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Gestalt Experiments and Inductive Observations Ingo Brigandt Gestalt Experiments and Inductive Observations Konrad Lorenz’s early Epistemological Writings and the Methods of Classical Ethology thology brought Abstract scientific knowledge. Ge- E some crucial insights stalt perception and in- and perspectives to the During the 1940s Konrad LORENZ formulated his ear- duction are the main ele- study of behavior, in par- ly epistemological views, focusing on the cognitive ments of LORENZ’s ticular the idea that be- mechanisms induction and Gestalt perception. After epistemology. These ideas havior can be studied the war he used this philosophical framework to de- were originally formu- within a comparative– fend the approach of classical ethology against other lated during the second evolutionary framework approaches to animal behavior. The present paper ex- world war (see for in- by means of homologiz- amines the relationship between LORENZ’s ethological stance the Russian Manu- ing components of be- methodology and his philosophy of science and knowl- script, LORENZ 1948). In havioral patterns and by edge. The main aim of LORENZ’s post-war epistemo- the post-war period causal analysis of behav- logical writings is to provide an epistemological and LORENZ emphasized his ior components and their cognitive theory of observation in order to defend the epistemological ideas as integration. Early ethol- observational approach of classical ethology against part of an attempt to jus- ogy is well-known for its the view that it was no rigorous science. tify his ethological ap- extensive use of qualita- proach and his views tive observations of ani- Key words about the role of observa- mals under their natural tion and experiment. The Konrad LORENZ, Gestalt perception, observation, conditions. These obser- aim of the present paper ethology. vations are combined is to call attention to with experiments that try LORENZ’s philosophical to analyze behavioral patterns and establish specific account and how it integrates with his biological claims about animal behavior. Nowadays, there is methodology. still disagreement about the significance of observa- tion and experiments and their relation. ALLEN Observation and Experiment (forthcoming) points out that in debates about the interpretation of animal cognition the interpreta- LORENZ’s account of the general character of obser- tions of those ethologists who have actually spent vation and experiment remains unchanged time watching the animals are favored by some biol- throughout his writings. The specific relationship ogists. In fact, some practitioners of cognitive ethol- between these two aspects is exhibited by LORENZ’s ogy feel that experiments at best just confirm what early biological work as well as his later explicit one already knows, while others are more skeptical methodological account of them (LORENZ 1935; about interpretations of observations without ex- LORENZ/TINBERGEN 1938; LORENZ 1948, 1981). periments. LORENZ emphasizes four distinctive features of clas- As a major representative of ethology Konrad sical observational practice: observations are to be LORENZ not only shaped its approach and made the carried out in a hypothesis-free way; the approach methods and theories of ethology known to the bi- consists in doing qualitative observations rather ological community and the interested public, he than quantitative measurements; animals are to be also embedded his defense of the ethological and observed in their natural environment; and obser- comparative approach in a philosophical theory of vations include all features of the organisms and Evolution and Cognition ❘ 157 ❘ 2003, Vol. 9, No. 2 Ingo Brigandt their environment and rely on a large observational tative measurements and recording them, observa- basis. One should not think that ethology (in partic- tions are recorded using written descriptions (1935, ular the more developed ethology of the post-war pp112ff), drawings and photographs (LORENZ/TIN- period) always proceeded in this fashion. Instead, BERGEN 1938). This qualitative approach of classical LORENZ’s bold claims about how ethology is done ethology has to be defended against an understand- are based on some of his opinions as to how science ing that only allows for quantitative measurement should be done or how a science should develop and statistical evaluation as a means of scientific ob- (see BURKHARDT 1981). In any case, the way classical jectivity (1958, pp246, 256; 1959, p281; 1963a, p1; ethology was done was noticeably different from 1981, pp40ff, 68ff). Despite LORENZ’s emphasis on other contemporary approaches to animal behavior qualitative observation, post-war ethology did very such as comparative psychology or later on sociobi- well make use of quantitative measurements, but ology. In fact, LORENZ encountered methodological connected them with qualitative observations critique from both groups. (SCHLEIDT/SCHLEIDT 1958 is an example). LORENZ defends the ethological approach of gath- A further feature of the ethological way of observ- ering observational data without having a hypothe- ing is to systematically study animals in their natu- sis in mind against the view that scientific accounts ral ecological environment. Animals are kept “in an must be based on a theory (1948, p216; unless oth- environment as close as possible to their natural erwise indicated, references refer to a publication of habitats, for the purpose of general biological and LORENZ). LORENZ thinks that it is not only possible to specifically ethological observations” (1935, pp108– make observations devoid of a theoretical frame- 109). Keeping animals under laboratory conditions work, he also points to the possibility of confirma- suffers from the drawback that the organisms do not tion bias as a disadvantage of basing one’s observa- exhibit their natural adaptive behavior patterns and tional approach on a hypothesis (1948, pp31, 71). thus functional and artifactual behavior are likely to Instead of forming theoretical considerations at an be confused. This approach of observing animals early stage of inquiry, scientific inquiry has to start under natural conditions continues the “amateur- with “observation pure and simple” (1958, p246). ism” of the forerunners of classical ethology (1981, LORENZ calls this “presuppositionless observation” p47). However, for LORENZ the optimal method is (1981, p47) or often “unbiased observation” (1958, not to study animals in the field. For in this case, it is p250; see also 1948, p213; 1950 p131; 1959, p281). difficult and extremely time-consuming to be able Now, even amateur naturalists who dedicated all to observe the relevant behavior patterns (1948, their time to field observations of animals did not p222). The chapter “Animal Keeping as a Research necessarily refrain from interpreting their observa- Method” of the Russian Manuscript gives a detailed tions and relate them to biological theories. Ed- account of how the study of animal behavior has to mund Selous, for instance, used his extensive obser- be organized (1948, pp221ff). Several animals of a vations to justify theories of sexual selection. In the species have to be kept so that they live in proximity case of LORENZ, the theoretical assumption that be- to the researchers and in a controllable environ- havioral characters can be used to characterize taxo- ment. Apart from conducting observations in that nomic groups and reconstruct phylogenies guided way, animal keeping makes it possible to conduct his observational practice from very early on. But experiments under otherwise natural conditions LORENZ is right insofar as before 1935 he and TINBER- (1948, p222). LORENZ’s practice of raising and keep- GEN completely lacked an interpretative framework, ing animals was quite similar to the practice of his unlike most people working in animal psychology. mentor Oskar HEINROTH or the American zoologist After the war ethology became more theoretical, but Charles Otis WHITMAN. WHITMAN’s and LORENZ’s compared to other approaches such as comparative practice of animal keeping enabled them to simulta- psychology or sociobiology ethology was not that neously observe the behavior of several closely re- much an enterprise driven by explicitly formulated lated species, which is hard to achieve in the field. theories and hypothesis that were put to empirical But LORENZ’s approach differed from the early field test. In particular sociobiology took quantitative hy- naturalist in the British tradition (Selous and potheses based on models from population genetics Howard) or in the Dutch tradition (RÖELL 2000). In as the starting point and used observations prima- particular Niko TINBERGEN heavily relied on field ob- rily to test these hypotheses. servations (and experiments) instead of animal In addition, early ethology relied on qualitative keeping (TINBERGEN 1932, 1935, 1951), while observations of behavior. Instead of making quanti- LORENZ viewed field work as a control for observa- Evolution and Cognition ❘ 158 ❘ 2003, Vol. 9, No. 2 Gestalt Experiments and Inductive Observations tions gained from animals kept in semi-natural con- Charles Otis WHITMAN, for instance, kept detailed ditions (1981, pp47ff). Thus TINBERGEN represented notes of his extensive observations, and carried out the ecological dimension of ethology more fully observations for years before he published his re- than LORENZ did.1 Despite the fact that LORENZ was sults (LILLIE 1911). Like LORENZ, he emphasized that not a field naturalist, his approach was quite dis- a detailed and extensive knowledge
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