement of the camel herders not to use certain islands for grazing. This might be part of a larger rotational grazing agreement or it might be a simple exclusion to allow a specific plantation to develop. Alternatively, if the plantation does not cover a whole island, but a discrete part of it, which has been used by the camel herders in the past, enclosure of the plantation by fencing is required. The most successful material to use is a single strand of barbed wire set at a height of about 150 cm, but this is a costly; old fishing net and brushwood fencing have also been used. Theft can be a problem, and an understanding with the herders, camels’ owners and village headmen is helpful.

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Chapter 7

Research and Training needs

An examination of the literature on mangroves reveals that the majority of publications are descriptive accounts of the flora, fauna, soils and on general ecology of mangrove ecosystems. These accounts have provided a considerable body of information on the taxonomy, species composition and distribution of mangrove vegetation and its associated fauna. Yet, despite a trend in recent years towards a more quantitative approach in mangrove research, relatively little is known about many of the key ecological processes that regulate growth, productivity and cycling of nutrients and organic materials either within mangrove systems or between them and adjacent ecosystems.

Although there is still a need for further descriptive studies in Pakistan, a major research thrust directed towards fuller understanding of the mangrove ecosystem functions is urgently needed. Studies along these lines have already been initiated in IUCN-Pakistan and other concerned departments, but a greater research effort is necessary in order to provide a sound ecological basis for effective utilization and management of mangrove resources.

Some of the needs in basic as well as specific research have been identified as follows:

7.1 ECOPHYSIOLOGY

It is recognized that the survival and growth to maturity of the plant and animals of the mangrove ecosystem depends on key morphological and physiological adaptations to a wide range of environmental variables. Although in recent years some progress has been made in identifying and assessing key physiological and ecophysiological process, large gaps in fundamental knowledge never the less remain. Chief amongst these are:

1. Plants (a). Physiology, phenology and growth especially in relation to temperature salinity, and to nutritional requirements for major nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus and for trace elements such as iron, manganese and molybdenum; (b) photosynthetic and respiratory responses to temperature, salinity, insolation and other environmental factors; and (c) studies of the likely critical role of oxidized rhizopheres in regulating nutrient availability and mineral toxicities. 2. Animals: Morphological and physiological adaptation such as life and seasonal cycles, photoperiodicity, feeding behaviour, physiology, reproduction and respiratory and osmotic adaptations.

7.2 MICROBIOLOGY OF MANGROVE ECOSYSTEMS

While it is known that bacteria, cyanobacteria and fungi play an important role in mineralization and chemical transformation in the mangrove soils, these organism on the whole have been little studied. Microbiology-mediated processes in particular need of further study are:

1. Mineralization of organic materials. 2. Chemical transformations in oxidized rhizospheres, especially in relation to nutrients mobility, availability and utilization, and mineral toxicity. 3. Possible role of symbiotic relationships in rhizosphere.

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7.3 PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY

The transformation of inorganic carbon to organic carbon by photosynthetic and chemosynthethic organisms, including mangrove plants, forms the basis of he life support system of mangrove ecosystems. While the relative contributions of the major primary producer organisms may vary from site to site, there is a need for further basic studies of primary production. Aspects identified as being in particular need of further investigation are:

1. Primary productivity of mangrove trees (forests), with emphasis on nutrient deficiencies and mineral toxicities, canopy structure and characteristics, and stand density and structure; 2. Primary productivity of mangrove waters, with particular emphasis on size distribution and relative abundance of phyto-plankton components and dark fixation; 3. Microbial primary production in mangrove soils and adjacent mudflats; and 4. Primary production by epiphytic and bethetic diatoms, algae and flagellates.

7.4 TURNOVER, DECOMPOSITION AND NUTRIENT CYCLING

When as most terrestrial forests ecosystems are essentially closed systems, mangrove ecosystem are intrinsically open system having substantial inputs and outputs of material and energy. Despite this different, traditional notions of nutrients cycling derived from terrestrial system are often inappropriately applied to mangrove ecosystems. The role of leaf litter production in organic turnover and nutrient cycling is now reasonably well documented, although there may still be a need for some further site specifics. There are major gaps, however, in our understanding of other processes and pathways involved in turnover and decomposition. There are:

1. Turnover of fine roots and rooting hairs; 2. Identification of chemical nature of root exudates, their role in nutrient cycling and transport in mangrove ecosystems, and their influence on nutrient availability; and 3. Decomposition in the relative contribution of various detrivores and decomposes tends to be site specific, but further basic work is needed on the effects of climatic and edaphic factors on rates of decomposition.

7.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF MANGROVE FOR FISHERY RESOURCES

It is generally recognized that atleast in some areas, mangrove systems play an important role as nurseries and a partial source of food for a number of commercially important fishes and other organisms. While this role is often quite site specific, there is nevertheless a need for more basic research on specific aspects. These are:

1. The behavior of larvae, juveniles and other life stages of economically important species; and 2. Quantifying the organic matter and nutrient export from different types of mangrove ecosystem.

7.6 FOOD WEB STUDIES

Descriptive studies, including in some cases just contents. have added much to an understanding of the nature of mangrove related food webs. However, serious assessments of their quantitative significance are lacking. These include quantification of energy and material flow within and between different trophic levels using stable radioactive isotope ratios and other chemical tracers.

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7.7 PEST, DISEASES AND HUMAN HEALTH

Apart from borers and a few other pests, very little information is available about plant diseases and animal parasite of mangrove regions. Few studies have been conducted on mangrove fishes, shell fishes and crustaceans in Karachi University and Marine Fisheries department. Aspects which require further studies are:

1. Isolation and culture of viral, microbial, fungal and parasitic diseases of plants and animals in the mangrove ecosystems; 2. Salinity tolerance limits of vectors or intermediate hosts from human diseases; and 3. Studies on health problems of human inhabitants of mangrove areas.

Apart from the above-mentioned areas there are several other aspects which deserve attention. However, needs would be able to decide the priorities. Some of the basic and Pakistan specific needs are enumerated in the following table.

Table : Research and training needs in Pakistan

Gaps in Basic Research

1.0 Ecophysiology 1.1 Plant 1.1.1 Effect of salinity 1.1.2 Nutritional requirement (nitrogen, iron, phosphate) 1.1.3 Role of molybdenum 1.1.4 Trace elements 1.1.5 Studies in rhizopheres of mangroves 1.1.6 Photosynthesis / respiration in relation to insolation 1.1.7 Physiology and phenology 1.2 Animals 1.2.1 Morphological adaptation (life and seasonal cycles) 1.2.2 Physiological adaptations (respiratory, osmotic, photoperiodicity and reproductive cycle) 2.0 Determination of various activities in fishing 3.0 Role of microbial organisms 4.0 Productivity 4.1 Forest 4.1.1 Nutrient deficiency 4.1.2 Canopy characteristics and structures 4.1.3 Foliage productivity 4.1.4 Stand density and structure 4.2 Water 4.2.1 Optimum water requirement of mangrove ecosystems 4.3 Soil 4.4 Benthic 4.4.1 Algae and tertiary organisms 5.0 Turnover, decomposition and nutrient cycling. 6.0 Food webs 6.1 Imbalance of natural and man made changes in the food chain. 7.0 Determination of role of mangrove on the behavior of the larvae of economically important species. 8.0 Pests, diseases and human health.

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Gaps in Specific Research

1.0 Forestry 1.1 Reforestation and Afforestation (regeneration exotic and indigenous species trial) 1.2 Comparative study on the growth rate of the mangrove in natural and cultivated areas 1.3 Structure of animals and low plants and weeds in the mangrove forests. 2.0 Hydrological studies 3.0 Aquaculture as mangrove department 4.0 Wildlife 5.0 Impact assessment of capture and captive fisheries 6.0 Integrated research on multiple use ecosystem of forestry and fishery production 7.0 Impact of conversion of mangrove into other landuse types on mangrove ecosystems. 8.0 Climatology 8.1 Study of the microclimatology in certain mangrove areas. 8.2 Relationship between the microclimate and phenology of the mangroves forest in different areas. 9.0 Socioeconomic aspects 9.1 Comparative studies of the productivity, economies and social implications of extensive conversion of mangrove areas.

Training Needs

Conceptualization of training programs should take into consideration the arising immediate needs of the country.

7.8 CONCLUDING REMARKS

The areas for further research outlined above are by no means exhaustive and are not intended to be restrictive. No doubt research on other aspects of the dynamics of mangrove ecosystems will yield important results that will be a benefit to our understanding of how to manage mangrove ecosystems for the benefit of all. To maximize that benefit in the shortest possible time, however, it will be necessary to focus on the major questions relating to key processes, adopting a scientific approach to achieving goals (objectives) and using sound, sampling, experimental and analytical techniques.

As far as training is concerned efforts should be made at national level to educate policy makers, mangrove zone managers, and the local population living in the mangrove zone or dependant upon mangrove resources. To inform them of the widespread economic and ecological functions of the mangroves, and the negative results of mis-management. The policy makers should be made aware that the interpretation of the economic importance of the mangrove zones should include estimates of values within the zone (eg for fisheries, forestry, wildlife reserves) as well as their importance beyond the zone in terms of marine resources (eg. Role as producers, nurseries, shelters and feeding grounds) and inland resources (eg. Protection against cyclonic and other disturbances and control of erosion)

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Chapter 8

Conclusions and Recommendations

This ‘Final Chapter’ chronicles the contribution of the IUCNPs Korangi Ecosystem Project and the results of the activities it has organized and conducted with the cooperation of Norwegian Government (NORAD) and International Society for Mangrove Ecosystem (ISME) and affiliated institutions in Pakistan. As here presented, however, the contents of this report have been enhanced with the added information and perceptions contributed by authors of different mangroves report in Pakistan. Thus we have synthesized documentary product from which the conclusions and recommendations in this chapter have emerged.

Moreover, this chapter also reached out to the combined knowledge arising from the sum of international, regional and national scientific activities during the last 20 years or so which have focussed attention on the mangrove ecosystem. In the form of research, inventory and assessment studies; workshops, seminars, symposiums, forums and other kinds of meetings, literature survey and bibliographic studies, these activities yielded a fund of information on the ecological status, structure and dynamics, utilization, conservation and management of mangrove resources.

From all these sources, we cull facts and observations which can be posted as challenges to everyone concerned with mangroves management and conservation. for this purpose, we delineate the areas of concern as follows:

1) research 2) scientific manpower training 3) management 4) information and communication.

8.1 CONCLUSIONS

8.1.1 Research

In mangrove research, these salient facts must be considered:

1) The overall productivity potential of the mangrove ecosystem, its functioning and its relationship with other coastal ecosystems are not fully assessed or understood; hence, the difficulty confronted in attempts to quantify mangrove resources in terms of production returns or in managing them for optimum yield; and 2) There is vast wealth of uncodified and unrecorded traditional empirical knowledge on mangroves that needs to be methodically transcribed and related to present knowledge acquired through modern scientific methods of investigation.

8.1.2 Scientific Manpower Training

The need is pointed out for strengthening of indigenous manpower capacity in research in order for each country to effectively carryout basic research necessary to estimate. For example, the production potential of specific community, to provide comprehensive and accurate information to planers intending to develop certain mangrove areas or coastal zone in general.

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8.1.3 Management

These observations should be noted:

1) Mangrove ecosystems have demonstrated high value for forestry and fisheries; 2) They are however, under severe and increasing human pressure because a large proportion of tropical coastal populations is mangrove dependent; 3) Mangrove ecosystems are being exploited on the basis of inadequate information; and 4) There is a growing trend toward the utilization of mangrove areas for various and often conflicting purposes. In several mangrove sites in Asia, planned management particularly with respect to forestry and land accretion has been implemented for a number of years. However, the experience and knowledge gained from this practice still needs to be systematically appraised, documented and converted into pragmatic knowledge to be applied widely.

8.1.4 Information and communication.

As noted, the mangrove ecosystems are being exploited on the basis of inadequate information. In addition, the following observations merit equal attention:

1) Awareness of the importance of the mangroves has grown over the past two decades due to the increase of information materials, eg. reports compilations, research papers, fieldwork and the like. Most of the information, however, is presented as a general premise. This limits the possibility of formulating clear and valid guidelines for long term mangrove management on a multiple and sustained use basis. The mangrove ecosystem is a complex system with diverse aspects. Consequently, management recommendations based on general knowledge would be inapplicable in properly dealing with particular management situations. 2) There is an urgent need to improve and facilitate communication among mangrove scientists themselves and between them and policy makers, planners and mangrove managers. Before the UNDP/UNESCO Regional Mangrove Project came into being in the late seventies, it was noted that amazing mangroves scientists and workers in Asia-Pacific countries knew very little of each other and what were going on in various parts of the region in terms of mangrove research and management. The project, as well as subsequent establishment of the Regional Mangrove Information Network and Global Mangrove Information Centre (GLOMIS), have so far done a lot of addressing situation.

8.1.5 Education and Awareness

For a long time, mangrove resources have been the sources of many products of economic importance to man. To many communities, mangroves are considered the “spring of life” that sustains their livelihood and development. Not too well appreciated, but nonetheless, equally if not more important, are the indirect protective and ecological functions of mangroves. Ironically, these varied uses, aggravated by the ever-increasing demands of a growing population, have caused great damage to this ecosystem, to a level where its renewability is threatened. There is therefore an urgent need for some rational and scientific management strategies. Such strategies must be integrated and holistic in their approach, and must consider the human component in overall mangrove ecosystem management.

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8.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

8.2.1 Research and man power training

Scientific research is a continuously developing process that leads to better knowledge and understanding of natural developing process that leads to better knowledge and understanding of natural phenomena. The structure and dynamics of mangrove ecosystem, including its relationship with other coastal systems, must be well understood quantitatively and qualitatively for scientists to be able to provide sound management advice to planners whose decision should ensure the long term sustainability of mangrove resources. Moreover, research scientists must be given opportunities to exchange notes among themselves as well as with planners and resource managers.

However, scientists research is seldom a speedy process, but its pace and efficiency can be enhanced through implementation of mission oriented research. This must be accompanied by more frequent contact and consultation among researcher, which will encourage joint wok and cooperative arrangements in pursuing their respective research program. Through this process, the quality or standard of the research performance can also be better appraised or evaluated.

A major multidisciplinary mangrove research and training program should be organized at a selected site. The research teams for this pilot project should be armed with appropriate technologies and methologies in studying the hydrological, geomorpholocial, ecophysiological and ecological processes in the mangrove ecosystem. Proper delineation of the dynamics of the mangrove ecosystem and its interaction with the related systems in the coastal zone would be a firm basis for management and conservation strategies.

For the activities of the pilot research project, particular attention should be given to the following:

1. The identification and quantification of environmental factors controlling mangrove diversity, stability, primary and secondary productivity in the wide variety of mangrove habitats that occur in the coastal region of Pakistan. 2. The efficient use of remote sensing technology, including high resolution satellite imageries, for coastal zone inventories and for monitoring environmental conditions; 3. The clarification of the nature of microbiological processes and their significance in the dynamics of nutrient cycling in the mangrove ecosystem; 4. Further development of reforestation and afforestration techniques and methologies make different environmental conditions in the mangrove areas and 5. Assessment of cost and benefits resulting from the management of mangrove forests and mangrove converted to other uses. The short term and long term direct and indirect benefits and cost should be assessed.

Advanced training would then be an integral component of the pilot research project in which will participate scientists and mangroves from Sindh and Balochistan provinces. In general, however, more support should be given to research projects and training of technical personnel which concern such critical areas of study on the mangrove ecosystem as biomass and productivity, food chains, energy and material flows, population dynamics and nutrient cycling. Adequate funding from both national and international sources are vital for these research and training needs since they are, by nature, quite expensive to undertake and may require extended period of time to finish. Most of the data needed are likely those, which are, site specific. Thus, the research design should be mission-oriented to select

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areas where the impact on the mangrove ecosystem is most felt, such as integrated area development sites and future human settlement centres. With respect to the existing uncodified and scattered traditional knowledge on the mangrove ecosystem, they should be evaluated and tested for possible validity as management guidelines. The information should be related to the knowledge acquired through experimental research and the synthesis published for wider dissemination and application.

8.2.2 Management

The planning and management of mangrove areas, both at the resource and ecosystem levels, should consider the following:

1. Using the eco-development approach, government should strive to prepare a mangrove utilization / management plan illustrated with maps and statistics of the mangrove areas to be allocated for. a) Sustained yield production, b) Preservation and c) Conversion to other landuses such as aquaculture, oil drilling, port and harbour development or human settlements. 2. Appropriate rules and regulations should be formulated to support the national mangrove utilization / management plan. This calls for legislation, administrative orders and the like which are designed to curb over exploitation and unwise mangrove conversion to other land uses. 3. More pilot studies should be conducted on the use of novel techniques in extended benefit- cost analysis as applied to various developmental uses of mangrove areas and in support of ecological – economic valuation of various tradeoffs associated with the different mangrove uses. 4. At the planning level, multi-disciplinary teams of experts / planners should be tapped to properly integrate all ecologic / environmental and socio-economic components of alternative schemes for mangrove development. 5. Mangrove resource managers and planner should take advantage of the multi-level remote sensing approach in gathering baseline information for continuous inventory, assessment and monitoring of mangrove areas. This approach, which utilizes the combination of satellite remote sensing, ground reconnaissance and intensive field surveys has proven to be cost and time effective, as well as reasonably accurate for planning and decision making purposes.

8.2.3 Information and communication

The need for more information material on various aspects of the mangrove ecosystem has been underscored together with wider dissemination and/or/easier access to them. Among the steps recommended for this purpose, the strengthening of Global Mangrove Information Centre (GLOMIS) has received general endorsement from international, regional and national agencies and institutions concerned or involved in conserving, preserving and judiciously managing the remaining mangrove areas all over the world.

Furthermore, the present scope of information and communication, the activities should be expanded to cover the entire coastal zone and its varied mangrove related ecosystems. Thus the information to be gathered will be doubly meaningful since they will be useful not only to the mangrove sector but also to other specific users of information about the different components of the whole coastal system.

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8.2.4 Education and awareness

Mangrove ecosystems are essential for the survival of people along Pakistan coast. Some of the mangrove resources are becoming increasingly important as source of income for the village people. As a result there will be an increase in the rate of exploitation of those resources. Hence there is a need to work out ways of protecting and conserving mangrove ecosystems.

People living in an around mangroves should be made aware of the importance of the mangrove ecosystems as a whole. Attempts should be made to make village people understand the environmental and social impacts of large scale exploitation operations on their land; eg. Mangrove fellings for industrialization and urbanization. Moreover active involvement of the community, local government and private industry should be enlisted and harnessed to protect, rehabilitate and conserve mangrove areas. This necessitates a more vigorous extension and information campaign and the participation of the various sectors in planning and implementing of conservation and development program for the mangrove.

Finally, the conclusions and recommendation have presented and derived from country experiences, results of projects and activities initiated by IUCN Mangrove Ecosystem project, Sindh Forest Departments, Mangrove Rehabilitation in the Indus Delta project and from general observation cannot be pursued and sustained without regional cooperation and strong commitment among countries in Asia and the Pacific. Some very solid evidence atleast to the fact that this desired condition is now in place in the region and will be nourished in the future.

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Appendix-I

ASSESSMENT OF MANGROVES COASTAL RESOURCES OF PAKISTAN USING SATELLITE REMOTE SENSING TECHNOLOGY

1. INTRODUCTION

Pakistan has a long coastline of about 950 km along the Arabian Sea. It extends from Sir Creek on the Indian side in the east to Gwadar Bay on the Iranian border in the west. It has a territorial coastal zone of 23,820 sq. km and an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of more than 266,650 sq. km (Siddiqui, et al.,1991). The coast of Pakistan is divided into the coasts of Sindh and Balochistan, also called the Makran coast. This coastal zone is endowed with abundant natural resources, like mangrove forests and possesses the largest arid climate mangrove forests of the world. The large mangrove forests are found all along the muddy coast of Sindh at Karachi and on Indus deltaic region. Other smaller mangrove forests occur along the coast of Balochistan in three small isolated pockets at Miani Hor, Kalmat Khor and Gwadar Bay (Jiwani lagoon). The locations of mangrove forests along the coastal belt of Pakistan are shown in Landsat TM mosaic image in Figure 1.

Mangrove forests constitute an important productive ecosystem of tropical and sub-tropical countries around the world. They provide a range of valuable forest products such as wood, fuel-wood and fodder. They also provide shelter and serve as nursery and breeding grounds for prawns, crabs and many species of fishes and habitat as well as for certain species of birds and mammals. They bind silt, accrete shorelines, halt erosion of beaches and of coastline and prevent flooding. The mangrove ecosystem of Indus Delta is under great stress. Its areal extent has considerably shrunk, due to human interventions and environmental changes. The construction of dams and barrages on the Indus River has reduced the discharge of fresh water into the delta. Consequently, tidal seawater penetrates further into the delta area, raising the salinity and turbidity in the region, which in turn is damaging the mangrove forests and has so far, eliminated several mangroves species in the deltaic region. The uncontrolled cutting of trees for firewood and fodder needs has further accelerated the reduction and degradation of mangroves vegetation. There are several man- made activities going-on, on the coast of Pakistan, especially at the coast of Karachi for urban development, which could further reduce the growth of local mangroves vegetation. Additionally the mangroves of Indus Delta are facing the problem of pollution from the many industries in the Karachi area and from oil discharged by ships visiting Karachi and Bin Qasim Ports. As a result, the mangrove forests are suffering from environmental changes and are rapidly deteriorating and disappearing (Siddiqui, et al., 1989).

Mapping and monitoring of mangroves is therefore, necessary to preserve them and to protect them from degradation. Although areas under mangroves have been mapped by many concerned agencies in Pakistan, the mangroves distribution record is not very accurate. Such maps become outdated, due to the dynamic nature of mangrove ecosystem. Moreover, the surveying methods used for mapping mangroves are usually old and conventional. There is, therefore, a need to map and monitor them using new and latest technologies like Satellite Remote Sensing.

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2. POTENTIAL OF SATELLITE REMOTE SENSING (SRS) DATA For the last three decades, Satellite Remote Sensing (SRS) technique has been found very useful in monitoring natural resources and environmental surveying. The repetitive and synoptic coverage provided by remote sensing satellites are proved to be extremely useful in providing information on various components of the coastal environment, viz., coastal landforms, mangrove forests, mangrove forests degradation, monitoring land accretion and erosion, shoreline changes, delineating tidal boundaries and brackish water areas, suspended sediments, etc. Several studies have been carried out in SUPARCO on the applications of SRS data for monitoring and mapping coastal resources of the country along the coast, including monitoring and mapping mangroves ecosystems of Indus delta of Sindh and also along the Makran coast, monitoring and mapping land accretion and erosion along the coast of Indus delta, monitoring deforestation in the mangroves ecosystem of Indus delta, etc, using low resolution Landsat MSS (80m), and high resolution Landsat TM (30m) and SPOT XS (20m) data. From these studies, it was established that SRS data could effectively be used for conducting such surveys at a relatively low cost and without extensive fieldworks.

3. AIM OF THE PROJECT

Under a contractual agreement between International Union of Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Pakistan and Pakistan Space & Upper Atmosphere Research Commission (SUPARCO), a study to assess the mangroves coastal resources of Pakistan using satellite remote sensing technology has been carried out by Remote Sensing Applications Division of SUPARCO. The assessment includes to monitoring and mapping the current status of mangrove forests along the coast of Sindh at Karachi and on Indus delta region and at Miani Hor, Kalmat Khor and Gawadar Bay (Jiwani) along the Makran coast, Balochistan. For the current status of mangrove forests in the above-mentioned areas, the high resolution SPOT XS (20m) data acquired in January 2003 by SUPARCO’s Satellite Ground Station at Islamabad, have been used. Monitoring and mapping of mangrove forests and other natural vegetation, mudflats, sandy areas, saline areas, turbidity levels and water channels, etc., along the coast of Sindh and Balochistan was carried out. A list of SPOT XS data used in this project has been listed in Annex-I.

4. DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREAS

4.1 The Coast of Sindh:

The coastal belt of Sindh extends from Cape Monze in the west to Sir Creek in the east covering a total length of 236 km along the Arabian Sea (as computed from Landsat TM mosaic of the coastal belt of Pakistan, shown in Figure 1). The coastal belt of Sindh has two distinct units, the western coast and the southern coast. The western coast extending from Hub River fall near Cape Monze to Karachi Harbour area consists of rocky shores, sandy beaches, backwater and estuaries, etc. The southern coast of Sindh is called the Indus Delta consists of creeks of the delta and inshore waters with tidal mud flats and creek channels. The entire coastline of Sindh is studded with mangrove forests, which occur along the muddy coast of Karachi and in the Indus Deltaic region, which has the usual mixing of fresh water from the Indus River and salty water from the Arabian Sea. The dominant mangroves species in this area is Aviciennia marina, which covers about 95% of the total mangrove area. The entire coastal area of Sindh is included in the warm monsoon climatic region. The overall climate is pleasant due to sea breeze, which blows all the year round except local disturbances during some days in winter and summer months (Siddiqui, et al, 1991).

4.2 The Makran Coast:

The Makran coast is about 714 km long spread from Sonmiani Bay near Karachi to Jiwani Bay near Dasht River at the Iranian border (computed from Landsat TM mosaic of coastal belt of

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Pakistan shown in Figure 1). The continental shelf along the Makran coast is very narrow and is about 22 to 30 km wide and there is no large river or stream to bring nutrients for the fish. Fishing is mostly done in bays of Khors and Creeks. Pasni, Ormara and Gwadar are the three important fishing ports. In the dry and almost barren coast, the fishing is a significant economic importance. The only rivers of importance in the south are the Porali, Hingol and Dasht Rivers, which flow into the Arabian Sea. The coastal wastelands grow grasses and mangroves type of vegetation that is flooded by high tides twice a day. The mangrove forests are found in three small pockets at Miani Hor, Kalmat Khor and Jiwani Bay. The area has an arid climate with warm summer and cool winter prevails all along the coastline of Balochistan (Mirza and Ali, 1989).

5. METHODOLOGY

For coastal resource assessment, high resolution SPOT XS data of 2003 were processed digitally using dedicated PC based Image Processing System. The raster image data of the required scenes were imported from CD-ROMs to the hard disk of the system and images were displayed in Color Composite forms, in order to evaluate the data quality and geographical area coverage. Images were enhanced and rectified. To cover the whole Indus Delta region, nine rectified images were mosaiced digitally. In order to use only the requisite study area, the outside areas were masked to get accurate statistics of each class. The mosaiced data were classified into different landuse classes using unsupervised classification technique, depending on the features in an image.

For confirmation and accuracy of classification, representative classes or training sites have been selected from the enhanced and classified images, and used in the ground survey that was arranged by IUCN. The first ground survey was conducted of Shahbandar area of Indus delta, where IUCN planted high salt tolerant and fast growing species of mangroves called, Rhizophoras conjugate (Kumri) in 1986 to1988. The second survey was conducted of the whole coastline of Karachi from Hawkes Bay to near Pot Qasim area covering Sands pit, Manora, Mouth of Lyari River, Chinna Creek, Boating Basin, Korangi Creek, Rehri Goht and Lat Basti (near Landhi Cattel colony) in Korangi Creek area. This survey helped in improving the results. Also, some ground information collected by ground observation and from the local people were used in improving the results. Using this information, the detailed spectral classifications of images using supervised techniques were carried out and the scheme of land cover classes has been designed, each of which has its own significance for the research work. The drainage patterns pertaining to all four-study areas have been digitized and were integrated with the classified images. Satellite image maps and landuse forest cover thematic maps of mangrove forests of the Coast of Karachi i.e., Karachi Harbour area and Indus Delta region; and of Miani Hor, Kalmat Khor and Jiwani Lagoon along the Sindh and Makran Coasts, respectively were compiled by adding drainage and annotation layers.

6. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Landuse classification is extremely important for formulating development scheme in any region. Any landuse planning being dynamic and not static, flexible and not rigid, capable of being adapting to changing conditions. Therefore, updated landuse information is of great significance in planning and management. On enhanced colour composite images the mangroves vegetation appears in different shades of red, depending upon their densities/canopy cover. While other natural vegetation in dark brownish red, mud flats in gray, sandy areas in bright white, saline areas with dull white, creek channels in dark blue to light blue (depending upon sediments level in the creek water) and deep sea in black colour. On the basis of the spectral classes, the landuse/ landcover maps of mangrove forests in the coastal zones of Pakistan covering above study areas have been prepared. These are the preliminary results, which will be finalized after completion of surveys of Miani Hor and Kalmat Khor of Makran Coast and Ketti Bunder of Indus Delta area.

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6.1 The Sindh Coast

The enhanced satellite colour image and categorized thematic map showing different landuse / landcover classes of Karachi Harbour area are shown in Figures 2 and 3, respectively and of Indus Delta region are shown in Figures 4 and 5, respectively. The mangroves forests areas along the coast of Sindh were measured from these landuse-categorized maps.

6.1.1 The Karachi Harbour Area

The enhanced satellite colour image of Karachi Harbour area covering the coast of Karachi from Manora channel to Chinna Creek is shown in Figure 2. The categorized landuse thematic map of Karachi Harbour area, showing different landuse classes is shown in Figure 3. The mangrove, in this area has a well-developed structure, close canopy and has a vigorous appearance, especially at Manora Island. This site has almost all forms of pollution that might be expected with an urban metropolitan area close to a major seaport. The mangroves in this area are harvested for cattle and camel fodder and also used for firewood and timber by the local people living in nearby villages. In mangroves harvesting areas at Sands pit and Manora Island, marine `algae’ has grown in mangrove habitat. This has been identified on ground as well as on the SPOT image with dark brownish patches. The domestic sewage of Karachi City coming from Lyari River may decrease the salinity level in the area locally to their benefit and provide nutrient to mangroves. The surface deposits of crude oil and bilge wastes are interspersed in seawater but these materials seem to have little or no effect on the structure and functioning of the mangrove forests stand.

6.1.2. The Western Part of the Delta

The enhanced satellite colour image and categorized thematic map of Indus Delta Region showing different landuse / landcover classes area are shown in Figures 4 and 5, respectively. The western part of the delta covering an area between Karachi from the mouth of Malir River at Gizri Creek and up to Hajamro Creek (Fig. 4). This area has mud flats, sand and numerous tidal creeks such as the Gizri Creek, Korangi-Phitti Creek, Waddi - Khuddi Creek, Paitiani Creek, Dabbo Creek and Sisa Creek, that are lined with stunted mangroves on sand / silt substrate. This segment of Indus Delta has well developed mangroves forest stand with close canopy, vigorous appearance and a relatively high basal area than in other parts of the Indus delta and is thinly populated. The mangroves in this area are harvested for cattle and camel fodder, especially at Korangi-Phitti Creek side during the dry season, as the mangroves represent the only green foliage present in the region during that part of the year. Thus this area is under influence of heavy grazing pressure.

The significant changes in mangroves forests in this part of the delta has been observed by comparing the SPOT XS mosaic image of 2003 with historical Landsat TM data of 1990 & 1998. The dense mangroves deteriorated in this area due to dumping of dredged material during the construction of Port Qasim, was also appear clearly on SRS data, with bright white dots. It has also been observed that the channel banks are under continuous erosion due to movements of ships in the channel and producing a high sedimentation in the channel and this posing as continues dredging is required for cleaning the channel for heavy vessels. The dredged materials i.e. sandy salty soil dumped on Island in Jhari Creek is very prominent with bright patches in SPOT image. In some areas, the density of mangroves vegetation has been increased because of the proper management by Port Qasim Authority.

There are several man-made activities going-on, on the coast of Pakistan, which could be further detrimental to the growth of local mangroves vegetation. The mangroves disappeared from the western bank of Gizri Creek near the mouth of Malir River because of reclamation work taken place for urban development in the Defense Housing Society. On this land, a golf course has been made, which is shown by reddish pink color on thematic image in Figure 5. The built-up area at Clifton beach is shown in white.

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6.1.3 The Middle Part of the Delta

This part of the delta covers the mouth of Indus River, covering Hajamro Creek, Turshian River, Qalandri River, Khar Creek and Kharak Creek, up to the town of Ketti Bunder. The Ketti Bunder is a small village situated within the delta to the north of the major Indus spill river. In the past 50 years, because of increased utilization of the flow of fresh water from the Indus River for agriculture purposes and for the production of hydroelectric power, the Indus now discharges fresh water to the ocean only during monsoon flooding. During the other remaining months of the year, the Indus has very less or no water. The reduced inflow of fresh water ostensibly increasing salinity of both the surface water and sediments load and decreasing the nutrient supply from the terrestrial fresh water, thus effecting the growth of mangroves plantation and the mangroves at the mouth of River Indus have been disappeared. The retreat of the Indus delta to the northeast and subsequent reduction in the Indus river discharge to the sea due to the constructions of dams and barrages has further stressed the ecosystem considerably, because of the high salinity and turbidity, which prevails along this part of the delta and appears prominently in SPOT image of 2003, as shown with yellow colour in landuse forest map. The dry sandy areas along the coast are also very prominent and appear with bright white patches and delineated with red colour in landuse mangroves forest map of the Indus Delta. The local people are also harvesting the remaining sparse mangrove vegetation for fuel wood and fodder.

6.1.4. The Eastern Part of the Delta

The eastern part of the delta covers the area between Kharak Creek to Sir Creek. This area is barren and has very little and stunted mangroves vegetation. The soil conditions are unsuitable for vegetation and the area is characterized by the presence of salinised hardpan, interspersed with sandbars (Siddiqui, et al, 2000). The soil is 60–70% fine sand and 30-40% silts. The area becomes marshy during rains. The salt deposits are clearly visible in the satellite images. Shah Bandar area situated in the north-eastern part of the delta, a small patch of mangroves vegetation is located, which is under water and there is no vegetation in 1989 Landsat image. But some vegetation has been seen in 1998 Landsat image, which has further improved in 2003. On ground survey of Shah Bandar area, it is seen that this area is under mangroves plantations. IUCN set up a nursery in this area and planted a fast growing and high salted deserted mangrove species, Rhizophoras conjugate (Kumri), between 1986- 1988. In ground survey, it is observed that this area is now under dense plantations of Rhizophoras conjugate, of 6 to 12 ft height, and spread over an area of about 5000 acres. Small growth of the mangrove species Aviciennia marina of height of about 2 to 5 ft was also found along the creek sides.

The sediments create turbidity, which is very high in this part of Indus delta. The Sir Creek outlet, located in the southeast at Indo-Pakistan border, is under high sedimentation. This turbidity and siltation can effect mangroves harmfully by reducing gaseous exchange and oxygen supplies to their roots system, because of that a very little mangroves are found in this part of the delta. Cyclone –TC 02A, which occurred in May 1999, devastated Thatta and Badin districts, also destroyed the mangroves forest of Kharak Creek, Kahgar Creek and Sir Creek areas.

6.2 The Makran Coast

6.2.1 Miani Hor

The Miani Hor is a lagoon, which is situated approximately 95 km west of Karachi in the province of Balochistan. This tidal lagoon is about 50 km long and 20 km wide and its total area is 363 sq. km. The Porali River and its distributaries drain Lasbela valleys into the Miani lagoon. The lagoon charges greatly between high and low tides. Typically the area comprises narrow twisting channels, with steep mud banks visible at low tide surrounded by

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numerous flat islets of mud covered with mangrove trees. Aviciennia marina (local name Timmar), Rhizophoras conjugate (Kumri) and Ceriops tagel (Kain) are three common varieties of mangroves present in the Miani lagoon. The lagoon is fringed by tens of kms long beach ridges. Dense mangroves have grown at the estuary of Porali River, where fresh water supply is in abundance. The enhanced satellite colour image of Miani Hor is shown in Figures 6. The categorized landuse thematic map showing different landuse classes in Miani Hor area based on SPOT XS data is shown in Figure 7. On this map dense mangroves are shown in green, normal mangroves in magenta and sparse vegetation in orange colour.

6.2.2 Kalmat Khor

The Kalmat Khor is a one of the largest tidal lagoons located 320 km west of Karachi along the western Makran coast near Pasni. The region is extremely dry and barren, because the lagoon occasionally receives fresh water from the hill torrents from the north. On the seaward side, it is fringed by long beach ridges and show extensive mud flats inside. Limited fresh water supply has permitted a few scattered shrubs and mangroves to grow at the central estuaries near Chundi Village and in the southern part of the lagoon at Kalmat Village (Rasool and Saifullah, 1996). Only one species Aviciennia marina in shrub form was found in this area, due to lack of runoff from the mainland and consequent hyper salinity in the area. The mangroves of Kalmat Khor are under severe harvesting pressure from the local inhabitants, who use mangrove parts as fuel and fodder for cattle and camels. Another factor affecting the lagoon was the high rate of sedimentation and siltation, which originates from the surrounding hills. During erratic rains the sediments are drained down the slopes and enter into the lagoon. The satellite image map of Kalmat lagoon is shown in Figures 8. The landuse/landcover map showing different classes, based on SPOT XS data is shown in Figure 9.

6.2.3 Gwadar Bay

Gwadar Bay is located in the extreme west of Makran coast at the Pakistan - Iranian border facing the entrance of the Gulf of Oman. The Dasht Kaur (River) is the main source of fresh water into the bay and forms a wide floodplain and a small delta inside it. As a result, a number of landforms, like mudflats, tidal flats, accretion edges, wetlands, etc., are present which indicates an overall depositional environment (Mirza and Ali, 1992). Only one species of mangroves, Aviciennia marina prevails in the Jiwani lagoon located in the east of Dasht River. Here low and swampy ground is liable to flood in the vicinity of Dasht Kaur. The Jiwani town is located to the south of lagoon near the rocky platform at the coast. The area has a maritime desert climate. Air temperatures are high with a mean value ranging between 18°C and 31°C. Rainfall is very scanty with a mean monthly range of 0-34mm. The area is not affected by summer monsoons and the monthly distribution shows a peak value in winter. Seawater temperature and salinity are also high indicating the extreme climatic conditions. The satellite image map of Jiwani lagoon and its landuse thematic image, showing different land classes are shown in Figures 10 and 11, respectively.

7.0 CONCLUSION

This research study demonstrated that Satellite Remote Sensing (SRS), because of its synoptic coverage, multispectral recording and repetitiveness, found be a very useful tool for mapping and monitoring the mangrove forests, sediment deposition, mudflats and other coastal features on a continuing basis. SRS data has been useful in the measurement of the areal extent of a mangrove ecosystem. From the analysis, it is measured that 97% of mangroves are found in the Indus Delta region and 3% in the Province of Balochistan. The multispectral digital analysis of satellite data has been helpful in the identification of the spectral signatures of mangrove plants, enabling differentiation between dense and sparse mangrove and other vegetation and the extent of mudflats. The decreased and increased in mangrove forests area could be possible by using multidate / multi-temporal SRS data, which

- 80 Mangrove of Pakistan – Status and Management

can be used to identify site, extent and rate of change in a mangrove forest and in areas undergoing accretion or erosion. Satellite remote sensing can therefore be an effective tool for mangrove researchers and planners and can provide important and useful information for many resource management decisions relating to the conservation of mangrove ecosystem.

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ASSESSMENT OF MANGROVE FORESTS ALONG THE

COAST OF PAKISTAN USING SATELLITE REMOTE SENSING TECHNIQUE

K a r a c h i Kinjhar Lake

s u d n I I

n r e d v u i s R A r a b D e i l a t n a

S e a

Remote Sensing Applications Division

Pakistan Space & Upper - Atmosphere Research Commission82 (SUPARCO), P.O. Box 8402, Karachi - 75270 E-mail: [email protected] Mangrove of Pakistan – Status and Management

Fig. 2: Reflectance Curves of SPOT XS and Pan Sensors showing behaviour of different objects in different Spectral bands.

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Assessment of Mangrove Forests of Pakistan through Satellite Remote Sensing Technique

Fig. 9: Landuse / Landcover Map of Indus Delta Region based on SPOT XS Data of January 2003.

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Legend:

Dense Mangroves Nor mal Mangroves Sparse Mangroves Natural Vegetation Dry Mud Flats Wet Mud Flats M i a n i H o r Sandy Area Saline Area Deep Water Shallow Water Turbid Water Highly Turbid Water B u r ra

Fig.20: Enhanced View of Landuse Map of Miani Hor, Sonmaini Bay based on SPOT XS Data of January 2003.

- Fig. 24: Landuse / Landcover Map of Kalmat Khor, Balochistan based on SPOT XS of January 2003. 85 Mangrove of Pakistan – Status and Management

Chundi

Kalmat

Fig.25 (a): Mangrove Forests near Chundi Village. Fig.25 (b): Mangrove Forests near Kalmat Village. Legend :

Mangroves Natural Vegetation Deep Water Mud Flats Shallow Water

Rocky / Barren Area Turbid Water Sandy Area Highly Turbid Water

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Appendix-II

Tasman Spirit Oil Spill (TSOS) Mangrove Resource Study Natural Resource Damage Assessment (NRDA) 1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND On September 27, 2003, the Tasman Spirit grounded in the KPT’s navigational channel along the West Coast of Karachi. The tanker contained 67,500 tons of light crude oil that has been loaded in Iran. Pakistan’s Coast Guard and KPT authorities reported oil bubbling up from the tanker and a slick containing sheen with some brown oil extending 10 by 3 nautical miles. The tanker continued to leak oil for more than 16 days. On 13 August the tanker broke into two pieces and over 27,000 tons oil spilled out upto 18 August. The actual amount of oil lost in the spill has not been fully determined, however, KPT claims that 37,000 tons have recovered from the ship.

The oil is a major pollution threat in the North Arabian Sea as there are tanker routes linking the Persian Gulf to the Atlantic Ocean. Pakistan lacks even basic facilities for handling bilge in its ports and small oil spills are common. If the mangrove lenticles and pneumatophores become covered in oil the tree suffocates. The toxicity of substances within the oil, the age and species composition of mangroves and sediment type all affect mangrove survival after spills. The effects of oiling can last for many years. For example, reduced mangrove area and epi-faunal cover is still recorded in Makupa creek, Kenya, ten years spills occurred (UNEP 2003).

These physical impacts of oil are linked to adaptive physiology of the mangrove plants, but are independent of any inherent chemical toxicity of the oil would exacerbate the influence of physical smothering. Although many studies and reviews of mangroves and oil indicate that physical mechanisms are the primary means by which oil adversely affects mangroves, other reviewers and mangrove experts discount this weighting. They suggest that atleast some species can tolerate or accommodate exposure to moderate amounts of oil on breathing roots. Normally more subtle responses include branching of pneumatophores, germination failure, decreased canopy cover, increased rate of mutation, and increased sensitivity to other stresses. (Figure I & II) INDUS DELTA MANGROVES

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Figure – I

Reference: µ Karachi West Coast Courtesy: International Society for Mangroves Ecosystem, Okinawa, Japan

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Figure – II

The lighter or lower molecular weight, aromatic hydrocarbon that often are major component of oil mixtures are also known to damage the cellular membranes in sub-surface roots; this in turn could impair salt exclusions in those mangroves that have the root filters – adaptations to salinity. Disruption of ion transport mechanisms in mangrove roots, as indicated by sodium to potassium ion ratios in leaves, was identified as the cause of oil induced stress to mangroves in the 1973 Zoe Colonel Ocotronis spill in Puerto Rico (Page et al. 1985). Mangroves oiled by the 1991 Gulf War spill in Saudi Arabia showed tissue death on pneumatophores and a response by the plants in which new, branched pneumatophores grew from lenticles – an apparently compensatory mechanism to provide gaseous exchange (Boer 1993). (Figure III A & B)

Figure III A Figure III B Genetic damage is a more subtle effect of oil exposure, but can cause significant impact at the population level. For example, researchers have linked the presence of poly nuclear aromatic hydrocarbon (PAHs) in the soil to an increased incidence of a mangrove mutation in which chlorophyll is deficient or absent. Mangroves such as Rhizophora mucronata are viviparous and can self fertilize, so they are well suited for genetic screening studies such as those examining the frequency of mutations under different conditions. The correlation between sediment PAH concentration and frequency of mutation was a strong one, raising the possibility that a spill can impact the genetic mix of exposed mangroves. (Klekowski et al. 1994a, 1994b)

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2. METHODOLOGY / FIELD SAMPLING

The intent of the field collections and laboratory analysis for chemistry was to characterize changes in the oil that had taken in the mud flat/ fringing mangroves habitat. Discrete samples of oil were collected to provide trend information on oil weathering (evaporation and bio- degradation) as determined by detailed gas chromatography / mass spectrometry analysis (GC/MS). In addition, collected oil samples were source fingerprinted to confirm that they originated with the Tasman Spirit or were derived from some other source, such as bilge pumping.

Mass spectrometry has long been used by many researchers to study oil weathering processes such as evaporative loss, photolytic and biological degradation, and fate of oil spilled into the environment (e.g. Overton, et al. 1980; Michael et al. 1991). The method used for this investigation allowed for simultaneous source finger printing and quantitative analysis of target analysis. Specifically, polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon (PAHs), Sulphur heterocyclic compounds, and related alkylated substituted homologues were monitored for quantitative analysis, while the decalins, steranes, hopanes and allcalnes were to describe weathering trends and source finger printing.

Field sampling and observations programme for oil spill impact assessment was started from October 25, 2003 and completed on December 30, 2003. A team of foresters from Sindh Forest Department and IUCN took part in the field sampling and over sixteen visits were made to the affected areas for sample collection and visual observations. Under the programme four mangrove sites were selected: China Creek, PNS Himalaya/Pir Shams, Bundal Island and Khudi Creek (Figure IV).

Figure IV

The sites were surveyed for mangrove distribution, the extent of damaged vegetation sites and the effects on mangrove. Within each site, a transect consisting of 1m2 grid was established arranged in a line from the most seaweed edge of the site to the upper inter-tidal. From each

- 90 Mangrove of Pakistan – Status and Management transect, two sediments samples from the sea-ward to the upper inter-tidal in the immediate vicinity of trees were taken out shallower depths. At the same time from each transect 2 samples of pneumatophores leaves, branches / twigs and flower / fruit of young and old mangroves were also taken for oil profiling. (Figure V A, B, C, D & E) Visual observations including photography were carried out on the pneumatophores, adventitious roots and leaves of adult trees and young seedlings / samplings of each site. General observations about the impact of oil spillage on the mangrove vegetation including natural regeneration are in progress.

Figure V A Figure V B

Figure V C Figure V D

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Figure V E The Avicenna crop showed very little visible surface oiling. However, removal of recently deposited sand and debris revealed weathered oil trapped between roots and pneumatophores and lower part of the stem. A composite sample was collected from several locations of this kind and designated sample 1-3.

Numerous tar balls varying in size from 1 to 15 centimetres were found along the PNS Himalaya coast. The source of these tar balls was unclear; the furnace oil of ship and leakage from the oil terminals represented a potential candidate, as did the Tasman Spirit. Eleven individual tar balls were collected within radius 10 meter at a single location on the PNS Himalaya coast near the groove of white mangroves.

1000 seedlings / wildings and propagules were collected from China Creek and PNS Himalaya and transplanted into the mangrove nursery in the Korangi creek in order to assess the rate of germination and growth. Similarly 500 container plants of Rhizophora and Avicennia species has been shifted to the China Creek and PNS Himalaya mangroves. This experiment will indicate the overall impact of oil on the young growth of mangroves in 1-2 years. (Figure VI A & B)

Figure VI A Figure VI B

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3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Visual Observation

Based on visual examination of the mangrove environments, no complete dead trees were observed; there appeared to be a 100 percent survival in the PNS Himalaya and China Creek mangroves as of 3 months post spill. However, there were signs of increased stress to the trees, probably as a result of the oil spill.

The Avicennia marina near Karachi port showed extensive defoliation (Figure VII A & B). While there was some defoliation at the time of the spill, the amount of defoliation at 3 month post spill was considerable higher almost twice than at the time of the spill. Close inspection of the trees showed there was little new growth from the visit made one and three months post spill observations of the IUCN / Sindh Forestry department personnel on the islands. Based on visual observations, comparisons between the oiled and un-oiled trees showed that the un-oiled trees had much denser foliage. The readings from the spherical densiometer supported these observations, with a mean canopy cover of 80 percent of the oiled site and 91 percent at the control. The new growth on both the oiled and un-oiled trees appeared to be about the same. This would indicate that the re-growth potential at one to three months post spill was not being inhibited by the oil.

Figure VII A Figure VII B

Most of the leaves that remained on the oiled mangroves were healthy. Mangroves show stress by chlorosis, necrosis and gross deformities (Getter et al 1985). The abundance of new growth would indicate the oiled trees were recovering from the oiling and starting to re-grow.

In the frontage of the creek there were signs of oil on the roots of the plants and in the substrate. The root scarp was not very evident but some thin layer of oil was seen on many portions of these exposed roots. There was oil visible on the wall of PNS Himalaya adjoining of mangroves in the Port area and on the sediments at the base of the trees.

Mangroves were oiled in both PNS Himalaya and China Creek. The oiled mangroves in China Creek were only a small clump of twenty to thirty trees. The trees had trace amounts of oil on the roots at the time of the revisit (Figure VIII). Chemical analysis of this indicated a positive match to the Tasman Spirit oil (NIO 2004). Close observation of the foliage did not reveal any indications of stress; the trees appeared to be fully foliated. All the leaves were healthy without signs of yellowing, leaf loss or necrosis (Figure IX). The densiometer readings showed a 94% canopy cover in the oiled red mangroves and 98 % canopy cover in the un-oiled mangroves. Visual observations have also indicated a denser canopy in the un-oiled areas; this difference is because there were fewer trees.

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Figure VIII Figure IX

LABORATORY ANALYSIS

Samples were collected by IUCN from mangrove areas to evaluate the impact of Tasman Spirit Oil Spill. Samples collected included those of the soil, as well as different sections of the mangrove plants viz. the pneumatophore i.e. the roots, the branches, twigs and leaves. The oil content was determined by analyzing for total hydrocarbon and Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons, PAHs, present in the samples by National Institute of Oceanography.

Total Hydrocarbon in Soil Samples from TSOS Sites

The following Table – I shows that the total hydrocarbon content, THC in the soil is present in almost the same quantity at PNS Himalaya (Samples #1 and #2), which was the first site that was impacted by TSOS, at as far south as Khuddi Island (Sample #7) and at Bundal Island (Sample #6) on the east. Although the NEQS for THC or for Oil & Grease in soil or in the marine environment has not been laid down, yet THC in the range of 54 to 82 mg/Kg is very high in consideration of the limit of 10 ppm laid down for Oil & Grease in wastewaters. Table – I

TSOS Site mg/Kg PNS Himalaya mangrove soil at 6” 82.21 Manora/PNS Himalaya, Mangrove soil in backwaters 54.13 Chinna Creek Soil at 6” 623.45 Bundal Island Soil at Front 54.24 Bundal Island Soil at Backwaters 170.90 Bundal Island Soil from Mudflat at Backwater 59.03 Khuddi Island Soil at Front 88.15

The high THC is not limited to the soil but the following analysis show that TSOS has impacted all the sections of the mangrove plants at the impacted sites. The Pneumatophore, the branches, twigs and leaves have all been severely affected by the oil slick as it traveled from the entrance to Manora Channel to distances as far as Salt pans in the north and towards Chinna Creek on its return passage to the sea.

Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons, PAHs analysis for soil collected from Chinna Creek, shown in a subsequent section, has also indicated their presence in significant quantities. It may be mentioned here that PAHs such as Naphthalene, Fluorene, Fluoranthene/pyrene,

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Benzo(a)anthracene, and Dibenzo(a,h) Anthracene. Benzo(ghi)perylene are all highly carcinogenic.

THC in the Pneumatophore samples, shown in the following Table – II, varies from 123 mg/Kg at PNS Himalaya on the back water to 439.9 mg/Kg at PNS Himalaya on the front and 525.8 mg/Kg at Chinna Creek front. Such high THC in the roots shows that the plants in the area were exposed to quantities beyond the threshold limits that are set at less than 1 mg/Kg. The analyses show the extent of damages done to the growth of mangrove plants and to the marine environment.

Table – II - Total Hydrocarbon in Pneumatophore Samples from TSOS Sites

TSOS Site Mangrove Part mg/Kg PNS Himalaya, Backwater pneumatophore 123.40 PNS Himalaya, Frontage pneumatophore 439.90 Chinna Creek, Frontage pneumatophore 525.84

PAH analysis, given in detail in a subsequent section, for Pneumatophore samples collected from PNS Himalaya also indicate the presence of trace but significant quantities of the highly carcinogenic Naphthalene, Fluorene, Fluoranthene/pyrene and dibenzo(a,h) anthracene.

Table – III - Total Hydrocarbon in Mangrove Samples from TSOS Sites

TSOS Site Mangrove Part Mg/Kg PNS Himalaya Leaves 975.61 PNS Himalaya Leaves 1395.00 PNS Himalaya Twigs 628.25 Chinna Creek Leaves 1.5 m Front 983.37 Chinna Creek Leaves 588.19 Chinna Creek Front Branch 450.96 Chinna Creek Twigs 434.14 Chinna Creek Seedling 1452.19 Chinna Creek Seed 158.10 Bundal Island Twigs 269.00

THC in the samples from different parts of the mangrove plant at the impacted sites are shown in the above Table. It may be seen that THC varies from 158.1 mg/Kg in the seeds to 1452.19 mg/Kg in the seedlings both collected from Chinna Creek. At PNS Himalaya it is found to be 975.61 and 1395.0 mg/Kg in the two sample of leaves and 628.25 mg/Kg in twigs. THC in samples collected from Chinna Creek is lower than that found in samples collected from PNS Himalaya. It ranged from 434.14 mg/Kg in the branch to 450.96 mg/Kg in the twigs of the plant, and varied from 588.19 to 983.37 mg/Kg in the leaves collected from Chinna Creek. THC in the twigs samples collected from Bundal Island was 269.0 mg/Kg.

High THC in the soil and different parts of the mangrove plant, including the Pneumatophore at all the sites shows that vegetation in the respective area was exposed to extremely elevated degrees of hazard, and is far beyond the threshold limits set by NEQS at less than 1 mg/Kg for oil & grease content. These high values are indicative of the massive damage that may have been done to the growth of mangrove plants and to the marine environment.

Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons, PAHs Analysis

Analysis of distribution of PAHs in mangroves soils from PNS Himalaya (Manora), and Chinna Creek after TSOS shows (i) that at Chinna Creek the overall concentration of PAHs is lower compared with that noted at PNS Himalaya, and (ii) that Fluorene, Fluoranthene, Benzo (a)-

- 95 Mangrove of Pakistan – Status and Management anthreacene, Dibenzo (ah) Anthrocene are the only four PAHs found in the soils of the two sites while naphthalene has been noted at the Himalaya site alone. Furthermore Fluoranthene, Fluorene, and Naphthalene are the major components of the PAHs in soil samples collected from PNS Himalaya while fluoranthene and dibenzo (ah) Anthracene are the major constituents of the soil from Chinna Creek.

The presence of only four components and that too in low concentration in the soil as compared with that noted for different parts of the plant suggests that much of the TS oil was lost by the tidal forces which may have caused its dispersion during the lapse of time between the incidence of the spill and collection of sample. The high concentration of fluoanthrene at both sites is nevertheless quite significant in that it is also present in high concentration in the root and bark of the mangrove plant samples collected from there.

The commonality of Fluoranthrene in the soil and plant parts shows that this PAH is easily absorbed by the soil and readily translocated by the plant processes. It could be used as an indicator PAH for future studies if the uptake of TS oil is to be investigated under a long term project.

Distribution Of PAHs In The Mangroves Soils From Various Coastal Areas Of Karachi After TSOS

S.No. PAHs with concentrations Manora Chinna Himalaya Creek (ppb) (ppb) 1 Naphthalene 3.785 (1+2+3) 2 Acenaphthylene 3 Acenaphthylene 4 Fluorene 2.185 (4+5+6) 0.488 (4+5+6) 5 Phenanthrene 6 Anthracene 7 Fluoranthene 3.890 (7+8) 4.407 (7+8) 8 Pyrene 9 Benzo(a)anthreacene 0.567 (9+10) 0.049 (9+10) 10 Chrysene 11 Benzo(b)fluoranthene 12 Benzo(k)fluoranthene 13 Benzo(a)pyrene 14 Dibenzo(ah)Anthrocene 0.904(14) 4.517(14) 15 Benzo(ghi)perylene 16 Indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene Total PAHs 11.332 9.460

The following Table gives the distribution of PAHs in different parts of the mangrove plants in the impacted areas. It shows the presence of trace but significant quantities of the highly carcinogenic Naphthalene, Fluorene, Fluoranthene/pyrene, Benzo (a) anthracene, and Dibenzo(a,h) Anthracene. Benzo(ghi)perylene in all parts of the mangrove plant while the seeds have been found not to contain the PAHs just noted; they on the other hand are found to contain phenanthrene, anthracene, pyrene besides dibenzo(ah)Anthracene, the only PAH that is common between the other part of the plant and the seeds.

Distribution of Various PAHs (EPA Standard) in Mangroves from TS Oil Imparted Sites

S.No PAHs with Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove concentrations Leaves Bark (ppb) Pneumatopho Seed (ppb)

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(ppb) res (ppb) 1 Naphthalene 1.175 (1+2+3) 13.107 (1+2+3) 2 acenaphthylene 3 acenaphthylene 4 Fluorene 0.178 (4+5+6) 2.804 (4+5+6) 1.409 (4+5+6) 5 phenanthrene 0.026 (4+5+6) 6 anthracene 7.990 (7+8) 7 Fluoranthene 0.634 (7+8) 33.538 (7+8) 23.184 (7+8) 8 Pyrene 0.176 (9+10) 9 Benzo(a)anthrea 2.407 (9+10) 9.128 (9+10) cene 10 Chrysene 11 Benzo(b)fluorant 0.424 (11+12) hene 12 Benzo(k)fluoranth ene 13 Benzo(a)pyrene 14 Dibenzo(ah)Anthr 0.007(14) 12.855(14) 10.658(14) 3.784(14) acene 15 Benzo(ghi)peryle 3.859(15) 17.369(15) ne 16 Indeno(1,2,3- 0.124(14) cd)pyrene Total PAHs 8.805 75.693 48.358 11.975

The above Table does not indicate the presence of acenaphthalene, acenaphthylene, chrysene, Benzo (k) fluoranthe, and Benzo (a)pyrene in any part of the mangrove plants. In the absence of finger print of the Tasman Spirit oil, it is difficult to conclude whether this deficiency is inherent from the Iran Crude or otherwise.

Naphthalene, Fluoranthene. and dibenzo(a,h)anthracene are the major constituents of the PAHs in the Mangrove Pneumatophores; Fluoranthene, benzo(a)anthracene and Benzo(ghi)perylene are the major constituents of mangrove bark while naphthalene, benzo(a)anthracene and Benzo(ghi)perylene are the major components of mangrove leaves.

The commonality of PAHs in the bark and leaves of the mangrove plants is found in fluorene, fluoranthene, benzo(a)anthracene, dibenzo(a,h)anthracene and benzo(ghi)perylene which are the major constituents of the PAHs in the two major parts of the mangrove plant. Naphthalene, benzo(b)fluoranthene and Indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene are present in the leaves but not the bark.

The bark and leaves samples share commonality with the pneumatophores of the mangrove plant samples collected from PNS Himalaya and Chinna Creek in fluorene, fluoranthrene, dibenzo(ah)anthracene, while the last named is the only component of the PAHs that is common among the seeds, pneumatophores, bark and the leaves of the affected mangrove plants.

It has been found that the mangrove pneumatophores and the soil have commonality in containing naphthalene, fluoranthene, benzo(a)anthreacene, and dibenzo(ah)anthrocene. Although the concentration of the four PAHs in the pneumatophores is not proportional to that in the soil yet their presence is considered significant.

The commonality of the different constituents may be due to the TS Oil but a confirmation of this aspect needs the spectrum of various components of the oil, which has not been made available. The analytical data, if they are confirmed to portray the content and concentration as originating

- 97 Mangrove of Pakistan – Status and Management from TSOS, show that many of the carcinogen PAHs have been deposited but not taken up by the different parts of the plants as is also suggested by the THC analysis.

The absorption of nutrients or contaminants and their assimilation by the plants is a slow process. The assimilation and biodegradation of the nutrient or contaminant is followed by the deposition of the contaminant or nutrient, biodegraded or otherwise, as the waste product through the barks and leaves. The present analysis of the roots indicates a substantial quantity of the PAHs in the root zone which strongly suggests the possibility of their uptake, which may have started to take place by now. This observation needs to be considered along with the THC analysis which already suggests that a large quantity has been deposited in the root zone. This being the source of the carcinogen PAHs is likely to have long term impact in continuing to retard the growth of plants, if not to destroy them.

Conclusions: Here it may worth taking a note of the IUCN Report, which had at para 5.2 to 5.4 suggested that the oil slick had spread over 125 km2 area:

5.2. TSOS could not be stopped from entering the Manora Channel and it reached as far inland as the salt pans and some villages about 12 km in the north. Manora Channel houses the main Harbour, the Fish Harbour, PNS Himalaya, two major salt pans, three important villages viz. Shams Pir, Baba and Bhit besides 10 small villages, and an extensive area covered by the mangroves, and Chinna Creek. This covers an area of another 60 km2.

5.3. The air pollutants from the TSOS comprising the 41% VOCs impacted the living environment comprising at least 1.5 km deep strip of the coastal belt along Shireen Jinnah Colony, SeaView apartments and Clifton. The air pollutants were pushed by the winds into the living environment and seriously degraded the health of the population living there. This covered an area of at least 25 km2.

5.4. Thus the area impacted by TSOS was approximately 125 km2, out of which 40 km2 was heavily impacted.”

It was subsequently suggested that during the course of time, the oil would spread over the 9 m contour depth. It may be pointed out that the soil samples were drawn almost 1.5 months after the TSOS. This time period is sufficient for the emulsified oil to be dispersed far and wide. Thus the finding of oil at PNS Himalaya and at Khuddi Island which is on the 9 m contour line, in almost the same quantity, shows that the prediction has come true. Confirmation to this effect must, however, come from analysis of bottom sediment.

The analysis of THC and PAHs shows that the TS Oil has impacted the root zone of the mangrove plantation. There has been substantial deposition of the contaminants on different sections of the plants and their absorption in due course of time is likely to retard their growth if not destroy them.

4. AN INITIAL ASSESSMENT OF ECONOMIC COSTS TO MANGROVES The Concept of Economic Value of Mangroves

As is explicit in the previous sections, Mangroves are rich, productive ecosystems, capable of providing a range of goods and services of use to human populations. The value of these goods and services represent use values. According to Barbier (1993), Mangrove ecosystems’ use values can be distinguished into direct and indirect use values, the former relating to "the values derived from direct use or interaction with a wetland's resources and services". There are several

- 98 Mangrove of Pakistan – Status and Management examples of direct use values and include, wood from mangroves used as fuelwood and for building purposes, fish and crabs caught in the waterways running through mangroves, and traditional medicines derived from plants and other species found in mangrove ecosystems.

"The indirect support and protection provided to economic activity and property by the wetland's natural functions, or regulatory 'environmental' services" (Ibid; 156) are referred to as indirect use values. The classic example of an indirect use value of mangrove ecosystems is the support provided to off-site fisheries through their nursery function. Another is the protection provided against weather-related damage to productive activities located in or just behind mangrove ecosystems (aquaculture, agriculture) and to assets such as housing and infrastructure located inland.

Non-use values, on the other hand, are derived "neither from current direct or indirect use of the wetland" (Ibid; 156). Non-use values may arise, for example, from the satisfaction an individual derives from knowing that mangroves continue to exist, but is not necessarily planning to use them (sometimes referred to as existence value). Another possible motive of non-use value is the desire to preserve mangrove ecosystems for future generations (bequest value).

The Link between Tasman Spirit Oil Spill and Economic Costs

Recognising the potentially tremendous and various values of Mangroves, leads to the exploration of impending loss of value (or costs) as a result of an oil spill disaster. Not surprisingly, the Tasman Spirit Oil Spill is accompanied by many costs manifest in the benefits foregone due to this environmental disaster. These costs include the benefits from production and consumption opportunities foregone, the benefits from ecosystem functions and services foregone, the option of possible future uses of the area foregone and the many non-use values foregone. Some of these costs become apparent immediately and over the short-term while others take longer time to manifest.

The Mangrove area affected by TSOS forms a total area of 786 hectares (or 2435 acres) of Mangrove Forest. Some of the initial impacts of TSOS reveal that Mangrove seedling survival rate has substantially declined: estimated to drop from 30 percent to 10 percent. Seedlings are important to Mangroves for forest regeneration, which in turn, help support its nursery function enabling the predictable availability of off-site fisheries. Data from the past reveals that on average seedling survival rate had been 30 percent of the total seeds. So under ideal circumstances production of seeds and seedlings in the Karachi harbour backwater could be estimated based on the total area under mature trees of 786 ha / 2435 ac. Hence, based on the information that each Avicennia marina tree produces an approximate 3000 seeds/seedlings per year and that on average there are 35 trees per acre, we can calculate seed production to be 50,000 per acre. Hence, under ideal circumstances in this area (786 ha or 2435 acres) 255,675,000 seeds would be produced, and using the figure of 30 percent survival rate would mean that 76,702,500 seedlings should survive. However, because of TSOS seedling survival rate dropped to 10 percent and this would mean that this year only 25,567,500 seedlings survived; a loss of 51,135,000 seedlings.

The new growth of Mangrove forest, provided by seedlings every year, plays an instrumental part in supporting the population of certain fish and shrimp species, which are caught off-site. The Indus delta shelf is very rich in its fishing resources mainly because of the fact that it receives its nutrient supply from the mangrove swamps bordering its coastline. Thus the mangrove swamps serve as a nutrient reservoir for the adjacent continental shelf. According to the Zoological Survey Department (1989) study on fish fauna of the mangroves of Korangi-Phitti creek systems and backwaters of Sandspit extending Manora, a total of 98 species of fish were recorded from the study area. Out of which 46 species were in fingerlings or young stages while 52 in sub adult or adult stages.

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Any disturbance to the mangrove ecosystem, such as TSOS, will result in smaller population sizes and hence smaller catches in the off-site fisheries.

Ideally, the value of the change in catches resulting from TSOS should be valued using the production function approach. However, we faced many constraints in data availability. We do neither have data on the demand curve, nor do we have information on catches (disaggregated for Karachi Harbours). In this case, the valuation will focus on the changes in the flow of fisheries using market prices. We realise that these may be very rough and ready figures, but one has to start somewhere.

Under ideal circumstances, taking into account the 2435 acres of Mangrove forest as well as the addition of new Mangrove growth through seedlings (based on the 30 percent seedling survival rate), 2526 tons of shrimp and fish per year should be produced. This is calculated using the total area (2435 acres) plus new growth (7670 acres) multiplied by expected output of 0.25 tons per acre per year (this is an internationally accepted expected output in any rainfed Mangrove [Diemont et al. 1995]). Hence, the total worth of fisheries flow is US$ 1,642,062 under ideal (internationally accepted) scenario that year (based on the price of (US$ 650 per ton). Considering the aridity and salinity as well as the pollution of Karachi coast, the expected output of fisheries would further decline from 0.25 to 0.12 ton per acre per year in these adverse conditions. Hence, the total worth of fisheries flow in this real scenario is US$ 788,190. Further, if we take into account the TSOS disaster, expected output of shrimp and fish for the year is estimated to decline to 0.06 ton per acre per year and new Mangrove growth reduces to 2,557 acres. Hence the total worth of fisheries flow in this disaster scenario would be US$ 194,688, which means US$ 593,502 would be the damage costs on shrimp and fish flows in contrast to the real scenario and US$ 1,447,374 in contrast to the ideal scenario. The above damage estimates could be higher if the nursery functions has been impaired more than what we expected or predicted. Production of fisheries lost due to the oil disaster in Karachi harbour is a vital economic setback for the country.

In fact one can say more, for example, Mangrove forest resources are used by poor, local communities purely for subsistence purposes. These subsistence products like firewood and fodder are form an integral part of these communities’ livelihoods and may continue to be for a period of time. To value the damage to these subsistence (non-marketed goods) monetary estimates are approximated through the use of surrogate-market prices7 -- the use of actual market prices of a related good or service to value the mangrove use that is non-marketed. For example, the value of non-marketed firewood has been estimated by the price of similar goods (e.g., firewood purchased from other areas) or the price of the next best alternative/substitute (e.g., kerosene or charcoal). We found out, on the basis of 10 percent seedling survival rate, that the present value of Mangrove Firewood loss due to TSOS to be US$ 88,189. Furthermore, the present value of Mangrove fodder loss due to TSOS to be US$ 8,827. Unhappily, it is the poor who will bear the brunt of these costs. As data is not available on the immediate damage to firewood and fodder, the losses and hence impact on the poor could be even higher.

5. PHASE II – NRDA STUDY (2004)

Unfortunately it is rare to find long term, follow up studies on mangroves beyond 3-5 years post spill. It is even rarer to find that measure of associated communities of invertebrates or other components of the mangal (mangrove forest habitat) besides the mangrove trees themselves. Even when mangrove trees appear to have recovered, restored mangal may differ from unimpacted mangal in its functioning and ecosystem complexity. Even with its limitations,

7 A problem in using substitute prices is of course the extent to which any good may be substituted. Because of a lack of appropriate correction factors, no adjustment of the price of the substitutes was made to account for differences in quality. When using substitute prices the least cost alternative commodity was used.

- 100 Mangrove of Pakistan – Status and Management mangrove trees density and health are the only widely measured recovery indicators at many oil spills.

The Tasman Spirit spill has offered the opportunity to revisit an oiled mangrove shoreline in the monsoon season to study the persistence of oil and longer-term effects on relatively sensitive resources. It is hoped that the visits would yield both qualitative and quantitative results to increase our understanding of oil and restoration effects in mangroves and help improve the nature of spill response there.

The development objective of the NRDA project is to systematically put in action NRDA process in various phases, to assess the ecological injuries caused by oil spill and accordingly prepare a restoration plan. For the implementation of this development objective various objectives goals and activities have been developed to be undertaken in Phase II.

5.1 Goal

To mitigate impacts of oil pollution and enhance livelihood opportunities of local communities along Karachi Coast.

5.2 Objectives i. To make a systematic assessment of the extent and severity of ecological damage of mangroves resulting from the Tasman Spirit Oil Spill. ii. To develop and implement a restoration and rehabilitation programme in the affected mangrove areas, and iii. To develop and strengthen institutional capacity for oil pollution control, policy development, implementation and awareness raising.

5.3 Activities

This phase would be for the duration of one year and would further be divided in two sub-phases, which will proceed side by side. In the first sub-phase the studies on mangroves undertaken in Phase I of NRDA project would be continued in Phase II NRDA programme as necessary. In addition, more in depth investigations should be initiated. All such studies should establish, in addition to old ones some new sites selected across the wide range of habitats in the potentially impacted spill zone and sampled at regular intervals during the study period. All efforts should be made to keep study methodologies consistent and of high quality.

Phase II has been designed primarily to obtain one-year post-spill observational data. Colour photographs will be taken as a time series from the spill to one year to identify stress in the mangroves. The revisits will also involve careful visual observations of the plants and estimates of canopy coverage. Visual observations will include looking for oiled roots, oiled sediments, new leaf growth, stressed leaves and dead trees.

Canopy coverage estimates would be made using a spherical densiometer. These readings would be taken in each group (oiled whites, un-oiled whites, oil reds and un-oiled reds). However, with the small area of oiled trees and relatively small size of the trees it would not be possible to get accurate or statistically significant readings. It would be difficult to find a location under the mangrove canopy where the canopy completely filled the viewing area.

Also, it would not be possible to find a true control site for the oiled mangroves. All the oiled white mangroves would be cleaned due to tidal action and the only un-oiled white mangroves would be in the super tidal zone and not subject to erosion.

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From the new and oil established transects (1m2 grid) sediment samples will be taken for oil profiling using method for core sampling of sediments. Depending on the sediment, these cores will be taken at shallower depths than these stipulated for sediments (35 cms). Similarly the samples from the selected and marked oiled and unoiled trees will be collected for laboratory analysis for the following symptoms in Chinna Creek and Pirshams / Sandspit area.

™ Yellowing of leaves (Chlorosis) ™ Partial to complete defoliation ™ Leaf deformities ™ Reduced leaf size and flower and fruit production ™ Increased insect infestation ™ Death of the individual plant.

There have been no studies quantifying the amount of oil on the different parts of mangrove plants to result in these symptoms in the Phase I but are proposed in the Phase II NRDA.

5.4 Management

The responsible authority for the management of the Phase II – NRDA Mangrove programme would be the IUCN – Pakistan. A team of forests with a field staff of Sindh Forest Department will be involved in the field sampling and restoration operations.

5.5 Budget for Phase II NRDA

No. Units Total Cost USD I. Experts

1. Mangrove Forestry Expert 6 man months 9000 2. Marine Biologist / Ecosystem Expert 3 man months 3000 12 man months 6000 3. Support Staff / Field Staff

II. Services

1. Sampling laboratory analysis for mangrove 5000 assessment 2. Sampling laboratory analysis for mangrove soil 2000 3. Genetic screening studies for examining the 2000 frequency of mutation under different conditions 4. Raising of 60,000 container plants / bedded 1000 mangroves 3000 5. Raising of 50 acre of mangrove plantation in Sandspit / Hawksbay / Chinna Creek / Pirshams.

III. Logistical Support

1. Hiring Charges of survey boat 5000 2. Travelling Cost 2000 3. Sundries 2500 4. Report writing 500

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GROSS TOTAL 41,000

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6. RESTORATION OF OIL DAMAGED MANGROVES

When the mangroves have been killed by oil there is often a great interest in rehabilitation of the forests based on a desire both to re-establish the important mangrove ecosystems and to restore the appearance of the shoreline by replacing the unsightly dead blackened trees with light green ones. Positive steps can be taken to achieve this, though it is probably inevitable that rehabilitation schemes will have to focus on one of a few key species of trees – restoration of the full complexity of the mangrove ecosystem will depend upon subsequent natural processes.

There is no doubt that this is the largest oil spill recorded in the Indus Delta. Because of the unique geographical and biological features of the Indus Delta, it is likely to become the worst oil related marine disaster. The coastal water is particularly fertile with a wide diversity of species and habitats, making it one of the most productive marine environments in the world. This biodiversity is now threatened specially in the Korangi / Phitti Creek areas.

In Pakistan mangrove restoration has been fairly studied quantitatively. But we know restored mangrove ecosystem often do not equate with natural ones. The plant diversity was similar in restored and natural stands one year after restoration, but environmental conditions were different and a number of invertebrate species were absent from the restored area. Other assessments of restoration success, in terms of initial survival and percent cover after one or several years, have been mixed.

These experiences emphasize the need for developing clear restoration goals that incorporate the mangrove ecosystem and its functions, as well as growth and health of trees themselves. Once the goal is defined, the project is designed and implemented, followed by monitoring to ensure that restoration is proceeding as anticipated. Projects should be monitored for 5 or more years to adequately assess long-term survival, resiliency and complexity of the restored system. Depending on the type of impact and state of the impacted mangal, restoration may take several approaches:

ƒ Replant Mangroves ƒ Assisted Natural Regeneration ƒ Restore an alternate site to provide similar habitat

™ 6.1 Replant Mangroves

There is an extensive body of technical information on replanting mangroves along the coast of Pakistan. Reforestation and afforestation is of recent origin and is limited to few countries including Pakistan. Today, restoration projects have moved away from the broad use of planting except in those areas where natural processes are inadequate to naturally repopulate the area with new recruits from surviving trees or more distant sources.

If planting is chosen as the best course, container plants and bedded nurseries will be established. The container plants with an advanced growth will be used to restock the degraded mangrove areas. So far IUCNP and Sindh Forests Department have rehabilitated over 25,000 hectares in Indus Delta successfully. But, the most important part of this work is that some innovative planting and nursery techniques have been developed which are not only being adapted in other departments but also outside Pakistan in the Persian Gulf and Red Sea areas. More than 90% of the seedlings survive in these plantations. (Figure X)

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Figure X

™ 6.2 Assisted Natural Regeneration

Mangrove wildlings transplanting is a cost effective method. This method is used to replant blank areas within natural regeneration. Moreover, by fixing a fisherman’s net in low tide and trapping the seeds in the mangrove area for a week, gives a lot of natural regeneration. It is a quick way of tackling the mangrove area in mangrove seeding season.

Sometimes adequate hydrology is tagged as the most important parameter for mangrove regeneration. When tidal connections have been cut off or altered, re-establishing these connections by laying irrigation system can promote natural recruitment and improve the overall health and functions of the mangrove ecosystem.

™ 6.3 Restore in kind Resources

Increasingly, in kind restoration is used for mangrove projects in Pakistan, especially for resource damage settlements after industrialization and urbanization. In kind, restoration restores a habitat in a different location in the same ecosystem and is meant to contribute to the overall habitat function of the region. A recent example of in kind restoration is in FOTCO/PSO in Korangi Creek where millions of plants were heavily polluted during a furnace oil spill in 1999. Restoration efforts included the raising of 100,000 container plants nursery and 50ha of mangrove block and line plantation in the dredged area in Korangi Creek successfully.

7. CONCLUSION

Oil slicks entered mangrove forests when the tide was high and were deposited on the aerial roots and sediments surface as the tide receded. Mangroves can be killed by heavy oil that covers the trees breathing pores and by the toxicity of substances in the oil, which may impair the

- 105 Mangrove of Pakistan – Status and Management salt exclusion. Millions of propagules and seedlings died immediately due to toxicity of the oil and natural regeneration process disturbed / hampered along the coast of Karachi.

Oil may kill many organisms in the mangrove habitat. For example, it can penetrate in sediments, killing crabs and worms. Furthermore, dead trees rot quickly, leading to a loss of habitat. With time, the amount and toxicity of oil is reduced by tides and rains, by evaporation and by oxidation. Degeneration can be rapid in the tropics, with regrowth occurring within a year of a spill.

The result of this study add significantly to our understanding of the effects of an oil spill on sub- tropical mangrove forests. Fortunately, this incident affected a relatively small area along the coast of Karachi. The difficulties encountered in removing the oil, the long-term consequences for the environment and the potential impact on life in the mangroves combine to offer a stern warning on what could happen if an oil-related accident should ever foul Indus delta pristine coastal water.

An oil spill alone rarely changes the basic geophysical appearance and shape of the mangrove ecosystem; this is left for clear cutting, development and cyclone. For this reason, restoration after an oil spill may be easier than after an event that substantially changed tidal elevation or hydrology or decimated mangrove trees. However, an oil spill may come as an additional impact on a mangrove ecosystem already degraded by human and industrial development, such as refineries, ports or harbours. Cumulative or chronic impacts may decrease the resiliency of the mangrove ecosystem and increase the time it takes the system to recover or make it more difficult for the system to recover at all.

As with other marsh ecosystem adversely impacted by oil spills, we have learned a valuable lesson past mangrove restoration projects, including all that failed. Restoration projects need a clear goal from the outset that is based on understanding the mangrove ecosystems natural ability to recover. The most effective role for restoration projects is to correct or assist when natural recruitment mechanisms are impeded or no longer functioning.

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