GEOLOGY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING IN THE JOHNSON-HARDWICK REGION, VERMONT

BT FRANK M. WRIGHT, III

VERMONT GEOLOGIC SURVEY

Charles G. Doll, Slate (,ealo gist

"... I~. -to -;

to

WATER RESOURCES DEPARTMENT MONTPELIER, VERMONT

ENVIRONMENTAL (;EOLO(;Y NO. 4 1974 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page INTRODUCTION 7 Sources of Material g Explanation of the Planning Maps ...... 10 GEOLOGIC SETTING ...... 10 Green Mountains ...... 11 Vermont Piedmont ...... 11 Drainage ...... 11 The Bedrock Complex ...... 14 Surficial Materials ...... 15

CLEAN WATER - A NATURAL RESOURCF...... 17 Surface Waters ...... 18 Ground water ...... 21 WASTES OF A SOCIETY ...... 31 Solid Waste Disposal ...... 2 Sewage Disposal ...... 36 LAND USE AND FUTURE DEVELOPMENT ...... 40 General Construction Conditions ...... 41 Geologic Resources ...... 43 NATURAL HAZARDS ...... 48 Landslides ...... 49 Flash Floods ...... 49

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... 55 REFERENCES ...... 56

APPENDIX A - MAPS SHOWING FIELD LOCATIONS OF SEISMIC PROFILES ...... 60 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Page

FIGURE 1. Index map showing where environmental geology studies have been completed ...... 6

FIGURE 2. Index map showing townships, cities and villages in the John- son-Hardwick Region ...... 8

FIGURE 3. Field interpretation of seismic record by Weston Geophysical engineer ...... 9

FIGURE 4. Drainage basins of the Johnson-Hardwick Region ..... 12

FIGURE 5. Highly fractured phyllite bedrock exposed along the Black River near Coventry ...... 15

FI(;URE 6. (;ravel pit in kame terrace along Burgess Branch one mile west of Lowell ...... 16

FIGURE 7. Gravel pit in deltaic deposit along White Branch two miles northwest of Eden ...... 17

FIGURE 8. White water of the Black River near Coventry ...... 18

FIGURE 9. Ritterbush Pond four miles northwest of Eden ...... 19

FIGURE 10. Twelve-point seismic refraction record ...... 22

FIGURE 11. Folded and fractured schist bedrock exposed along the Trout River one and one-half miles west of Montgomery ..... 24

FI(;URE 12. Site of north-south seismic profile across the Lamoille River Valley one mile west of Johnson ...... 26 l'1(;URE 11 North-south seismic profile across the Lamoille River Valley iih nit onc mile vcst of Johnson ...... 27

Il( ;U RE I-i. N irth-soimth seismic pr )file across the Lamoille River Valley about two miles northwest of Hyde Park ...... 27

F1(dJRl1 15. North-south seismic profile across the Lamoille River Valley about two miles northwest of \V dcott ...... 28 FIGURE 16. East-west seismic profile across the Black River Valley about

two miles northeast of Mill Village ...... 28

FIGURE 17. Site of northwest-southeast seismic profile across the Black River Valley, one and one-half miles southwest of Irasburg. . 29

FIGURE 18. Northwest-southeast seismic profile across the Black River

\'alley, one and one-half miles southwest of Irasburg .....

FIGURE 19. East-west seismic profile across the Missisquoi River Valley

about two miles north of Lowell ...... '3()

FI(;URE 20. Dump located in lake sediments near Rodman Brook two

miles northeast of Morrisville ...... 3 1

FIGURE 21. Dump located in kame and outwash sediments one and one-

half miles east of Eden, near Lake Eden ...... '2

FIGURE 22. Solid waste disposal near North Hyde Park ...... 35

FIGURE 23. Aggregate processing plain and pit along Stony Brook three

miles north of Coventry ...... 43

FIGURE 24. Kame gravel exposed in pit one-half mile south of Lowell II

FIGURE 25. Lowell Area Quarry of the Ruberoid Asbestos Mine ((;eneral Aniline and Film Company) located on the southeast slopes of

Belvidere Mountain ......

FIc;URE 26. Waste material lom the abandoned asbestos mine (Eden Quarry) high on the southern slopes of Belvidere Mountain . . 46

FIGURE 27. The Johnson Talc Mine three miles northeast of Johnson . . 47

FIGURE 28. Flood-swollen Lamoille River near Ithiel Falls ...... -IS

FIGURE 29. Landslide scar and debris one-half mile south of Eligo Pond . 49

FIGURE 30. Collapsed embankment along the south side of the Lamoille

River in Hardwick ......

FIGURE 31. Flood-damaged a(cess road along Jay Branch east of Jay Peak 51

FI(;U RE 32. Road damage due to excessive ninoff on Jay Peak ...... 52

FI(;URE 33. Washed out road south of Lamoille River two miles west ol

Hardwick Lake ...... 53

FIGURE 34. Sand-hoked corn field resulting from flooding of the La-

moille River one mile west of Wolcott ...... 53

Fu;URE 35. Flood-damaged Village Motel along the south bank of the

Lamoille River in Hardwkk ...... LIST OF PLATES

in porket)

PLATE I. Surhcial Materials of the Johnson-Hardwick Region

1LATE II. Bedrock Geology of the Johnson-Hardwick Region

PLATE III. Groundwater Potential Map of the Johnson-Hardwick Region

PLATE IV. Solid Waste Disposal Conditions of the Johnson-Hardwick Region

PLATE V. Septic Fank (mditions of the Johnson-Hardwick Region

PLATE VI. (;eiieral Construction Conditions of theJohnson-Hardwick Region

PLA'FE VII. Sand and Gravel Reserves of the Johnson-Hardwick Region Zi rif MEMP/IIREMA COG / c

b'

r

(I

q.

luTE RIVER JUNCTION

EXPLANATION WI'

Barre-Montpelier Region (Stewart, 1971)

Rufland-Brandon Region I 1 (Stewart, 972)

Burlington-Middlebury Region JESTANC (Stewart, 1973) EL LOWS FALLS ______Milton-St. Albons Region K/ /i (Stewart, in press)

1 Johnson-Hardwick Region I (This report) EN NLMINGT0N~el L TL:RO

Figure 1. Index map showing where environmental geology studies hove been completed.

6 GEOLOGY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING IN THE JOHNSON-HARDWICK REGION, VERMONT

By Frank M. Wright, 111*

INTRODUCTION tially active land slides can help prevent terrible losses in life and property. Knowledge of the corn- This is the fourth report in a series of environ- position and physical properties of rocks at and be- mental studies sponsored by the Vermont Geokgical neath the surface can also provide the basis for Survey. The first three of these studies were com- determining the effects of subsurface disposal of pleted by Dr. David P. Stewart in the Barre-Mont- liquid and solid wastes on ground water supplies, pelier (1971), Rutland-Branclon (1972), and Bur- while knowledge of geologic processes can furnish lington-Middlebury (1973) regions. The field work the basis for both predicting and monitoring en- for the Present report was completed during the vironniental effects of human activities (U.S. Dept. of summer of 1973 by the writer, assisted by John S. Interior, Ceological Survey News Release, October Moore, graduate student in the Department of 6, 1972). (;eology, University of Vermont. This report, in- The regions that have been studied thus far tended for publication in 1974, attempts to relate in were chosen because of their growth potential and a condensed and simplified form the geological conditions of the Johnson-Hardwick Region as they the marked rise in urban-centered 1)roblets. Con- relate to existing environmental problems and to cern for the environment in the Johnson-Hardwick make this material available to planners and other Region (Figure 2) is admittedly not the same as for interested parties (Figure 1). Much information, the more heavily populated and md ustrialized parts relating to the various categories treated, is included of the state. Here, the growth potential of sonic com- in a series of large-scale planning maps and seismic munities may be regarded as moderate to high but pro flies. their actual pol)11ltt1on growth has, at best, been slow Vermont's environmental assets are rich and and determined. Population increases of So (Hyde diverse but increased demands upon state resources Park) to 800 persons (Morristown) between 1950 necessitates a re-evaluation of growth impact on the and 1970 are, in fact, atypical of this region as a state. A geologic appraisal of the environment con- whole. In reality, most central and northern com- tributes much to such a re-evaluation. (;eology is limited job opportunities essential to many aspects of environmental planning munities are suffering from in that the application of geologic knowledge to the and declining populations. Between 1950 and 1970, appraisal of foundation conditions for building, the populations of North 'Froy and Richfrd drop- highways, dams, airports, and other kinds of con- ped approximately 400 persons each (Thomas, struction can lead to significant savings in building 1970, p. 6). and maintenance costs. Furthermore, identification At present, the largest concentration of Pl)Ula- of natural hazards such as floociplains and poten- tion in the Johnson-Hardwick Region occurs along Department nf (;eotugy the Larnoille River Valley in the communities of ( apitat t niversity 7 ilnnhtis. ( ) hio • . -. . I

LLI

JA - NEWPORT RICH FORD TROY Ir w -Y-

N' - ENOS BURG

Coventry Eas °Enosirg STFIELD ./ q _7~77 / / 'IRASBURG / 'I Irasburg ,'tiv.n i - - '. EL rBELVIDERE ider___ _(B&vO Center a4Y / / ED E N7 loo / Eden,J - 0 1/)

JONSON / / dohnson Craftsbury----\ L / PARK 7 HYDE GREENS BOR -Hyde Park fl\ / c\L / WOLCOTT 7' Greensb ° Morrisville Floa / cOtt / /0 TI MORRISTOWN / EImre

' ELMORE /f j Hardwick / STOW\ ( ( I

Figure 2. Index mop showing townships, cities and villages in the Johnson-Hardwick Region Johnson (1,927 pop.), Hyde Park (1,347 pop.), Morristown (4,052 pop.), and Hardwick (2,466 pop.). mapping of the Jay Peak, lrasburg, Hardwick, and Much of the growth within and adjacent to these Hyde Park 15-minute quadrangles was completed communities may be attributed to tourism and the by MacClintock (1964). During this investigation, the surficial maps were checked in the field and modified limited expansion of local industries. The continued for environmental planning purposes. The explana- growth of the Stowe-Mt. Mansfield and Madonna tions of these maps and their designated deposits Peak ski developnients has undoubtedly bolstered were similarly modified for more utilitarian applica- local economies as well. Similar limited growth is tion to multi- purpose planning problems (Plate I). anticipated in the communities of Jay and Mont- Bedrock data used throughout this report were gomery Center as the Jay Peak ski development be- obtained primarily from the Centennial Geologic gins to attract larger numbers of winter sports Map of Vermont (Doll, Cady, Thompson and Bill- enthusiasts. ings, 1961). The geologic reports of Enosburg, The most critical environmental problems in Irasburg. and Hardwick areas by Dennis (1964), this region stem from the general inability of in- Doll (1951), and Konig and Dennis (1964), respec- dividual communities to meet the exceedingly high tively, were also used for more detailed geologic in- costs of construction and maintenance of adequate formation. While these reports and the Centennial municipal water and sewage treatment systems, the Geologic Map give formation names, stratigraphic transport and disposal of solid waste materials, and and age relationships, and a description of each rock development of flood control systems. These prob- unit, the bedrock map for the Johnson-Hardwick lems are amplified further by the unprededenteci Region (Plate 11) and its discussion have been modi- construct ion of rural homesites and recreational fied considerably in an attempt to make it more dwellings. Between 196() and 1970, the State of adaptable for use by planners. Vermont experienced a total population growth of Water-well records, on file with the Vermont 14 percent, which gave the state an average popula- Department of Water Resources, were examined in tion density of 48 people per square mile of land. detail and used to determine, where possible, the This growth of 14 perce1t does not indicate, however, that the total urban population of the state actually dropped by 7,000 people while the rural population climbed by 61.500 people for the same time period ( ihomas, 1970, p. ii). Part of this rural population shift has occurred within the Johnsoii-Hardwick Region. N Sources of Material Ihe information used in the preparation of this report and its planning maps was collected from many different sources including the Vermont (;)logical Survey, Department of Water Resources, R )ard of Health, Environmental Protection Agency, and State Department, as well as the regional offices of the United States Soil Conservation Service. Too often, much of this material is difficult to interpret and adapt to specific planning uses or it is not well known. Specific questions regarding environmental planning problems should be directed to one or more of the above-mentioned agencies for assistance. This report, unlike the Interim Land Capability Plan (1972), attempts to explain some of the more pressing environmental problems of a specific region in such a fishion that the planner or citizen would have little trouble in understanding the information and applying it to his needs. The suruicial geology of the Johnson-Hardwick Region was mapped during the statewide program Figure 3. Field interpretation of seismic record by Weston Geo- that resulted in the Surficial Geologic Map of Ver- physical Engineer. mont (Stewart and Mac( lintock, 1970). The original thickness of surficial materials, the vertical and Explanation of the Planning Maps lateral sequencing of the unconsolidated sediments, the depth to the water table in surficial materials and Included in this report are a series of maps in- bedrock, and expected ground-water yields. This in- terpreted from and plotted on four 15-minute quad- formation was plotted on 15-minute quadrangle rangles (scale 1/62,500) which have been joined and maps and compared with existing groundwater favor- reduced by one-fourth to illustrate basic geologic and ability maps (Hodges and Butterfield, 1967a, h, c) in environmental conditions in the johnson-Hardwick an attempt to determine desirable sites for seismic Region. Plates I through VII, in the pocket at the end analysis and to interpret regional groundwater po- of this report, show the distribution of surficial and tential (Plate III). bedrock materials, groundwater potential, and the suitability of each area for various land uses. The During the course of this investigation, six maps of surlicial deposits (Plate I) and bedrock localities were selected for seismic analysis (Figure (Plate II) show the broad distribution patterns and 3. Using the twelve point seismic refraction method variations of these materials. The maps showing and a twelve-channel seismograph, an indirect in- groundwater potential (Plate III), solid waste dis- terpretation of the depth to and configuration of posal conditions (Plate IV), septic tank conditions buried bedrock valleys, the vertical and lateral varia- (Plate V), and general construction conditions tions (caused by water saturation and texwral change) (Plate VI) utilize color schemes adapted from the of valley-fill sediments, and the general depth to the Illinois Geological Survey reports (Hackett and Mc- water table can be made in areas where well-log in- Comas, 1963; jacobs, 1971) to depict general varia- formation is extremely limited or suggests sig- tions in site conditions. Areas shown in green on nificant subsurface conditions. The seismic work and these maps are interpreted as offering only minor profiles reproduced in this report were completed environmental problems and limitations. Areas by Weston Geophysical Engineers, Inc., of West- shown in yellow have low to moderate limitations b()r(), Massachusetts (1973). which can be controlled or corrected through various site modifications. Such localities require detailed Existing solid waste disposal sites were examined investigations to ascertain site liniitations and to and evaluated in reference to the various surficial determine the best possible methods of correction. materials in which each site was developed, the type Areas mapped in red are interpreted as having of "sanitary" cover material applied, if any, the local moderate to high limitations and many problems that groundwater hydrology and contamination j)oten- are difficult to overcome. Where possible, these tial, and slope of the land. Based on these evaluations areas should be avoided in development planning. and recent studies of solid waste disposal prob- Where two symbols and shades of the same color lems, the Solid Waste Disposal Conditions Map (r-1 and r-2) are used, different site conditions arc (I'late IV) and its discussion, was prepared. While encountered within areas of similar degrees of liquid waste disposal problems for municipalities limitation. All planning maps are, of necessity, quite and individual homesites pose serious environmental generalized and do 1101 clinunaic the iwcd 1 r de- problems, sewage disposal practices for domestic tailed site evaluations. installations (septic tanks, dry wells, lagoons, etc.) were examined more closely (Plate V) because of GEOLOGIC SETTING their strong dependence upon natural earth condi- tions for part of the treatment process. The Johnson-Hardwick Region is located physiographically in the Green Mountain and Ver- Soils maps prepared by the United States Soil mont Piedmont sections of the New England Provin . Conservation Service were compared with existing (Uplands) as described by Fenneman (1938, 346) surficial maps in an attempt to better determine p. and 'l'hornbury (1965, p. 152) and tectonically in the basic soil-geologic relationships and to delineate crystalline Appalachians Province according to King areas of low, moderate, and high foundation sta- (1959, 53). The rocks of this region are chara - bility. The information obtained was later applied p. teristically composed of various Paleozoic sedi- to general construction problems throughout the mentary and metasedimentary rocks. The lattei Johnson-Hardwick Region (Plate VI). Sand and comprise schists, phyllites, gneisses, slates, quartzites gravel deposits were studied in some detail to iden- and marbles which have been intensively folded and tify possible sites for construction and those of pos- fractured. Small igneous intrusions of granite sible economic potential (aggregate material). In diorite, and granodiorite are scattered throughout each instance, identified sand and gravel deposits the region. Despite a strong structural influence, th were evaluated as to their quality and the reserve present topography is largely erosional and has been available (Plate V II). suggested to be in the mature st;igc () laridsiapi' (Ii' velopmeiit according to the Davisian classification Vermont Piedmont (Jacobs, 1950, p. 75). Bordering the Green Mountains on the east, along a zone where highly metamorphosed and in- Green Mountains truded rocks meet less severely altered bedrock forms, is a plateau-like upland (peneplain) that has Although two physiographic subprovinces have been maturely dissected initially by streams and been described in this area, the Green Mountains on further sul)dued by glaciation. This undulating to the west and the Vermont Piedmont to the east, dis- rough-surfaced plateau, locally marked by mountain tinctions between them are often confusing due to ranges and isolated peaks, has been described as their subtle variations in topographic form and the New England Upland (Fenneman, 1938, 346) lithologic composition. Extending from Canada to p. or, more locally, as the Vermont Piedmont (Jacobs, northern Massachusetts as a series of nearly con- 1950, 79). Approximately the eastern one fifth of tinuous peaks and ridges, the Green Mountains form p. the Johnson-Hardwick Region lies within the Ver- the backbone of Vermont's topography. In the mont Piedmont. Unlike that portion of the region j ohnson-Hardwick Region, the (;reen Mountains are dominated by the major fold structures of the Green approximately 2 I miles wide and consist of three Mountains, this area has no continuous mountain moderately distinct north-south trending ridges and ranges despite locally intense folding, faulting, and several subranges. The Cold Hollow Mountains, with intrusion. Here, Allen, Ames, Barr, Beach, Cham- summit elevations ranging from 1492 feet to 3360 berlain, Elmore, Miles, Sharps, and Scribner Hill, feet, form the first and westernmost ridge of the The Ledges, Mount Sarah, and Jeudevine Mountain Green Mountains. The somewhat distinct topo- comprise the more prominent topographic highs, graphic change observed between these mountains ranging from 1280 to 2130 feet in elevation, in an and the Champlain Lowland to the west has been otherwise more rolling landscape. Small hills and described as the Green Mountain Front (Jacobs, steeply incised streams lend further variation to the 1950) or the Fairfield Hill Escarpment (Dennis, topographic expression of this area. 1964, p. 11). This physiographic boundary lies roughly parallel to the western margin of the Jay Peak Quadrangle. The second or main ridge of the Drainage (;reen Mountains is marked by such prominent sum- mits as Jay Peak, Sugarloaf, Haystack, Belvidere, and The drainage patterns of the Johnson-Hardwick White Face mountains which range in elevation from Region are complicated by a diversity of geologic 2100 to 3861 feet. Readily identified subranges structures, variations in bedrock lithology, and cor- within this main ridge include Bean, Butternut, and responding hrms of topographic development. Elniore mountains. The third or eastern ridge, Somewhat irregular divides separate the area into dominated by the Lowell Mountains in the Johnson- three drainage basins: 1) the Black River; 2) the Hardwick Region, extends southward to include the Lamoille River; and 3) the Missisquoi River basins Worcester and Northfleld mountains as well. (Figure 4). Waters of the Black River Basin flow Structurally the three ridges of the Green Moun- roughly northward to Lake Memphremagog and tains are part of a large bedrock arch (anticlinorium), ultimately to the St. Lawrence River. Waters of the composed of a crystalline Precambrian core and Lamoille River and Missisquoi River basins flow west- mantled by various metamorphosed Paleozoic rocks, ward through the Green Mountains into Lake Cham- and a series of three lesser superimposed folds (an- plain. ticlines) across its entire width. The axis of this an- The Black River Basin has a total area of ap- ticlinorium trends generally north-south, roughly proximately 160 square miles and is included within parallel to the middle ridge, but repeated episodes Orleans County. The basin extends 24 miles south- (ii compression and uplift have produced a series of westward from the larger Lake Memphremagog smaller folds ofiset from the main axis. Due to the Basin across portions of the Vermont Piedmont and severe deformation and concomitant metamorphism eastern flank of the Green Mountains. The Black of original rock materials during mountain building, River heads in a low, structurally controlled divide individual structures and trends are not often readily between Alder Brook and Eligo Pond, approximate- apparent. These complexities are best described in ly 5 miles north of Hardwick, and is fed by a number lithologic studies prepared by Christman (1959) and of small upland streams and ponds. As the river flows Dennis (1964) and are graphically represented on west, north, and northeast between Craftsbury and the Centennial Geologic Map of Vermont (Doll, lrashurg, it meanders across broad floodplains and ( ady, Fhompson , and Billings, 1961). itilpinges against abrupt bedrock walls. St learn t 111)11-

. . -. - •II.I. — . as North Richford Troy I I :- I I Newport MISSISQUOI RIVER Center. East Berkshire BASIN ve e

Troy

Montgomery Center off I I

. Irasbur 0LoweII •'J' ,•• _4_y• \ A' • 1-' '#' I

...

I • BLACK RIVER \' / BASIN

• V Ede • I.

I / opoo •I I -.5- • LAMOILLE RIVER f :' BASIN/ I 5'....I S John •• ' Craft sbury._""—\ / Ill / • I S S I / / •I IS• •5 5 I. 1' Hyde Park / .5%

OMorrisville /

WINOOSKIR.• I BASIN I. ' Hordwick

Figure & Drainage basins of the Johnson.Hardwick Region taries located along this reach include Seaver, Rogers proximately 14 miles and drains an area of 57 square and Shalney branches and McCleary and Lamphear miles. From its source at Belvidere Pond in the north- brooks and all originate along the eastern slopes of west corner of the Town of Eden, this stream flows the Lowell Mountains. Near Irasburg, the Black River out of the Cold Hollow and Green Mountains into the flows into a much broader valley and is joined by Town of Belvidere, where it turns westerly to pass Lords Creek and Brighton Brook before turning east through the settlements of Belvidere Center and into a narrow, rock-walled valley. Between Irasburg Belvidere Junction. Here it turns to the south and and Coventry, the river follows an irregular route to southwest, flows through the village of Waterville the north and northeast through thick kame de- and continues south into the lown of Cambridge, posits, outwash materials, and bedrock. Marked where it empties into the Lamoille River. changes in drainage pattern and valley shape un- The Gihon River has a lengt.h of approximately doubtcdly result from complex patterns of glacier 14 miles, a drainage area of 66 square miles, and movement and subsequent melt-water drainage. originates at Lake Eden, in the Town of Eden. From The Lamoille River Basin has a total area of ap- its source, this river meanders to the west and south, proximately 700 square miles and includes portions passing through the villages of Eden Mills and Eden of Caledonia, Chittenden, Franklin, Larnoille and before entering the 1'own of Hyde Park. Alier flow - Orleans counties. The basin extends 53 miles east- ing through the community of North Hyde Park, ward from Lake Champlain and has an average the river flows southwesterly through the villages of width of 15 miles, but where it crosses the Green East Johnson and Johnson to join the Lamoille River. Mountains, slightly west of the center of the basin, The Gihon River Basin, like many of the other the watershed width is reduced to about 9 miles drainage systems of this region, is filled with thick (Vermont Department of Water Resources, 1968, glacial and lacustrine deposits, on top of which the pp. 1-2). Respective to the Johnson-Hardwick Re- soil is of relatively shallow depth. These deposits gion, the Lamoille River Basin covers approximately combine to form impressive sand plains throughout three-sevenths of the area principally within the Hyde much of the central and lower portions of the basin. Park and Hardwick quadrangles. The Lamoille River Wild Branch has an approximate length of 15 heads from several small streams and ponds to the miles and a drainage area of 31 square miles. It east of the Johnson-Hardwick Region, in the Town originates on the easterly slopes of the Lowell Moun- of Wheelock, and flows southwesterly to enter the tains in the Town of Eden and flows to the southeast area slightly northeast of the village of Greensboro into the lown of Craftshury. It then alters its course Bend. From Greensboro Bend, the Lamoille River to a southwesterly direction, passes through North continues to flow southwesterly to the village of Wolcott, and enters the Lamoille River. Hardwick, where it turns west and northwest, flow- The Missisquoi River Basin has a total area of ap- ing into Hardwick Lake, and continuing on through proximately 620 square miles and includes portions the 'I'own of Wolcott. Stream tributaries located of Franklin, Lamoille, and Orleans counties. This along this reach of the river include Stannard, basin covers an additional three-sevenths of the John- (;reeisbor o, Bailey, Porter, Alder, Bunker, Millard, son-Hardwick Region and heads from several small Kate, and Wolcott Pond brooks and Elmore Branch. streams located between the eastern flank of the Between the villages of Wolcott and Morrisville, the central Green Mountains and the western slopes of river resumes a westerly course, enters Lake Lamoille, the Lowell Mountains in the Irasburg Quadrangle. and then flows northwest into the l'owii of Johnson. The Missisquoi River flows in a northerly direction Along this reach Wild Branch, Rodman, Ryder, from the confluence of Burgess and East branches in Centerville, Foot, and Waterman brooks, and the the I'owmi of Lowell and is joined by LeClair, Snider, Gihon and Green rivers join the Lamoille River. Mineral Spring, l'aft, and Mill brooks as it flows From the village of Johnson, the river turns west through the Town of Westfield. Beetle and Coburn and southwest and ultimately flows into Lake Cham- brooks and Jay Branch join the Missisquoi River in plain about 10 miles north of Burlington. Iroy. As the river meanders through the village of The Lamoille River is still in early maturity, North Troy into Canada, it is joined by Mudd Creek meandering across broad floodplains in parts of its before it re-enters the State ol Vermont micar the vil- course, and flowing through narrow gorges and over lage of East Richford. Between East Richford and rapids and falls in other stretches, notably near Richford, Lucas, Mountain, Stanhope and Loveland Johnson and Pottersville. As already demonstrated, brooks enter the Missisquoi River while North Branch the Lamoille River has a large number of tributary empties into the river at Richford. From Richford, waters, most of which are moderately swift-flowing the river turns south, is joined by the Trout River mountain streams. Major tributaries of the Lamoille just east of the village of East Berkshire, and turns River include North Branch, the Gihon River, and west toward the Champlain Lowland (Vermont De- Wild Branch. North Branch has a length of ap- partment of Water Resources, 1969a, p. 2). While the headwaters of the Missisquoi River (eugeosyncline) principally as graywackes, siltstones, drain the eastern slopes of the central Green Moun- and shales with minor amounts of volcanic, calcare- tains, the Trout River drains the western slopes of ()US, and carbonaceous material, but they have been the range and the eastern flank of the Cold Hollow altered through regional diastrophism and con- Mountains in the Jay Peak Quadrangle. This major comitant metamorphism to metagraywackes, phyl- tributary of the Missisquoi River has a main stream lites, schists, gneisses, greenstones, and amphibolites length of approximately 9 miles and drains an area on the far west and to quartz-albite-muscovite schists of about 86 square miles. The river heads from vari- along the axis of the Green Mountain Anticlinorium ous small streams and ponds along the western slopes (Christman, 1959, p. 7). All of these deposits are de- of Jay and Sugarloaf mountains and as the river pro- scribed as belonging to the greenschist facies and ceeds in a westerly direction from the confluence of therefore it implies that they have experienced jay and Wade brooks it passes through Montgomery moderate- to high-grade metamorphism, are foli- Center, is joined by the South Branch, and then ated, and contain such common minerals as quartz, turns northwesterly. Between Montgomery Center albite, muscovite, epidote, chlorite, and biotite (Den- and its confluence with the Missisquoi River, the nis, 1964, p. 34). Most of these rocks are foliated be- Trout River is joined by West Hill, Black Falls, and cause of recrystallization under stress, forming layers Alder brooks. of platy and elongate minerals parallel to the bedding surfaces (foliation). Variations in the degree of local metamorphism are suggested in rock textures and The Bedrock Complex the degree of perfection of foliation. Prominent formations within the Green Mountains include the Bedrock exposed within the Joh nson-Hard wick schist- and phyllite-rich Camel's Hump Group (Cam- Region includes light- to dark-colored, moderate to brian) and the Ottauquechee (Cambrian), Stowe highly metamorphosed phyllites, schists, and impure (Ordovician), and Missisquoi (Ordovician) forma- limestones, with varying amounts of interbedded tions. greenstones, slates, dolomites, and quartzites which The rocks of the Vermont Piedmont are some- range in age from Cambrian to possil;ly Devonian. what distinct from those of the (;reen Mountains in The stratigraphy of this area is greatly complicated that they are generally younger in age, were origi- by rapid facies changes and at least two mountain nally deposited in different sedimentary environ- building episodes that have resulted in the folding, ments, and have also undergone intense deformation faulting, and metamorphism of the original sedi- and corresponding metamorphism (Figure 5). While mentary strata (Dennis, 1964, p. 10). The principal deposits of the Devonian age Shaw Mountain, North- periods of deformation seem related to the develop- field, and Waits River formations consist of a series of ment of the Green Mountain Anticlinorium and the schists, phyllites, slates, quartzites, impure lime- Willoughby Arch to the east (Konig and Dennis, stones, and dolomites, the area to the east-southeast 1964, p. 7). Late Devonian intrusions of granites and of the Alder Brook - Black River Valley is dominated granodiorites have further complicated problems of by gray quartzose and micaceous crystalline lime- stratigraj)hiC correlation. stones interbedded with phyllites, schists, quartzites, The geologic map (Plate II) prepared for this and volcanics. These rocks are locally cut by intru- report, has been modified from various geologic re- sives occurring as stocks, sills, and dikes which range ports (Doll, 1951; Christman, 1959; Dennis, 1964; in composition from acidic to ultrabasic. The larger Konig and Dennis, 1964) and from the Centennial of these intrusive masses are composed of granodi- Geologic Map of Vermont (Doll, Cady, Thompson, orite and closely related rocks, whereas the sills and and Billings, 1961). This map, unlike traditional dikes are usually granites (Konig and Dennis, 1964, geologic maps, does not give the formal names of p. 27). This rather marked lithologic change, from individual rock units, their sequences, or stratigraphic the (;reen Mountain schists (s) and interbedded (age) relationships, but rather, has been simplified phyllites and schists (ps) on the west to the interbed- to provide only a general description of the major ded lirnestones and phyllites (Is-I)) of the Vermont lithologies and to show their basic regional patterns Piedmont on the east, may serve to difTerentiate more and variations. It is I)elieved that such maps will accurately between the two physiographic provinces prove to be of more practical use to planners than than does the associated topography. the more typical geologic map. For more detailed in- For general description purposes, phyllites of formation on the bedrock geology of this region, the Johiison-Hardwick Region are comnomly light- consult the references listed above or the office of to medium-grey in color, finely textured and foli- the State Geologist. ated, and occur interbedded with schists (ps) and/or The rocks of the Green Mountains were origi- slates (psI). Gneisses are generally coarser in texture nally deposited in a large trough-like depression and have thicker foliation (handing) than phyllites.

14 areas where limestones interbedded with quartzites, greenstones, schists, and phyllites predominate. Here, the limestones are impure and often greatly altered mineralogically and texturely through meta- morphism. Quartzites are normally medium-grey to black in color, thin-bedded, fine to medium grained, and are frequently streaked with mineral zones parallel to the bedding (Doll, 1951, p. 15). Dolomites and marbles are of only spotty occurrence.

Surficial Materials

The surlicial materials of the Johnson-Hardwick Region (Plate 1) are composed of transported sedi- ments deposited primarily during or shortly after the last glacial period (Wisconsinan) of the Great Ice Age. These materials were deposited directly from active and/or stagnating glacial ice, ice-marginal meltwater streams, and pro-glacial lakes associated with two different ice episodes, the Burlington and Shelburne stades (Stewart and MacClintock, 1969, p. 56). Till (t) is composed of an unsorted, unstratified, heterogeneous mixture of sediments, ranging in particle size from clays to boulders, deposited di- rectly from glacial ice. Throughout the Johnson- Hardwick Region, the summits of the mountains and

Figure 5 Highly fractured phyllite bedrock exposed along the higher hills are generally free of any glacial debris Black River near Coventry. or are covered by only scattered deposits of till. On the lower slopes and across the upland flats, till cle- Schists (s) are often intermediate to fine in texture posits are much more continuous but remain gener- and filiation, characteristically impart a lustrous ally less than 10 feet thick. Greater thicknesses of till sheen due to disseminated micas, and may be inter- (50-100 feet) are often found in the valleys and along bedded with local quartzites and phyllites. Green- valley walls. Due to the tact that glacial tills are un- stones (gr) include all basic and ultrabasic igneous sorted and do have a wide range of textural com- rocks erupted during the geosynclinal phase of ponents, they characteristically have low perme- mountain building, but most notably those which owe abilities and low water potential. Locally high con- their color to the presence of such minerals as centrations of sand and gravel in the tills of this re- chlorite, hornblende, and epidote. These rocks have, gion may, however, provide for slightly higher water in general, suffered low-grade regional metamor- yields than normally anticipated, but even these re- phism and may be associated with local amphiholites main too low for domestic water supplies. and rocks possessing pillow structures. Amphibolites Outwash (ow) materials are deposited by melt- are composed predominantly of the minerals am- water streams flowing from glacial ice and as a result phibole and plagioclase and are produced by nie- commonly have a high concentration of stratified dium- to high-grade regional metamorphism. In and well-sorted sands and gravels. Outwash, there- general, weathered and fresh surfaces of these rocks lore, characteristically has a high porosity and per- have similar appearances and may prove difficult to meability and serves as a fair to very good water- (listinguish by visual inspection. For this reason, bearing material (aquifer). Kames and kame ter- l)tevious studies (Stewart, 1972, 1973) designated races (k) are ice-contact, valley deposits formed these rocks with a single color on the bedrock map along the margins of the ice, between the ice and the and used letter symbols to indicate local lithologic valley wall or within wastage zones of the ice. These variations. Due to the predominance of these rocks deposits are common in almost all of the region's throughout the Johnson-Hardwick Region, however, drainage basins and in some areas they occur high on major lithologic changes are denoted here through surrounding mountain slopes. They can usually be the use of colors and letter symbols. Problems of rock identified by marked changes in sediment texture icIenI ihcation l)ecome less difficult to the east, in and distribution as well as internal slumping or ice-

15

•;:

sr

Wk

Nb p.

:.-

• --•-.- ... - . - - .,• - - •. • - -. ' .' r.r 3 -

-r

Figure 6. Gravel pit in kame trri ,.. uIorci Burqrss t3runii one fill,. west A Lowli

contact structures formed when the ice supporting grainecl bottom sediments which have relatively high them melted (Figure 6). Signihcant kame deposits porosities and are capable of holding large amounts within the Johnson- Hardwick Region occur along of water. Unfortunately, despite local variations in the Black River valley between Albany and Coventry, composition, these deposits exhibit low permeabili- along the Missisquoi River valley in the Westfield- ties and correspondingly low groundwater yields. Iroy and Richford areas, and the Lamoille-Gihon Furthermore, they commonly have medium to high River valley near Belvidere Center, Eden Mills, and plasticity ranges and as such are considered to be too Mo rn sville. plastic for favorable foundation material without site Lake sands and gravels (sg), including beach modifications. Lacustrine silts and clays in the John- gravels and some deltas (Figure 7), are shallow water son-Hardwick Region are found along the Gihoii deposits that are usually well-sorted, have a medium River Valley in the vicinity of Eden, the Black Rivei to high permeability, and commonly exhibit moder- Valley west of lrasburg, the Missisquoi River Valley , ate to high groundwater yields. The water-bearing between Richford and Enosburg Falls, and Mud characteristics of lacustrine sands and gravels are Creek between Newport Center and North Froy. controlled by the thickness of the deposit, its texture Recent alluvium (al) is post-glacial sediment and degree of sorting, the type of underlying ma- which has been transported by streams with little or terial, the slope of the land surface, and the amount no modification of the original materials except and type of vegetative cover (Stewart, 1973, p. 22). through mechanical disintegration. Alluvium is it Although thicknesses of lake gravels are commonly fair to moderately well drained deposit which forms much less than those of lake sands, such deposits may a layer ranging from 5 to 20 feet in thickness across serve as important sources of aggregate material. most modern-day valley floors. Due to its poor Large lacustrine deposits occur along the Lamoille strength (bearing capacity), alluvium commonly River Valley l)etween Morrisville and Johnson, along makes a poor foundation material and as such, should the Missisquoi River Valley between Lowell and be removed prior to heavy construction. The pre- North l'roy, and along the Trout River Valley near dominance of alluvium adjacent to most of the major Montgomery. Lacustrine silts and clays (stc) are fine- river valleys throughout the region indicates areas

16 LM

-5, - -5-,- T

;4!t S S .-, - ,S .

- \ - -F'. • '-I -• I .

Figure 7. Gravel pit in deltaic deposit along White Branch two miles northwest of Eden. that are most susceptible to seasonal flooding. 1'hick CLEAN WATER - A NATURAL RESOURCE accumulations of alluvium may be found along the Black River Valley between Craftsbury and Irasburg, Water is such an ever-present, pervasive sub- the Missisquoi River Valley between Richford and stance in our lives that it enters into almost every East Berkshire, and the Lamoille River Valley near environment-related decision we make. Any plan for Morrisville. land use eventually requires consideration of water Peat, a fibrous material of vegetative origin, and acquisition, use, and disposal. While not everyone muck, a highly decomposed organic soil material de- wants or needs to be an expert on water, the private veloped from peat, designate poorly drained low- citizen, the planner, the politician, the manager, and lands or depressions and small swamps (p) within the other decision makers need to know enough to listen region. Large areas of swampland developed on and respond with intelligence and understanding as valley floors include portions of the Lords Creek different solutions are offered for solving present valley north of Craftsbury, the Missisquoi River and future water needs and problems. Unfortunately, valley between Lowell and North Troy, and the La- almost everywhere throughout the United States moille River valley near Belvidere Center. Large habits of water usage are based on the assumption areas of swampland development adjacent to lakes that water is free and virtually inexhaustible and as a and ponds include Bear Swamp, three miles north- result, most Americans use water without restriction east of Wolcott, Highland Swamp, two miles north- or thought. In 1960, the average per capita use of east of Newport Center, and the large swamp de- water in American cities was about 150 gallons per vel()ped north of Eligo Pond near Craftsbury. Many day. As of 1970, the United States was withdrawing a smaller swamps may be found across the uplands and total of 370 billion gallons of water a day from valley bottoms throughout the region. Few of these surface- and ground-water sources to meet the needs swamps, if any, are considered as good sources of of public supplies, commerce, industry, irrigation, peat. and rural users; an increase of 19 percent in off- channel use since 1965. This equals about 1,800 gal- Ions of water per day per person (250 gpd in Ver- ri mont) on a pro-rata basis or an average per capita Surface Waters use of 180 gallotis of water per day (U. S. Depart- ment of Interior New Release, August 30, 1972). Fresh, clear water. Sparkling streams running In recent years, many communities have ex- from the hillsides, cascading down from mountain perienced unprecedented water supply problems as heights. Wide rivers and gleaming lakes. These are growing populations and increased per capita water as much a part of the special world of Vermont as are use have placed greater demands on municipal water her Green Mountains (Figure 8). Each imparts ex- supplies. Some communities have been able to in- citement and recreation to native and tourist alike. crease their water supplies through a combination of The fundamental question is - will increasing bur- new surface reservoirs and well fields. Others have dens of untreated sewage, agricultural and industrial not been as fortunate. For them the demand for fresh wastes, and silt ultimately turn the prospect of water has been increasing every year but their supply destruction into a reality? In thoughtless abuse, will has not. To further complicate matters, water of man irreversibly befoul Vermont's lakes and rivers or good quality, both biologically and chemically, is will careful statewide planning and forceful legisla- harder to obtain each year. The development of tive action avert this fate? modern treatment techniques has significantly re- Interestingly enough, the Johnson- Hardwick duced the occurrence of waterborne diseases to a very Region constitutes one of the more sparsely popu- low level yet, nearly every year municipalities have lated areas of the state and, as such, still has a poten- problems with the taste and odor of their water and tially good to moderate surface-water supply for occasionally are beset with outbreaks of gastroin- agricultural, municipal, industrial, and scenic-recre- testinal problems that are most probably related to ational use. How long the surface waters of this re- their water supply (Pettijohn, 1973, p. 1; Fagan, 1974, gion will remain relatively clear and uncontaminated P 9). is difficult to determine. In view of the irregular dis-

-

Figure 8. White water of the Black River near Coventry.

18 trihution of adequate groundwater supplies, in- creased pressures on existing water supplies in urban communities, and growing pollution problems, the surface water potential of this region should be con- sidered a vital resource and undisturbed or sparsely settled upland areas and mountain slopes should be set aside for future surface-water development. At the present time, rivers and streams of po- tential surface-water supply commonly head to the east and west of the central ridge of the Green Moun- fil tains. Lucas and Stanhope brooks, tributaries of the Missisquoi River in the Town of Richford, and the headwaters of Trout River in the Town of Mont- t'; 4' gomery are the most likely possibilities to the west. I On the east side of the central Green Mountains, Mill, Taft, and Snider brooks, in the Town of West- field, and the upper reaches of the Gihon River, in the towns of Eden and Johnson, may afford further surface water supplies. Other additional sources may < be found along the eastern margin of the Lowell Mountains in the towns of Albany, Eden, Lowell, and Newport. Fortunately, many of these waterways are as yet somewhat removed from populated areas and remain relatively uncontaminated. Hopefully, Vermont's Land Use and Development Law as amended by the Capability and Development Plan and approved by the 1973 General Assembly, will assist in this measure. Clearly, watersheds already retained for municipal or private water systems are Figure 9 Ritterbush Pond four miles northwest of Eden more apt to retain their value as a source of high quality water than watersheds without formal re- strictions on use. Development commonly increases the probability of wastes entering surface waters and liability for all. Unfortunately, development along reduces a watershed's value as a source of potable many of these lakes and pon1s has proceeded to the water. Watersheds reserved for some private and point that potal)le water is no longer always available municipal water systems are so large and the lands and contamination may ultimately render the water included within them are currently developed to such unfIt for use. Greater efforts must be undertaken to an extent that careful monitoring and effective treat- control waste discharges into these natural surface ment of water entering distribution systems is re- reservoirs if they are to serve future generations. quired (Vermont Interim Land Capability Plan, Increasing cleniands for water usage could be 1972,p. 18). met through the Construct ion of additional catch- Lakes and ponds, although concentrated pre- merit and water storage facilities (reservoirs) similar dominantly in the southeastern portion of the John- to those already in existence. While costs incurre(l in son-Hardwick Region, should also serve as potentially such long-term development projects might seem ex- good reserves of surface water. Caspian Lake and cessive and certainly well beyond the costs of drilling the Green River Reservoir are the two largest bodies multiple water wells, reservoirs could supply ample of water in the region and are capable of supplying quantities of water to expanding municipalities large volumes of surface water if needed. Additional situated in geologically low groundwater-yield areas. sources of standing surface water include Belvidere, Secondary benefits of reservoir construction may be Daniels, Eligo, Little and Great Hosmer, and South found in the production of hydro-electric power and ponds as well as Eden, Elmore, Hardwick, and La- better developed flood control systems. nioille lakes. These water bodies are perhaps one of Presently, more than 40 percent of all niunicipali- the most ephemeral of the physical features of the ties in the Johiison-Hardwick Region meet daily de- earth's surface and as such can be either an asset or a mands for water through it combination of reser- liability to nearby communities (Figure 9). voirS, springs, and water wells. Most of the larger A clean, clear lake is a definite asset, whereas a communities have at least one reservoir. The village weed-choked, foul-smelling mudhole is a distinct of North l'roy relies on two reservoirs, with a com- l)j ned capacity of 75(1,000 gallons, to provi(le 120,000 that it combined a discharge permit systeni 2111(1 an gallons of water per (lay to approximately 70() people effluent fee system (Moros, 197 1, p 63 1). - or about 170 gallons of water per person Per (lay. At present, the State of' Vermont designates the The village of I rasburg, on the other hand, depends following uses to be protected in various interstate on a 5,000 gallon ('a)acity reservi iir and four artesian waters: wells to supply 73 units with water. Iii co:ltrast, com- Cla,c A. Suitable for public water supply with (lisiil- munities such as Jay and Lowell rely almost ex- f'cction when necessary; character uniformly clusively upon individual wells for their daily water excel Ic in. requirements while the village of 'l'roy supplies 60 ('las B. Suitable for bathing 2111(1 recreation, irnga- units with water drawii from nearby Cohurn B rook. non and agncultural uses; good fish habitat While the availability of' adequate surface-water good aesthetic value; acceptable l( )r J)t1 blic sir plies is of concern to the people of the Johnson- i vai er supply with filtrat ion and disin f ect tori. Hardwick Region, 50 too is the fundamental quality (Ja.c C. Suitable for recreational boating, irrigation OF their surface water. Throughout this region, of' ('lops not used fr 'O )nsu in pt ion wit hiout surface water (1ualit y has been (leinonstrated to vary cooking; habitat fo)r wildlife and for ( -om- widely within the same stream and from one water mon food and game fishes indigenous to the bo(ly to another. Suitability of surface waters for it region; and such industrial uses as are con- given use (irrigat ion, stock, industrial processing and sisterit with other Class C uses. domestic use) is determined by such chemical and (lao D. Suitable ('or supporting aerobic aquatic life, physical properties as dissolved oxygen content, or p wer, navigati( i1 and certain md ustrial color and t url)i(lit tern perature, pH factor, taste y, process needs consistent with other Class I) arid odor, colitoi'i,i bacteria level, and concentrations uses and for restricted zones of water to of' sludge deposits, solid refuse, floating solids, oil, assimilate appropriately treated wastes. grease, and scum, to name a few. Variations in water (Water Quality Standards Summary, 1969, quality may be related to the type of soil that the P 4). water contacts, length of' contact time, past use of the water, am( mnt and S( )u rce of basic flo)w, amount of In an at tempt to clean up surface waters, the storm runoff, extent of' mart's use ('or irrigation, Vermont Water Resources Department and the drainage control, and waste disposal, and many other former State Vater Conservation Board macfe (IC- fact rs. tailed StUdlies of surface water ('o)iI(lmtio)ns throughout In 1965, the United States Congress authorized the Johnson- Hard wick Regior i a rid t hroughout the the establishment of Water Quality Standards (the state (1960, 1961) and established plans for periodic Water Quality Act) For interstate waters in an at- resamplilig of specific sites. Water quality tests were tempt to protect and enhance their productivity. made to determine stream temperature, dissolved Between June IS, 1967, and August 24, 1971, the oxygen content, biochemical oxygen demand (BOL)), Vermont Legislature adopted and revised various pH, solids content, turbidity, coliform density (MPN), star I(lardls to p1ot't the quality and usage of its color, chloride, calcium and magnesium content, and interstate waters. The federally approved standards general hardness of the water. Water classifications, were intended to provide: I ) it designation of based upon previously discussed standards, of, vari- water usage; 2) written specifications and numerical ous sections of the Lake Memphremagog-Rla( k criteria to protet and enhance water quality and River, Lamoille River, and Missisquoi River basins associated aesthetic (onditions; and 3) it plan of clearly indicate polluted areas and the specific sources un plementat ion and enforcement, which included of' their contatnination. In every case those reaches treat ment and ('0111 rol requirements for municipal, of major rivers and their tributaries adjacenìt to such industrial and ot her waste products discharged into communities as Richfird, North ' l'roy, Montgomery, or ailect i rig interstate waters (Water Quality Johnson, Hyde Park, Mo)rrisvllle, Lowell, and I-lard- Standards Sn m mary, 1969, p. 2). wick are identified as substandard (Class C or 1)) To the extent that it is possible. the Vermont while intermediate sections are of better qualit v water quality standards implemented were intended (( lass B or ( ) (lire t() the natural dilutioti of liquidli )11S to tailor water quality criteria to existing quality or discharges 2111(1 the settling of many solid rnater'ials. that anticipated to result from the installation of Most headwatet's of the major drainage systems rie water treatment facilities. At the time of' its in- h rough jut the region remain as good to) high quality cepi ion, the Vermont Water Pollution Control A('t (Class A or B) sources of surface Water. Surfa:e water was considered unique in American legislation and tonI amiriat io)ii t 11 1' )ugho)ut the .111 non- H ardwick probably one of the most effective antipollution meas- Region has l)eern clearly linked to improper disposal tires yet introduced inn the United States. 'I'he statute's of solid wastes close to surface water drainage sys- uniqueness arid strength was derived from the fact tems, direct discharge of partially or untreated

20 mullicij)al and itl(lustrial wastes into nearby rivers demands for "jure water.' and streams, and improperly operating or closely Only when moderate to large qualit ities of packed SC j)t ic tank systems. groundwater are retrieval)le, however, (10 they be- When municipalities are ol)taining daily water come useful to mankind. To be so, subsurface or supplies (lirecily from nearby rivers and streams, underground water must be able to move with some severe health hazards may obviously be incurred. degree of freedom. Groundwater sources of greatest Recently, the Vermont State Board of Health cle- importance are, therefore, those which occur in ma- dared the village of Mont g' merys municipal water terials that are porous and permeable. l'orosity is supply "unsafe" clue to its high level of biological best defined as the volume, expressed as a percent, contaminants. The I() or 50 units in Montgomery of unoccupied space preseilt in sediments or bedrock. which are presently supplied with water from a With rare exceptions, most materials at or near the neighboring spring and brook will be linked with a earth's surface possess some degree of porosity. municipal water well as soon as drilling is conl1)leted. Hydrologically, porosity is important because it per- Waters with excessively high colih)rm levels (Class C illits storage of water in the subsurface and, when or 1)) may be drawn and used for domestic purposes determined quantitatively, it represents the ap- when chl )rinauoil (1.0 mg/L) and detent ion practices proximate storage coefficient of a given material. are followed carefully. Such treatment can be costly Permeability, on the other hand, is a measure (Darcy) but has been demonstrated to kill 99.9 percent of all of the ease with which water may move through the coliform present in surface waters (Vermont Water openings of a given mat erial. Resources 1)epartment, 1968, p. 25). The most Although it has been estimated that over 90 severe problems in surface water quality are experi- percent of Vermotit's total available water supply enced along the Lamoille River between Harclwick consists of subsurface sources (Rural Sewage Man- and Johnson (Class B, C, and 1)) where large volumes agement in Vermont, April 1971), groundwater of coot aminailts enter t lie drainage system from within the Johnson-Hardwick Region is a limited ic- (l()mestic and municipal sewers, industrial fa(ilities, source due to its irregular geographic distribution in refuse disposal sites in the valleys and along l)ill- the regions tract ured bedrock and unc( nisolidated sides, and from natural surface runofi. Centerville, valley sediments and its great variability in abundance Elmore Pond, Ken field, Ryder, and Wild brooks (yield). In some localities, groundwater supplies are as well as the trunk sections of the Lamoille and available in sufficient quantities for municipal, in- ;ihon rivers are all ranked as Class C or I) waters. dustrial, and commercial usage, while in other cases Class D conditions are consistently found adjacent to areas with severe limitations are restricted to minimal the municipalities of Hardwick, Morrisville, Hyde domestic use only. In this connection, it should be Park, and johnson. Problems of municipal sewage noted that areas with severe limitations will not treatment, the major source of surface-water con- tolerate unlimited residential development because tanlination, are heiiig steadily reduced by the care- the aggregate demand will ultimately he equivalent ful plan iiit ig and construct ion of modern sewage to that of a commercial or industrial user. U ii- treatment plaiits supported by state and federal fortunately, sufficient in formation is as yet unavail- funding, i.e. Johnson Sewage Treaiment Plant. Un- able to specify the cletisity limits for residential (IC- kirt unatcly, most municipalities within the Johnson- velopment in specific areas. Preliminary information Hardwick Region are still awaiting assistance. In re- (toes suggest, however, that half-acre plots may be cent years, industrial waste contamination has been the maximum concetitration possible For areas, wit Ii markedly reduced through strict cii 6 )rccment of severe limitations, dependent on groundwater sup- atiti-dumping and efHuent discharge legislation. plies. Greater densities may ultimately result in corn- Itirther ellort is still required. pltition among users hr the same groundwater sup- Plies(Wagner, 197 1, p. 5). Groundwater Ihese and other observations make it readily apparent that groundwater management is one of the In sustain it human life in a physiological sense, most important and critical aspects of environmental about one gallon of water per day is needed. loday, planning. Although many good quality surface water however, the average American city dweller uses reserves are not being used to capacity and others bet ween ISO and 200 gallotis of water a day. While remain untapl)ed, attempts to prevent development such consumption rates will vary according to climate, on watersheds, restrict lake usage, and control pollu- degree of afFluence, and regional custom, all reflect tion may not sufficieiit ly ptoiect this supply. lii- excessive water usage. In a time when the pollution creasing contamination of surface waters and grow- of surface water supplies is increasing more rapidly ing diemands hr readily available high volume, low i han our solutions to the problem, many communities cost sources of potable water will necessitate greater have turned to groundwater sources to meet growing utilization of groundiwater supplies in the years to come. 20 feet (end-of-spread geophones) and 40 feet (cen- In an attempt to evaluate groundwater supplies ter-spread geophones). in the Johnson-Hardwick Region, data was obtained Using seismic data alone, earth materials are from several different sources. Some 567 well com- placed into broad classifications based on the velocity pletion reports, supplied by the Vermont Water Re- of the seismic wave transmitted through them. Each sources Department, served as a basic source of in- recorded velocity does not have a specific material formation and assisted greatly in the determination correlation due to variations in bedrock lithology, of such geologic conditions as the thickness and type degree of weathering or fracturing, sediment com- of surficial materials, the depth of wells in each position, compactability arid wetness. Most bedrock locality, and the amount of water produced (yield) as well as overburden materials do however fall with- by each well. These well records have been required in particular velocity ranges. of all licensed water-well drillers since 1966, and are Since seismic velocities are determined by the available to all planning agencies through an open moduli of elasticity and the density of each material, file system. The infrmation obtained from these the magnitude of seismic velocities may, to some ex- compiled reports can be readily applied to the solu- tent, be used as an indicator of the "behavior" of tion of many environmental problems provided that different materials for design and excavation pur- they have been completed accurately. U nfortunat ely, poses. such reports are often submitted in an incomplete, Bedrock characteristically has a high seismic inaccurate, or sketchy fashion and therefore offer velocity (10,000-14,000 feet/second) due to its density little assistance to any study. but variations in rock type and its degree of weather- Through the combined use of a twelve- or ing and/or fracturing may produce velocities below twenty-four trace seismic refraction method with a 8,000 ft/sec. Seismic velocities above 11,000 ft/sec continuous profiling technique (Figure 10), Weston are indicative of sound bedrock which will require (;ephysical Engineers, Inc. of Westhoro, Massa- blasting for excavation. Bedrock with velocities chusetts, completed 6 relatively quick and accurate ranging between 8,000 and II ,000 ft/sec may similar- seismic profiles at various locations throughout the ly require blasting but prediction of design charac- region where well-log and geologic information in- teristics for such material is uncertain. Weathered dicated favorable groundwater conditions. The seis- rock in the velocity range of 3,000-7,500 ft/sec will mic retraction method is an indirect means of de- have the design characteristics of overburden but may termirling the depth, width, and general conligura- require localized blasting for removal. Velocities in tiorl of buried bedrock valleys, the depth to the local the 1,000-2,500 ft/sec range are characteristic of watertable, and a generalized profile of the overlying residual soils. glacial and fluvial sediments. These interpretations The seismic velocities of unconsolidated sedi- are based on the measurement of the time required ments are commonly much lower than those of bed- for elastic ("p") waves, generated at a point source, rock. The velocity range of 500-800 ft/sec is usually to iravel to a series of vibration-sensitive devices indicative of very loose and unsaturated silts, humus, (geophones or seismometers). These geophones are and loose, man-made fill materials. The velocities spared at known intervals along a straight line on in the range of 800-2,000 f't/sec are characteristic of the ground surface and, with end shots, is called a unconsolidated overburden materials, usually fluvial seismic spread. The length of each spread is deter- deposits which are unsaturated and relatively uni- mined by the required depth of penetration. The form. Velocities of 2,000-4,000 ft/sec are common to deeper the penetration desired, the longer the spread a number of materials, but in Vermont these usually must be. All spreads used in this study were 400 feet indicate loose, thin, relatively dry tills (ground in length and corresponding geophone intervals of moraine). The most typical velocity range of the

-.------/ . . -...... _-

- I

Figure 10. Twelve-point seismic refraction record.

22 ground moraine is 2,400-2,800 ft/sec. This range of To better evaluate the availability of ground- seismic velocities is also indicative of some com- water supplies in the Johnson-Hardwick Region, it is pacted and well-graded, unsaturated sands and important to examine closely the nature of the ma- gravels. Unsaturated tills commonly have velocities terials in which this resource occurs. Characteris- ranging from 3,500-4,000 ft/sec, while more compact tically, the igneous and highly metamorphosed bed- glacial tills are suggested by velocities of 6,000-8,000 rock materials of this area, veneered with a thin ft/sec. Seismic velocities between 6,000-6,300 ft/sec mantle of till, possess extremely low to non-existent are associated with saturated tills located in river primary porosity (I to 3 percent maximum) and valleys throughout the state. virtually no permeability. Most of the groundwater Unconsolidated sediments with seismic velocities produced from such bedrock sources comes, there- ranging between 4,500 and 5,500 ft/sec are usually fore, from secondary openings (2 to 10 percent saturated with water. Groundwater in sufficient quan- maximum) created in fractures and weathered rock tities for municipal water supplies have been found zones (Figure 11). Fractured zones tend to be more only in materials with velocities ranging between open at the surface and decrease in width downward. 4,800 and 5,300 ft/sec. Surficial materials having At depths below 300 to 400 feet, the fractures are velocities below 4,800 ft/sec are usually not saturated usually so tight that they either contain little or no while those above 5,300 ft/sec are too compact to be water or the water contained in them is held by capil- of sufficient porosity and permeability to yield large lary action (Stewart, 1972, p. 22). The fractures in quaItities of water (Stewart, 1972; Weston Geo- the rock commonly trend in all directions and inter- physical Engineers, Inc., 1974). The seismic profiles sect at all depths, promoting highly irregular (aniso- reproduced in this report were prepared by Weston tropic) groundwater flow and hydrostatic pressures (;eophysical Engineers, Inc. during the 1973 sum- sufficient for raised water levels (artesian conditions) mer seismic study. in the well. Of all bedrock water wells drilled above (,ou nd II 'a/i, I'avorabili/?na.s (Hodges and the valley bottoms in Vermont, 5 to 20 percent should Butterfield, 1967) of the Lake Memphremagog Basin properly be classified as failures as they do not pro- and the Lamoille, Missisquoi, and Winooski River vide minimum yields of 2 gallons of water per minute basins were examined and compared with all avail- (gpm) or more, which is a level considered adequate able information pertaining to groundwater condi- for low density residential supplies. Wells of low tR)lls in the Johnson-Hardwick Region. l'hese drain- yields range between I and 10 gpm of water while age basin maps were intended to serve as a guide for moderate yields approach 10 to 25 gpm. High yield local groundwater expli)ration and as such, desig- bedrock wells, such as would he required for com- nate areas of potentially excellent, moderate, and mercial, industrial, high density residential and low groundwater yields. In addition, they also locate municipal supplies, are relatively scarce in the John- several water wells of varying yields and indicate son-Hardwick Region. Clustering of bedrock wells the type of water aquifer from which they are pro- which produce in excess of 25 gpm is, however, more ducing. Vermont Highway Department test borings common near valley bottoms and in areas of intensely are also located on these maps and their drill records fractured bedrock. are described. - Fhe Groundwater Potential Map Under natural conditions, the physical and (Plate III) prepared during this survey agrees closely chemical properties of water, derived from wells with much of the information shown on the (;round penetrating the water-bearing zones in bedrock, re- Water Favorability maps of the Vermont Department mains fairly uniform through time and commonly of Water Resources. Due to the substantial volume j)rovides a supply of good to excellent quality water. of recent well-log, geologic, and seismic data utilized In some instances, individual wells and small groups in the preparation of this map, however, a more pre- of wells may produce water which is high in silica cise interpretation of the groundwater conditions in and chlorides, hard, and generally poorly suited for this area has been achieved. Areas shown in green domestic use. Where soil cover is thin or absent over (g) indicate localities of good groundwater potential fractured bedrock, biological contamination of and/or medium to high yields (greater than 30 gpm) groundwater may pose a serious problem even at depths to 200 feet in various sand and gravel de- though the fractures may be less than 1 mm. wide. posits. Areas designated in yellow (y) characteristically Pathogenic organisms may move more efficiently have low to medium groundwater yields (10-30 gpm) here than in normal alluvial aquifers where organic from stream valley gravels or froni bedrock below contaminants are removed through natural filtra- the valley fill at depths to 300 feet or are thought to tion over short distances of transport. Once con- have moderate groundwater potential. Areas shown tamination of groundwater held in rock fractures has in red (r) are considered to possess very low ground- begun, control and abatement of such problems is water potential or have low yields (0-10 gpm) from very difficult due to the erratic route traveled by the fractured bedrock sources at depths to 300 feet. water.

23 Low groundwater yield in the Morrisville area: si'ILrrA i'II/(:KNE .S'.S' DEPI'!! Soil — dirt and clay 5 0-5 Sand, pack gravel and boulders 20 5-25 Dark gray-green, medium-hard bedrock 275 ft. 25-300 ft. }'u'Id = I gallon per minute

Muderate groundwater yield in the lrasburg area:

S/iLl/A /'l//CKNESS DEPT/I (lay and boulders 5 0-5 S ut shale 6 5-11 Rluie, iiufitim-hard bedrock 7() ft. 11-81 ft. i/il - 54 gallons per minute (probably due u fracturing of local bedrock)

'I hi utjli oil the Johnson-Hardwick Region, as in iiiucli of New England, glacial deposits form an im- j)ortant part of the framework for present water supply systems. These materials consist of varying proportions of sand, gravel, silt, and clay and may range up to 175 feet or more in thickness in many valley bottoms. Due to their differences in origin, (( )mposition, primary porosity and permeability, glacial materials will exhibit large variations in groundwater yields. Till aquifers, those composed principally of heterogeneous mixtures of glacial Figure 11. Folded and fractured schist bedrock exposed along debris with interhedded sand and gravel deposits, the Trout River one and one-half miles west of are usually of low porosity and permeability and Montgomery. make poor groundwater sources due to their slow yield. Only when interbedded sand and gravel lenses The uplands of the Johnson-Hardwick Region are reasonably thick and extensive do till aquifers are (overed by a discontinuous mantle of glacial till provide low to moderate groundwater supplies. The that generally varies from 0 to 20 feet in thickness common irregularity of such deposits often results in and large areas of bedrock remain exposed. The till distorted subsurface transmission of water and un- cover found on these upland areas is often too thin reliable yields. Lacustrine and outwash aquifers, and too impermeable to yield reliable supplies of those composed of moderate- to well-sorted sands groundwater except from hand-dug wells producing and gravels and confined to the region's stream val- from near-surface sources. Wells such as these are leys, commonly possess moderate to high porosities especially prone to contamination and should not (5-25 percent) and permeabilities and make good be used. Due to problems of limited water supply and groundwater sources. Here, thinner and less well- high contamination potential, most water wells de- sorted sand and gravel deposits usually yield less veloped in upland areas must draw water from the than 20 g.p.m. of water while thicker and more well- bedrock at depths as great as 855 feet (I 50-225 feet sorted materials often yield 20-50 g.p.m. of water. average). The measured groundwater yields of deep In some instances, groundwater yields from such de- bedrock wells throughout the Johnson-Hardwick posits may exceed 200 g.p.m. Where sand and/or Region range from 1/8 to 70 gpm (3-6 gpm average). gravel layers occur at depth in the valleys, they often These generally very low yields are considered in- serve as very good aquifers that yield water in much adequate for most individual or commercial uses, greater quantities than the surrounding bedrock but may be suitable for domestic or farm water sup- with less chance of contamination. Valley aquifers plies. The following two driller's logs (H. A. Manosh presently afford the greatest reserve of water Corp., 1967, 1971) of bedrock wells near Morris- throughout the region and will undoubtedly be util- ville and Irasburg, respectively, illustrate the low ized more as demands for potable water increase. and moderate groundwater yields encountered while The following driller's log (B. and B. Artesian Well drilling in theJohnson-Hardwick Region. Co., Inc., 1966) of a water well developed in Un-

24 consolidated sediments near Richford illustrates the water has an objectionable taste or odor, if it is hot or high yield potential of valley-fill sand and gravel cold, or if it is clear or dirty. Although the general deposits. appearance, odor, or taste of drinking water may not threaten human health directly, they may lead people STRATA J'IIiCkVES,S DEPT/I to drink more palatable but more dangerous water Sod cover and loam 2 0-2 and thus such physical characteristics of water may be Fine brown sand 8 2-10 indirectly hazardous (Houston and Blackwell, 1972, Gray clay 90 10-100 p.9; Wagner, 1971, p. 108). Sand and gravel 195 ft. 100-265 ft. Although groundwater percolation tends to re- move by natural filtration, absorption, or biochemical Exceptionally high groundwater yields were en- degradation most of the contaminants potentially countered when completing a well in the Morrisville dangerous to man, various disease-producing bac- well field during the summer of 1973. Here, sand and teria, viruses, parasites, and chemically toxic sub- gravel deposits along the south bank of the Lamoille stances may enter the groundwater system and he River were drilled to a depth of 40 ket and a ground- transmitted considerable distances before they are water yield of 1500 g.p.m. was calculated. Much of neutralized. Tests for water quality seek primarily this water may be coming directly from the nearby to verify the presence or absence of such con- Lamoille River, through the sand and gravel deposits, taminants and their concentration levels so that pre- to the well-head. If this is the case, little opportunity cautionary or corrective measures may be taken for for natural filtration and purification is provided and individual and grouped wells. One of the more sensi- this water should be chlorinated before use. tive and readily discernible forms of groundwater Lacustrine and outwash deposits commonly fill contamination stems from the presence of coliform the major valleys of the johnson-Hardwick Region bacteria. Coliform bacteria are normally present in and extend along adjacent hill slopes. These numer- exceedingly high numbers in the intestinal tract of ous and expansive recharge areas provide most of man and animals and if intestinal discharges have the groundwater that issues from wells, springs, contaminated water supplies, large numbers of coli- and seeps within each drainage basin. When water frm bacteria are certain to be present. While coli- flowing from upland areas enters these deposits and form bacteria rarely cause a disease in themselves, becomes confined to the more porous and permeable they are significant as an indicator of more serious layers, artesian conditions may he produced. Such sewage pollution problems. When well-water sample conditions provide a prime source of potable water. tests confirm the presence of coliform bacteria, do- As groundwater moves through the earth it mestic water should he boiled and the well chemically picks up and dissolves various organic and mineral treated in accordance with Vermont State Health substances from many different sources. The nature Department regulations (1971). Should such mea- and amount of material carried and/or dissolved sures fail to reduce present contamination prob- through these contacts dictate to a large degree the lems, some corrective construction on the well or water's quality. The physical and chemical properties well-site relocation may be necessary. of water derived from wells penetrating water-hear- Unfortunately, regional pro1)lens stemming ing unconsolidated sediments throughout the region from high concentrations of mineral material and remain fairly uniform with time and almost always bacterial contamination are difficult to substantiate jrovide a supply of good to excellent quality water, because few well drillers in Vermont adhere to re- often significantly less contaminated and safer for quests by the Vermont Department of Water Re- human use than is surface water. In some instances, sources for a water quality sample test at the time of however, individual wells and small groups of wells well completion. Furthermore, the present systems may produce water which is high in various contami- used for filing well corn pletion reports with the De- nants or dissolved mineral content and therefore partment of Water Resources and water system poorly suited for domestic use. sample collection data with the Vermont State Health The physical properties of groundwater that are Department do not coincide in such a fashion as to of greatest concern are, like surface waters, color, give a clear interpretation of regional groundwater taste, odor, temperature, and cloudiness or turbidity. quality patterns. l'hrough interdepartmental co- Color, taste, and odor in groundwater usually origi- operation and/or a better system of data collection nates from the presence of organic materials and dis- within each agency, a significant contribution to solved substances while cloudiness or turbidity is understanding Vermont's groundwater problems caused by finely divided and suspended insoluble could be achieved with little or no increased expense soils and silts and clays in the water. These proper- to the tax payer. ties are the most readily perceptible characteristics More important than problems of groundwater of groundwater. Everyone can tell whether or not quality is the question of general groundwater avail-

25 ability and potential yield throughout the region. recent seismic profiles indicate that much of the main Theoretically, potential groundwater supplies are bedrock valley and its tributaries are filled with 50 considerably greater than present demands for most to 130 feet or more of water-saturated sands and portions of the study area. Continued population gravels with local concentrations of silt and clay growth in some localities may, however, ultimately (seismic velocity 5,00() ft/see). The finer grained de- raise local demands for water to such an extent that posits are generally found close to the land's surface practical sustained yields of groundwater reservoirs while variable thicknesses of coarser sediments are may be exceeded. Such heavy concentrations of water concentrated at the bottom of the valley in most wells and corresponding withdrawal would un- areas. Well records show that these sand and gravel doubtedly result in eventual competition among deposits, if properly drilled, should yield moderate users for the same groundwater supplies and general to good quantities of groundwater. iml)airment of water quality. In the future, it may be- Seismic profiles in the Lamoille River valley, come necessary to complete detailed studies in local completed approximately one mile west of .Johtisoti areas to determine quantitatively the limits to well (Figures 12 and 13) indicate a broad valley with densities and volume usage of such a resource. depths to bed rock ranging from 80 feet near the river Sensible management of surface and groundwater on the south to 130 feet at the deepest part of the supplies will undoubtedly continue to meet public valley, about 800 feet south of State Route 15. The demands for increased amounts of ptt1)le water in bedrock surface becomes abruptly shallower near the years to come. the highway, with a pronounced bedrock rise ap- Inasmuch as the greatest population density for proximately 400 feet to the south. Nearby well-log the Johnson- Hardwick Region is encountered along data and seismic velocities indicate variable thick- the Lamoille River Valley, it is appropriate that a dis- nesses of gravel, sand, and silt and clay overtopped cussion of groundwater availability in this area be with alluvium throughout this section. The water collsidere(l first. While bedrock is widely exposed potential throughout this portion of the valley is along many parts of the Lamoille River Valley, ranked moderate to good and appears to be closely geologic investigations, available well records, and associated with basal sand and gravel deposits.

- •, - .. .

'*. - -. .. . lit

Fiyur. I . Site of north-south seismic profile across the Lamoille tinr vIIi y one nil,. west of Johnson

26 N LINEI s 0 400ff 800ff 1200ff 1600ff 2000ft 2400ft.

ROUTE 15 1600 FT/SEC______ C T/SE LAMOL E RIVE 506-

400 T/SEC

350 350

Figure 13. North-south seismic profile across the Lamoille River Valley one mile west of Johnson.

-4

LINE I N S 0 400ff. 800ft 1200ff. 1600ff. 2000 ft.

55d - ROUTC RIVER j- 550

500 500

450' 450

Figure 14. North-south seismic profile across the Lamoille River Valley about two miles northwest of Hyde Park.

LINE2 S a60ft. 1380ff. 0 400ff. 660ff

700 LM0ILLE RIVER 700 2000FT/SEC , ,

000 FT/SE " 650 650' [4,000 FT/SEC

600' 600

550' 550 Figure 15. North-south seismic profile across the Lamoille River Valley about two miles northwest of Wolcott.

00

LINE 3 LINE 2 LINE I N S w 0 20ft 4f ROil. 4f I 16011 0 12011 80011 400f 0 ROUTE 12-8 LINE 34001' 20003000 FT/SEC__INE2525ft god— 5000 FI/SEJ RIVE

850' :: 850' 5000 Fr/SEC - 5000 FT/SEC 90O'- 800' 19"0, 15,000 FT/SEC - 800' 750'

700'

650' 650'

Figure 16. East-west seismic profile across the Block River Volley about two miles northwest of Mill Village. Seismic profiles completed in the Lamoille River material, located about 800 feet cast of the Black valley about two miles northwest of Hyde Park River. Scattered water-wells already producing from (Figure 14) suggest that bedrock is generally shallow the valley-fill sediments of this area show thick Se- throughout the section. The maximum thickness of quences of interbedded sands and gravels with some 5,000 ft/sec overburden material, approximately silts and clays. Wells penetrating to depths of ap- 55 feet, was found close to the river and about 500 proximately 100 feet commonly end in coarse gravels feet south of State Route 15. With limited cultural which yield between 15 and 100 g.p.m. of water. development, the saturated valley-fill sedimems of While this section of the Black River valley may have this area may generally he expected to yield moderate a moderate to good water potential, Highway De- to good supplies of groundwater. Similar studies partment test borings to the south indicate the (Figure 15) of the Lamoille River valley, just west of presence of thicker sequences (approximately 81 its juncture with Wild Branch (two miles northwest feet) of silt and clay mixed with thin layers of sand of Wolcott), indicate a maximum thickness of 70 and thereby suggest a much lower groundwater po- feet of 5,000 ft/sec overburden material in the center tential for that section of the valley. Similar studies of the valley and corresponding moderate to good conducted in the Black River valley between Round groundwater yields are therefore anticipated. Where and Chamberlain hills, approximately 1.5 miles the bedrock valley of the ancestral Lamoille River is southwest of the village of Irasburg (Figures 17 and broad, deep, and extensively filled with medium- to 18) indicate the greatest valley depth and correspond- coarse-grained sediments, groundwater potential is ilIg thickness of overburden material measured dur- considered good. Limited valley development and ing this study. A total thickness of 390 feet of 5,000 sediment in-filling may restrict groundwater supplies ft/sec material was measured in the center of' the considerably (low to moderate potential). profile line near the Black River. Unlike the other Seismic studies completed in the Black River seismic profiles developed for this study, an ex- valley, approximately two miles northwest of Mill tensive deposit of dense glacial till was found along Village (Figure 16) indicate a fairly well-developed the western side of the valley. Although few water "V"-shaped bedrock valley, with a maximum thick- well completion reports were available for this por- ness of more than 230 feet of 5,000 ft/sec overburden ti()n of the Black River valley, a Highway I)epartment

-..

-

- -

- .,.- -.-- -

Figure 17. Site of northwest-southeast seismic profile across the Black River Valley, one and one-half miles southwest of Irasburg.

29 LII'4C. 0 LINE LINE I I4Ot 200ff 800I ft 4015 0 4ft LINE 4 900' 2600 FT/SEC -900' BLACK' LE C -RlVER 850' 800'

sod- -800'

750' 750'

700'- SEC H700'

650' 650'

600'- 600'

550' 550' 3,500± FT/SEC 500'- L500'

450' 450'

LINE4 LINE 5 N s N S LINE I 400ff 660ff -20015 0 400ff 920ff 0 I I I I I 900'- -900' 900' -900' 2600FT/SEC _. 2600 FT/SEC) LINE 26400ft 850' 850 850' 5000 FT/SEC

800'- - 800' 800' ..---'- 'T'' BOO

16,000 FT/ SEC 750' 750' 750' - 750'

700'- ceo 5000 FT/SEC

650' 650'

. M

- 3,5000 FT/SEC 500'- L500

Figure 18. Northwest-southeast seismic profile across the Black River Valley, one and one-half miles southwest of lrasburg.

w LINE 2 LINE 3 LINE I E 800ft. 400ft 0800ft. 400ft. 0 400ff 0 I I 850 I I I 850' MISSISQUOI 2600 FT/SEC- 2600FT/SEC —) RIVER /7 ROUTEIOO 8W- -800

750 750'

700'- -700'

650' - 650

600L FT/SE -600'

Figure 19. East-west seismic profile across the Missisquoi River Valley about two miles north of Lowell.

-- test boring in this area indicates that at least the upper available in various quantities throughout the John- 53 feet of the overburden material consists of fine- son-Hardwick Region, but best reserves are charac- grained sands and gravels. Based largely on seismic teristically found in the valley-fill sediments of the information, it is suggested that this area has a area's major drainage basins. While wells developed moderate to good groundwater potential in those in upland areas will need to be carried to some depth portions of the valley unaflécted by the infilling of in bedrock to guarantee sustained yields, wells de- glacial till and a moderate to low potential for the veloped in river valleys need not necessarily be com- western side of the valley. pleted in bedrock or he carried to such depths to Seismic studies in the Missisquoi River valley provide adequate groundwater yields. In all cases, a (Figure 19). approximately 2 miles north of the vil- reputable well driller should be consulted prior to lage of Lowell (east of Browns Ledges) indicate drilling. Additional information may be obtained depths to bedrock ranging from 65 feet along the from the Vermont Department of Water Resources. eastern end of the profile line to 195 feet at the deep- est part of the valley, approximately 600 feet west of the river. Overburden velocities are consistently WASTES OF A SOCIETY 5,000 ft/sec and thereby indicate saturated sediments. One of the most pressing social and environ- Scattered well logs for this area indicate variable mental problems encountered today, is the disposal thicknesses of sand and gravel in the valley bottom of waste. The geologic consequences of solid and which yield from 5 to 30 g.p.m. of water. Ground- liquid waste disposal include the general disruption water potential for this section of the valley is con- of the earth's surface and the substantial chemical sidered moderate to good. and biological changes brought about by the intro- Despite the widespread occurrence of seemingly favorable groundwater source areas throughout the duction of the two into the environment. While the problems of solid waste disposal are more obvious Johnson- Hardwick Region, little detailed information concerning groundwater favorability and quality is than those of contaminated liquids, 1)0th impose seri- available except through scattered and often poorly documented well-log completion reports and water quality analyses. The six seismic profiles completed fr this investigation have helped to better define specific site conditions throughout the region and provide additional support for regional interpreta- tions, but because of the great variability in thick- ness and type of valley-fill sediments encountered in the Black, Lamoille, and Missisquoi River valleys, all evaluations as to groundwater potential are of a gen- eral nature. Due to the scanty availability of sub- surface information concerning the areas selected for seismic investigation, Weston Geophysical Engi- neers, Inc. recommend test drilling for reliable water sources in all areas surveyed. This practice is similarly advised for all other municipal well-field development projects. For general evaluative pur- poses, however, the kame, outwash, and lake sedi- ments which fill or lie adjacent to the Black, Lamoille, and Missisquoi rivers commonly exhibit moderate to good groundwater potential and often yield 5-20 g.p.m. of water. In many cases, those wells extended to considerable depth in bedrock might have pro- duced equal or greater quantities of water if they had been completed in sands and gravels at shallower depths. For instance, a well near Newport Center was drilled to a depth of 31 feet, completed in gravel, and yielded 60 g.p.m. of water. Similarly, a well drilled near Montgomery was carried to a depth of 28 feet and produced approximately 100 g.p.m. of water from coarse sands and gravels. Figure 20. Dump located in lake sediments near Rodman Brook Suffice it to say, that groundwater supplies are two miles northeast of Mornsville.

31 OUS stresses on expanding urban and rural areas. As '- the volumes and varieties of wastes increase, the dilu- tion arid cleansing capal)ilities of many natural sys- :• tems are easily overwhelmed and the deleterious effects become obvious even to the most casual ob- d server. To avoid further disruption of surrounding environments, the traditional methods of waste dis- posal for resi(lential areas, industries, and muncipali- ties must he re-evaluated.

Solid Waste Disposal

Solid waste is probably the most visible evidence of our environmental problems. The increasing volume and complexity of wastes plague communi- ties across the nation (Figure 20). Private households are the largest contributors of solid waste (44 per- cent), industrial and construction operations rank second (30 percent), and commercial enterprises L - generate the remainder (26 percent) according to the U.S. Department, of the Interior in 1971. The urban population ol the United States is now producing an unprecedented 1,400 million pounds (estimate) of solid wastes each day. Based on a volume estimate of - 5.7 cubic yards per ton of waste, this refuse is suf- ficient to cover more than 40() acres of land per day to a depth of approximately 10 feet (U.S. Department of Interior News Release, August 22, 1971). With or without prior incineration, the so-called Figure 21. Dump lotcd in kunie end outwash sediments one "sanitary landfill" is the principal means of solid and one-half miles east of Eden, near Lake Eden. waste disposal used today. Its popularity arises from the fact that it is often the cheapest frm of disposal - according to their shape and the location of the space costing as little as $0.65 to $1. 10 per ton. What makes filled (Benarde, 1973, p. 183). These include such the landfill "sanitary" is the practice of covering each classifications as: 1) area Iand/ilt' - refuse is deposited day's accumulation of waste with a compacted layer in horizontal layers on relatively flat ground com- of earth so that gases and fluids, produced by pacted, and covered over, sides and top, with soil or chemical and biological action in the fill, are re- another inert material, layer-cake fashion; 2) Irene/i straine(1 from escaping into the surrounding at- Iaiidjilic - land excavated in the shape of a trench to a mosphere and surface- and/or ground-water system depth, length, and width determined by the par - (Flawn, 1970, p. 148). ticular characteristics of the tract. Depths of 10 to In 1968, the U.S. Public Health Service con- 15 feet and widths up to 20 feet are widely employed. ducted a nationwide survey of solid waste disposal Refuse is deposited in the trench, compacted and practices, examining 12,000 typical "land disposal covered with earth to reduce fly and rodent attrac- sites" and found that only 6 percent could be classi- tion. Separation of the refuse by walls of soil keeps fied as "sanitary landfills," while the remainder were fires from spreading beyond a single cell. The soil little more than "open dumps." Of the 12,000 sites cover, from 18 to 24 inches thick, virtually eliminates studied, less than 14 percent were covered daily, 41 odors; and 3) tamp /and/ill. a method of filling land percent got no cover at all, and 75 percent had an which employs existing ravines or quarries; refuse is unacceptable appearance and some form of open deposited against side walls and, as with the area burning (Figure 21). The survey did not reveal how and trench methods, inert cover is placed on the sides many of these sites had kuled their environment be- and top at regular intervals. cause of penetration of pollutants into their local The geologic problems associated with solid ground water system (Wagner, 1971, p. 418; Legget, waste disposal, particularly the landfill type, are 1973, p. 380). For too long the attitude toward solid within all probability the second greatest environ- waste has been to dump it, burn it, or bury it! mental concern next to problems of water availability At the present time, those disposal sites which and quality. According to Flawn (1970, p. 149), the best classify as "sanitary landfills" can be described pollution potential of a landfill, regardless of its type,

32 depends on five important factors. These include: overcome. 1) the reactivity of the waste itself as measured in the Throughout the Johnson-Hardwick Region, as content of organic matter, soluble inorganic consti- mentioned before, significant quantities of sub- tuents, easily oxidized substances, etc.; 2) the physical surface water may be held in rock fractures, where stability of the refuse in terms of volume change natural filtering and purification proceed very slowly, (mostly shrinkage) as decomposition advances; 3) the or in the porous, unconsolidated sands and gravels geological and hydrological parameters of the site of stream valleys. Increasing problems with crowding, - the porosity and permeability of the formation in multiple land use, and improper disposal of waste which the fill is located and whether or not the water materials may seriously alter local environmental table intersects the fill; 4) how efficiently the upper conditions throughout this region. It becomes im- surface of the fill is protected from insects, animals perative, therefore, that as part of a larger anti- (mainly rodents), and exposure to wind and rain; pollution program, considerable care he taken in and 5) climate - chemical reactions are inhibited solid waste disposal techniques to limit or prohibit by low temperatures, and in areas where rainfall leachate contamination of present and potential leaching of fill is slight. Where there is an original groundwater sources. In areas where pollution seems separation of food wastes (garbage) from nonfood to be inevitable, modification of the site so as to retard wastes (trash or refuse) the resulting nonfood ac- or contain leachate is generally possible at reasonable cumulation is more stable than a mixture of the two. costs. Modifications may include the use of clay fill, In a controlled, properly designed landfill, the spray seals, and plastic liners to reduce ground energy released by the chemical changes taking place permeability to a satisfactory level, in addition to the is so great that there is a precipitous rise in internal development of proper slopes, terraces, surface temperature. Recordings after 7 to 10 days have been drainage systems, and vegetative cover to limit in- as high as 150° to 160° F., well above the temperature filtration of surface waters in the immediate vicinity needed to kill the heat-sensitive pathogens. This of the landfill. oflers a lair degree of assurance that the fill is not a In the design and construction of solid waste health hazard (Benarde, 1973, p. 183). disposal sites, several types of liners can he used but In many instances, however, site conditions and/ the selection of a particular liner will depend largely or operating procedures associated with solid waste on the purpose for which it is intended and on the disposal do not meet optimum conditions. If garbage availability and current costs of different liner ma- and refuse buried in a landfill come in contact with terials. Earthen liners are generally made of surf icial water, a liquid contaminant called leachate is pro- materials containing a relatively high percentage of duced. This obnoxious liquid is capal)le of moving as clay and consequently may have a permeability on the underground water and may serve as a transporting order of I centimeters per second or lower. An agent for biological and chemical pollutants at earthen liner can be compacted to approach maxi- strengths of 100 times that of raw sewage (Bleur, mum density and can be treated with additives such 1970, p. 4; Benarde, 1973, p. 185). Leachate contains as bentonite, lime, asphalt, or cement to further re- such toxic substances as lead, mercury, arsenic, and duce its permeability. Despite these eHrts, most potentially dangerous viruses, such as the one which earthen liners will, however, allow minor amounts of causes infectious hepatitis. In most landfills, reliance leakage (Hughes, 1972, p. 6). Liners can also be con- is placed on natural processes to reduce the dis- structed of plastic or other similar materials that are, solved solids content of the leachate to tolerable for all practical purposes, impermeal)le. Plastics can, levels before it can reach a point of water use. Recent however, be punctured during installation and sub- studies (Hughes, Landon, and F'arvolden, 1969, sequent operation of the landfill. Rupturing of this 1971; Otton, 1972) concerning the hydrologic im- type of liner would in some cases be equivalent to plications of solid waste disposal and evidence pro- removing the plug from a full bathtub and could vided from a limited number of recorded cases of cause uncontrolled, and probably undetected, move- surface- and ground-water contamination, suggest ment of contaminants into the subsurface. Here, a that the overall pollution hazards from landfill sites cover of soil is usually necessary to prevent punc- may not be as difficult to control as had been formerly tures. It is important to point out at this time that the assumed. Hughes (1972, p. 1) is quick to point out, evaluations of solid waste disposal-site conditions in- however, that most landfills have been located in cluded in this report (Plate IV) are based on the po- out-of-the-way places, are not close to water wells, tential use of natural materials throughout the and have not been monitored. Undoubtedly, some Johnson- Hardwick Region without any modifica- landfills have no appreciable effect on the surround- tions. ing surface- and ground-waters. Others, however, As with all considerations of solid waste disposal, may already be seriously degrading these waters, and two important precautions must he taken in the use the effect of this degradation may he difficult to and development of present and future "sanitary 33 landfills." These precautions include: 1) site location also be included in such studies. in surficial materials of low permeability and suf- Green (g) areas delimited on the solid waste con- ficierit thickness to reduce the production of leachate ditions planning map, are underlain by relatively im- and to limit its movement to restricted areas above permeable tills or silts and clays in excess of 25 to 30 the water table ((;ross, 1970, P. 294). Ihroughout feet thick. These thicknesses have been suggested by the Johnson-Hardwick Region, glacial till is perhaps the Illinois Geological Survey (Cartwright and Sher- the most suitable material for landfill use inasmuch man, 1969; Hughes, Landon, and Farvolden, 1969, as it has a low permeability, is more easily worked 1971) as a minimum thickness of material between than lake silts and clays, and would require some- the base of the fill site and the local water table to what lower operating costs; and 2) the importance of assure the containment or retardation of leachate topping all fill materials with a nonpermeable to by-products. The Geological Survey of Alabama, semipermeable earthen layer (peat, muck, incinerator however, urges the use of 50 feet or more basal ma- residue, or till) to prevent excessive infiltration of terial (Riccio and Hyde, 1971) due largely to the surface waters. porosity and permeability of surficial materials. In- In most instances, a proper daily covering of 6 asmuch as many of the surficial materials in Vermont to 8 inches and a final layer of 2 to 3 feet thick (Wag- are texturally similar to those in Illinois, a minimum ner, 1971; Legget, 1973; Vermont Board of Health, thickness of 30 feet for basal material seems adequate. 1970) h)r a landfill is important for at least three Under these conditions landfills can be operated with reasons: I) to restrict the amount of water entering maximum efficiency using glacial tills or silts and clays landfill refuse and garbage and thereby reduce rates for cover. Throughout the Johnson-Hardwick Re- of decomposition, leaching, and ultimately the gion, those areas designated as green are generally amount of leachate firmed. Large volumes of surface limited in size and geographic distribution. loo and/or groun(Iwater produces less, but possibly more often these sites are found adjacent to populated mineralized leachate (Hughes, 1972, p. 3); 2) to limit areas or in relatively remote localities and as such do the formation of "water mounds." Water mounds not provide immediate relief to present landfill form when infiltrating water is so restricted in its problems. Potentially good sites for solid waste dis- lateral flow that it builds up in and along the sides posal may he located in the northeastern part of the of the fill. When water mounds build high enough to J ohnson-Hardwick Region near Newport Center. Al- intersect the ground surface, seeps or springs rich though clays may ofler the best sites in terms of their in leachate may firm around the fill margin; 3) to low permeabilities, effluents or leachates of various prevent or lessen the repeated eflects of freezing and kinds can alter the physical properties of the clays. thawing of collected water in the refuse during the Studies conducted by the Illinois Geological Survey winter months (Hughes, Landon, and Farvolden, show that soaps, detergents, water softeners, starches, 1971; Hughes, 1972, p.3). and fabric softeners changed plasticity and shrink- The Solid Waste Conditions Map (Plate IV) for swell potential of the deposit and affect its overall the Johnson-Hardwick Region gives a generalized stability (White and Kyriazis, 1968). This survey en- classification of the area's surficial materials as they courages greater utilization of thick till deposits re- relate to landfill suitability. The areas outlined on this mote from growing urban centers as sites for future map were identified primarily on the basis of the sanitary waste disposal. permeability and thickness of their surficial materials Yellow (y) areas delineated on the planning map without any consideration for site modification. The rel)resent broad upland regions draped with thin, planning map, prepared from existing geologic, highly variable, or unknown thicknesses of glacial hydrologic, and soils information as well as general till, silts, and/or clay over bedrock. Much of this area field observations, is intended to serve only as a guide can be used for landfill purposes only if basal ma- in the selection of landfill sites. In many instances, terials range from 25 to 30 feet or more in thickness. detailed studies of new locations will be necessary as In locations where surficial materials range from 20 site materials and hydrologic conditions are often to 25 feet thick, a solid waste disposal site may be de- difficult to predict from surface observations. Such veloped wh a minimum of modification. If surficial site evaluations should include estimates of the materials are of low porosity and permeability but are permeability and wetness, shrinkage or swelling po- less than 20 feet in thickness, extreme caution must tential, compressibility, sequencing and lateral varia- he exercised in landfill development. Here con- tion, topographic expression, water runoff yield, and tamination of groundwater sources is highly probable erodability of all surficial deposits. Information per- unless modifications are made below the fill to mini- taining to the position of the local water table, the mize leachate discharges. nature and distribution of subsurface aquifers and The dark red areas (r-l) identified on the plan- nonwater-bearing formations, as well as general pat- ning map, commonly have moderate to highly terns of groundwater movement in each area should permeable sands and gravels at the surface. In many

34 Figure 22. Solid waste in dump near North Hyde Pork.

such localities, surface characteristics, well-log rec- constitute the most widely used surficial materials ords, and scattered seismic data indicate that these for solid waste disposal in the Johnson-Hardwick kame, outwash, and lake deposits are of reasonably Region. These abandoned sand and gravel pits are constant textures, medium to high groundwater po- used without modification chiefly because of the ease tential, and considerable thicknesses. When sands with which materials can be excavated and used for and gravels are the only materials above the bed- cover, and their low operatiollal cost (Gross, 1970, rock surface, such sites should be considered un- p. 294; Stewart, 1973, p. 33; Bleur, 1970, p. 1). For suitable for solid waste disposal due to their high po- these reasons, almost all of the existing solid waste tential for groundwater pollution and the lateral disposal sites in the Johnson-Hardwick Region are migration of landfill gases. Often such problems of located in unsatisfactory areas and it is logical to degradation are too difficult to overcome through assume that some of them are, or soon will be, con- general site modification and dumping should be dis- taminating local surface and groundwater supplies. continued immediately (Figure 22). In other places, Although the refuse dumps for Belvidere Junction, interbedded silts, clays, and glacial tills underlie Craftsbury, Eden, Johnson, Montgomery, and these surface sand and gravel deposits and thereby Morristown, to name a few, are located along stream partially reduce localized pollution problems. If valley walls in sand and gravel deposits, the most these finer grained and less permeable materials are serious stress placed on the local environment occurs over 20 feet thick, the site may he used for waste near Montgomery and Craftsbury. Here, solid waste disposal only if some type of liner or sealing material disposal sites lie within close proximity to municipali- is introduced to limit the production and lateral ties and surface waterways. Most landfills throughout migration of leachate. Development of a landfill the region are unsightly and poorly managed. Solid under these conditions requires a detailed study of waste operations of this type should be brought the site's hydrologic environment and professional closer to existing Vermont health regulations, dis- consultation regarding the selection and installation continued, or relocated in more suitable areas fol- of liners. Unfortunately, sand and gravel deposits lowing a complete site evaluation.

35 The light red areas (r-2) delineated on the plan- by homes, schools, commercial buildings, hotels and ning map represent low strength, poorly drained ma- motels, hospitals, and industrial plants. While sew- terials of stream valleys and swamps. The more ex- age commonly has the appearance of used dish- tensive of these areas are found along the Black and water, its actual composition may vary greatly from upper Missisquoi River valleys where high concen- day to day. On an average, however, domestic sewage tratioiis of silt and clay in valley-fill sediments prevent usually consists of approximately 99.9 percent water internal drainage and promote flooding. These areas and only 0.02 to 0.03 percent suspended solids and are generally considered unsuitable for sanitary land- soluble substances. In a single family dwelling, the till inasmuch as it is virtually impossible to prevent laundry and kitchen each contribute about 10 per- saturation of rubbish and garbage and pollution of cent of the waste-water volume. The bathtub, shower, surface and groundwater supplies (Gross, 1970, p. and basins contribute 40 percent of the load and 294; U.S. Dept. of Interior, 1971). Hughes (1972, toilets account for the remaining 40 percent (Gold- p. 3) has, however, pointed out that solid waste dis- stein, 1972, p. 36; Benarde, 1973, p. 132). The or- posal in some permeable deposits and bedrock land- ganic chemical content of domestic sewage comes fills may cause more serious groundwater pollution primarily from paper, organic material derived from than deposition of the same wastes in impervious ma- food preparation, feces, urine, soaps, detergents and terials below the water table. cleaning compounds. These substances commonly It is readily apparent that the problems of solid generate or transmit various harmful bacteria, waste disposal and possible recycling are exceedingly viruses, and other micro-organisms. Sewage may also complex. In the opinion of the Citizens Advisory contain industrial wastes such as those from meat- Committee on Environmental Quality (1971, p. 23), packing operations, milk and food processing plants, the solution will require an increase in the relatively and chemical companies. small I uiids now devoted to technological innovation Of all the pollutants introduced into all present and will also require changes in tax policy, freight and potential water supplies, only two pose sufficient rates, market patterns, and consumer attitudes which hazards to man. These include: I) organic materials presently fivor the use of virgin rather than recycled which make water generally unpalatable and 2) materials. Furthermore, as long as the American the few bacterial and viral diseases which can infect tradition of individual freedom is taken as a license man as well as animals. The diseases most dangerous to dump waste wherever it is convenient, our prob- to man are those which infect him uniquely and are lems will continue to build. At present, trash is not transmitted, usually by the fecal-oral route, via water just discarded in landfills but it is thrown over culls, contaminated with his personal wastes. The most im- behind fences, of! roadsides, into woods, rivers, and portant of these are hepatitis, poliomyelitis, amoebic lakes or generally out of sight of the discarder. In and bacillary dysenteries, and a host of viral dis- severe cases, waste is merely allowed to accumulate orders. While deaths resulting from consumption of around I)rivatc dwellings. While unpleasant sniells polluted water in the United States are uncommon, and sounds have already been judged as damaging water-borne illness is prevalent. The sub-clinical by the (ourts on the grounds that they constitute a effects of chronic intake of low level pollutants are common law nuisance, this sort of dumping, as well poorly understood, but increasing evidence suggests as burning of waste, is considered increasingly more that cadmium, mercury, lead, herbicides, and many unacceptable or aesthetically obnoxious due to the other materials may directly cause blood or bone general (Iishguremcnt of the landscape, the decline disease, brain damage, birth defects, cancer, and of open spaces, and associated pollution problems many emotional disorders (Houston and Blackwell (Flawii, 1970, P 91; Fagan, 1974, p. 223). 1972). 'lhroughout the Johnson-Hardwick Region, In an attempt to avoid these problems, several more than 30 sites were found where large volumes approaches have been developed to treat liquid of waste material had been discarded out of expedi- wastes. Sewage is generally treatedl and disposed of I ency and with little regard for the ultimate corrup- two means: I) individual septic tanks or their near tion of the environment. Ugliness is a nuisance! Ex- equivalents and 2) municipal sewage treatment cessive accumulations of clutter and waste should not plants. Benarde (1973, p. 143) estimates that of the be permitted to continue or to develop. They are 200 million people living in the United States, ap- just as disgusting as improperly operated landfills proximately two-thirds (132 million people) are and are often more readily apparent to public view. served by municipal sewers. The remainder use sep- tic tanks, cesspools, or outdoor privies. Of all the Sewage Disposal people using municipal sewer lines, about 10 percent live in communities that discharge untreated sewage The term sewage usually represents the complex directly into rivers, streams, and lakes. Another 2 liquid and solid wastes generated in and transmitted percent live in communities where raw sewage is (liS- charged after only a short retention in primary logical treatment and aeration, secondary settling, settling basins. and chlorination. BOD removals of 80-95 percent Primary treatment facilities have the lowest re- may he expected from a well operated secondary nioval efficiency of any treatment system and are also plant (Othmer and Pfafflin, 1972, p. 17). the least expensive to build and maintain. They in- Conventional sewage treatment plants such as clude at best, screens to remove larger floating ob- those described above remove only gross contamin- jects, a comminutor for shredding, a grit chamber, a ants. Purification of municipal water supplies, though sedimentation basin for collection of the heavier moderately effective, often do not remove viruses solids, and a system for chlorination. Such primary such as those which cause the various forms of polio- systems provide for little stabilization of effluent ma- myelitis or hepatitis, and no known treatment will terial. ROD and suspended solids removals of 30 to feasibly remove most of the man-created chemicals 60 percent can be expected and as such, primary (Houston and Blackwell, 1972, p. 2). In an attempt treatment is no longer acceptable for any reason in to further purify sewage, tertiary treatment facilities most localities (Othmer and Pfafflin, 1972, p. 15). have taken on increased importance in recent years. Despite these results, it has been estimated that the Tertiary treatment is defined as any treatment step sewage discharges from communities throughout the following conventional biological treatment by which United States providing primary treatment or none additional removals are realized. BOD and sus- at all, corresponds to the wastes of almost 50 million pended solids are the parameters to which this is people. Furthermore, statistics published in 1966, usually applied, but phosphates and nitrates may also reveal that among the II ,420 communities that had be included. Some tertiary processes that have sewer systems, 2,139 still discharged untreated wastes found application are chemical precipitation, elec- (Benarde, 1973, p. 143). trodialysis, activated carbon adsorption, lagooning, In 1972, there were only slightly more than 100 filtration, reverse osmosis, distillation, ion exchange, settled areas within Vermont that were serviced by and foam separation. All of these processes are used approved waste water collection and treatment facili- in addition to conventional secondary treatment for ties, or by collection systems whose discharges re- the purpose of achieving a quality near to that of quired treatment (Vermont Interim Land Capability potable water (Othmer and Pfafflin, 1972, p. 18). Plan, 1972). Of those systems that do exist, many At the present time, there are 135 tertiary treat- are old, inefficient, and overloaded so that a sub- ment plants in existence or under construction in the stantial portion of the sewage is only partially United States. With certain limited exceptions, stabilized before discharge. Other municipalities pro- tertiary treatment of all waste water should be vide for no treatment and wastes are discharged di- adopted as the ultimate goal of any water quality rectly into surface waters. It is easy to see, therefore, program in urban areas. Currently, however, up- why surface waters of the major drainage basins dating existing sewage treatment facilities to tertiary throughout Vermont are of low quality adjacent to standards would almost double the cost of both con- centers of habitation and industrial activity. struction and operation. The technology for process- To better safeguard surface waters from even- ing sewage effluent to drinking water quality is avail- tual contamination and to improve conditions al- able, but in Vermont it is more essential to initiate ready existing, a secondary, or biological treatment an immediate statewide program of secondary treat- facility can he incorporated with primary treatment ment plant construction. systems. Secondary treatment accomplishes the re- Investigations made during this survey were not moval of particles which pass unaffected through the directly concerned with the problems associated with primary treatment stage. Particles that are too small municipal and industrial liquid waste disposal except to settle under the effects of gravity (colloidal), or are in areas where inadequate treatment might ulti- in true solution, are removed by the transfer of the mately lead to contamination of existing and potential pollutant material to a mass of voraciously feeding water supplies. At present, sewage treatment facili- organisms. The two basic secondary treatment ties and their discharges are controlled by the Fed- processes are activated sludge and the trickling filter. eral Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of In the trickling filter installation, the waste flows over 1961, the Water Quality Act of 1965, the Clean Water coarse media to which the microbal mass has become Restoration Act of 1966, the Water Quality Improve- fixed. The activated sludge, on the other hand, con- ment Act of 1970, and the Water Pollution Control tains the mass of organisms in suspension in the Act of 1972. The Vermont Department of Water Re- [lowing waste water. In each process there is an in- sources and the former State Conservation Board timate contact between the waste water and the have, for many years, monitored and maintained a organisms. A typical secondary treatment plant will continuous study of the surface waters of the state include a headworks of screening, metering, and and staff reports are available on most drainage )nlniifll UtiOn , f( )llflwed by primary settling, ho- basins. These reports have classified the surface waters of the state, noted their sources of pollution, is prepared for soil absorption. The septic tank must and suggested methods for upgrading water quality. he water tight, should be constructed of reinforced Despite these measures, most of the municipalities in concrete or not less than 16 gauge coated steel, and the Johnson-Hardwick Region still discharge their be large enough to accommodate the maximum dis- untreated elHuent directly into nearby streams or use charge per family unit. Standard septic tanks range inadequate disposal systems. At present, the munici- from 750, 1000, 1250, to 1500 liquid gallon capacity palities of Coventry, Irasburg, Hardwick, Hyde Park, and will adequately service under 4, from 5 to 8, from Morrisville, North Troy, and Troy discharge their 9 to 10, and 11 to 12 persons respectively. The untreated sewage directly into nearby rivers and maximum size of the tank needed may be estimated streams. Newport Center and Richford, however, by multiplying the number of bedrooms per dwelling utilize catchment ponds or lagoons, while the people by 2. If a garbage disposal, dishwasher, or clothes of Craftsbury, Cralishury Common, Jay, Lowell, washer is installed, the septic tank and leaching sys- Montgomery, Montgomery Center, and Wolcott de- tem should be 20 percent larger (Vermont Water pend largely on individual septic tanks to process Resources Department, 1971). their domestic liquid waste (Vermont Water Re- A properly constructed and installed tank pro- sour(es Department, 1968, 1969a). Although state motes an anaerobic bacterial treatment of waste, law prohibits the dumping of raw sewage by any in- removes the solids from the waste, and prevents, dividual or village into streams and lakes, the Water through the use of baffles, the heavier sludge and Pollution Control Act of 1972 does provide for Dis- buoyant scum produced from passing off with the charge and Temporary Pollution permits to be issued effluent to the distribution box and the disposal for discharges that meet water quality standards as- field. During the retention period in a properly signed to the receiving waters and in cases of extreme operating system, between 50 and 70 percent of the hardship. Until individual municipalities vote addi- suspended solids are removed by sedimentation tional taxes, bond issues, or levees or federal and/or (Benarde, 1973, p 141). [he Vermont Water Re- state funds are granted for the construction of ade- sources Department (1971, p. 8) encourages home- quate sewage treatment facilities, few changes can owners using septic tank systems to have them check- he made in the quality of surface waters in the John- ed every 2 years and cleaned as necessary. Failure to son-Hard wick Region. remove the accumulated sludge and scum often re- Another means of sewage disposal which is used sults in discharge of solids into the absorption field, widely throughout the United States is the septic with resultant slogging and ponding. McGauhey and tank. This is an individual system used where water Winneberger (1963, p. 434) have found that as mativ is available to carry waste from a home not served by as one-third of the septic tank systems in a single municipal sewer lines. With a rapid movement of subdivision failed during the first 3 to 4 years of use Vermont's population into more rural areas and the due to excessive discharge, improper construction, development of various resorts and recreational and/or failure to remove accumulated sludge. facilities in similarly remote regions, considerable The distribution box of it septic tank and leach concern over the problems of domestic sewage dis- line sewage disposal system is considerably smaller posal has been expressed by various state agencies. than a septic tank and may he constructed of heavy- This study is very much concerned with the sewage duty plastic, concrete, or corrosive-free steel. Its disposal and groundwater contamination prob- Sole purpose is to transmit the odoriferous discharge lems of the .J ohnson- Hardwick Region. and its constituent anaerobic bacteria, nutrients, When properly installed, the septic tank and salts, suspended solids, and pathogens from the sep- Lea( h line disposal system is one of the most reliable tic tank to the leaching field. The leaching field, nit methods available for sewage treatment and disposal the other hand, is essentially a network of perforated in rural areas. In 1962, approximately 25 percent of tiles laid in a flat-bottomed, gravel-filled trench. the United States' population used septic tanks for Minimum specifications for the leaching field require domestic sewage disposal (Rickert and Spieker, 1972). that trenches be 24 inches deep, 12 inches wide, and This system is composed of three simple elements: 25 feet long. Furthermore, it niust he 3 feet or mote I) the septic tank; 2) a distribution box; and 3) a alM)ve bedrock, surrounded with 12 inches of gravel, disposal field aitci, in general, it provides for the and overtopped by 12 inches ol soil (Vermont Water breakdown and decomposition of waste materials by Resources Department, 1971). The function of tile the action of anaerobic bacteria. Contrary to public leaching field or seepage pit is to dispose of the opinion, the septic tank and leach line sewage dis- liquid waste discharged from the septic tank by allow- posal system does not purify the water or remove in- ing it to seep into a geologically suitable environ- I'ect jOUS bacteria or viruses. ment. As the effluent seeps from the leach lines and The core of this underground disposal system is through the surrounding surlicial materials, nat1111 the septic tank. Here, the discharge from the house filtraijoit. nxi(l;ttinI), 111(1 II)) Nt i;il (I)) )tflJ0)siII take place. The efficiency of the leaching field is, 20 percent or greater, effluent has been found to however, closely related to the texture, permeability, surface downhill from septic tank systems regard- and thickness of the surficial materials and to the less of the type of surficial material or the depth to amount and strength of the septic tank effluent. The which the system is buried. Such discharges can texture (effective grain size) of the soil or filtering readily contaminate surface waters (Frank, 1972, medium is generally considered more iniportant in p. 201). In areas of thin soil cover and excessive the removal of bacteria than its permeability (Olson, wetting due to liquid waste discharge, satured sur- 1964; Romero, 1970, p. 44; Franks, 1972, p. 195). ficial materials may be prone to downhill creep, In fine-grained materials or those exhibiting excep- slumping, landslides, and earthflow. tionally low permeahilities, operating efficiency can From these findings, it becomes readily apparent be improved by lengthening the pipe line or by in- that in the selection of a site for a septic tank and creasing the width of the trench. Highly permeable leach line sewage disposal system, factors that should conditions in coarse-grained deposits can be modi- be considered in addition to porosity and perme- lied through the addition of fine-grained silts and ability are the gross composition and texture of the clays. unconsolidated sediments in contact with the leach- The most common test used to determine the de- ing field, the distance of effluent travel in unsaturated gree of effluent purification in a leaching field is to materials, the direction of flow from the system, the measure coliform content. Coliforms are organisms nature of the surrounding slopes, and the proximity that commonly inhabit the human intestine and in to surface and groundwater supplies and recharge large numbers, they indicate the presence of addi- areas. When septic tanks were widely scattered, dis- tional harmful bacteria. Contrary to those standards tance and the opportunity for effluent dilution pre- suggested by the U.S. Public Health Service (1967) vented contamination of water supplies from be- and the Vermont Agency of Environmental Con- coming a widespread or serious problem. Awareness servation (1972), recent studies have demonstrated of the pollution problem stemming from septic tank that seepage of septic tank effluent through only a discharges has increased, however, as such systems few feet of unstratified, fine-grained sand will re- have been used in crowded subdivisions and recrea- duce coliform counts to nondetectable levels (Mc- tion-oriented developments (Nace, 1967, p. 6; Gauhey and Krone, 1954; Wayman, Page and Robert- Leopold, 1968, p. 2; Cain and Beatty, 1965, p. 438; son, 1965) while similar passage of effluent through Mazola, 1970, p. 21). This concern is well substanti- more than 232 feet of coarse sands and gravels may ated in a number of widely publicized hydrologic not reduce colifirm counts to acceptable levels studies of which only two need be mentioned here. (Franks, 1972, p. 195). Furthermore, flow of con- Investigations conducted by Woodward, Kilpatrick, taminated wastes through unsaturated fine-grained and Johnson (1961) showed that of 63,000 wells sands may eliminate bacterial pollutants in less than surveyed in 39 Minnesota communities, 13,80() (21.8 40 feet while more than 230 feet may be required in percent) contained measurable quantities of synthetic saturated deposits (Franks, 1972, p. 202). detergents that could only have been introduced Inasmuch as a large number of new homesites through subsurface effluent migration. Nicholas and and recreational facilities are being developed on hill- Koepp (1961) similarly tested 2,167 water samples sides and mountain slopes throughout the Johnson- from private wells in Wisconsin and reported that Hardwick Region, another factor to be considered in 32.1 Perce1t also contained measurable amounts of the development and proper operation of septic detergents while 20.3 percent were so influenced as tanks is the effect of the sloping land surface and the to he considered unsafe for human use. More recent flow route of the effluent on surrounding environ- studies (Mazola, 1970, p. 21; Cain and Beatty, 1965, ments. The more difficult problems resulting from p. 438; McGauhey and Winneberger, 1963, p. 171) Septic tank operation in sloping terrains include: have similarly demonstrated that improper construc- I) a high potential for surface and ground water tion and/or use of septic tank systems under crowded contamination; 2) the tendency for effluent to surface conditions may seriously endanger groundwater downslope from the leaching field or seepage pit; supplies and have supported immediate curtailment and 3) the production of unstable slopes and result- to the construction of individual sewage systems for ing soil creep, mud flows, and landslides in saturated multiple-unit housing developments. At present, materials. Most rural homesites require both a water- those municipalities and development tracts that rely well and a sewage system. In areas where surficial de- exclusively on septic tanks for liquid waste treatment 1)osits are thin, the contaminated liquid discharges in the Johnson-Harclwick Region may be headed for rum a leaching field can he readily transmitted to the a similar fate. underlying fractured bedrock and ultimately to The Septic Fank Conditions Map (Plate V) of nearby water wells without filtering bacterial and the .1 ohnson- Hardwick Region delineates the general viral (olliaminants (Waltz, 1970. p. 42). On slopes of characteristics of the surficial materials as they re- late to domestic sewage systems, particularly septic Hyde Park, Irasburg, .Johnson, Lowell, Montgomery, tanks. Area designations are based on current fed- Morrisville, and Newport Center. Excessive use of eral and state recommendations for septic tank and these deposits for solid and liquid waste disposal may leach line sewage disposal systems. The wide dis- severely endanger individual and municipal waler tribution of yellow and red zones suggests that there supplies. are few localities in this region that do not have some The areas designated r-1 are low, poorly drained geologic limitations for septic tank use. The green stream valleys and isolated swamps. Here, surface zones shown on this map designate areas where tills materials are commonly fine-textured and of iow are high in sand content and thicknesses exceed 25 permealility and as a result are poorly drained, often feet. These surficial deposits should have permeabili- wet, and frequently flooded. Under these conditions, ties high enough to transmit effluent from the leach- septic tanks would only operate efficiently during dry ing fiCld and still protect groundwater sources from periods. Such sites should, therefore, be considered contamination. Seepage pits or dry wells are not unsuitable for septic tank and leach line waste dis- recommended in till areas since they concentrate the posal systems. effluent in a smaller area and must be placed at Areas of thick lacustrine silt and clay deposits greater depth where tills are more compact and less are designated r-2 on the map. These deposits are permeable (Stewart, 1973, p 35). The largest and most widely distributed along the upper Missisquoi most favorable sites for septic tank systems are found River and Mud Creek valleys between North Troy to the southwest of Newport Center, above Whitney and Newport Center, but are also found near East Brook near East Craftsbury, and on the uplands near Berkshire and Irasburg. Septic tanks and leaching F;ast Hardwick. Smaller and equally suitable sites fields, as they are normally installed, will perform iii are scattered throughout the region. an erratic and generally unsatisfactory fashion iti Most thin till areas are designated y- I on the these materials because of their inherent fine-grained map. The safe use of septic tanks in these localities is texture, extremely low permeability, high soil- dependent largely on the thickness of the till above moisture content, and overall instability when ex- bedrock and the slope of the land. Shallow deposits cessively wet. With inevitable expansion into these of 2 to 4 feet in thickness and slopes in excess of 20 areas, different specifications for the construction of degrees have been demonstrated to he unsuitable for sewage disposal systems in these materials must be filter fields and would probably result in contamina- formulated. In some instances, use of a so-called lion of surface and groundwater supplies (Franks, mechanical or aerobic tank with a 200-foot leach line 1972, p. 195). For most efficient operation, there might alleviate some of the problems of large volume should he it minimum of 10 to 12 feet of till above the liquid discharge in these localities. The mechanical bedrock surface, the land slope should he less than tank uses an electric motor to inject air into the sys- 20 degrees, and at least 200 feet of leach line should tem or to activate a stirring mechanism and thereby, be available to distribute the effluent (Stewart, 1973, provide a more complete treatment of the sewage p. 35). through the creation of aerobic conditions in the Areas designated y-2 on the map commonly tank. Unfortunately, the mechanical tank has a have well-drained sand and gravel deposits, with few higher initial cost than a regular septic tank, requires apparent limitations for septic systems at the earth's more frequent maintenance, and has never been surface. While some of these deposits may be too proven to decrease coliform levels substantially over coarse-grained and permeable to be used for leach- septic tank operations (Goldstein, 1972, p. 39). Under ing fields, those which are over 15 feet thick and do no conditions should dry wells, cesspools, or sewage not contact the water table may generally he con- lagoons he used in these areas due to the high risk (f sidered suitable for scattered septic tank use. When gross contamination of drinking val er supplies sand and gravel deposits are interbedded with, or (Renarde, 1973, p. 142). are underlain by, fine silts and clays the downward percolation of effluent may be significantly retarded and thereby provide higher density usage of septic tank systems. When planning sewage systems in LAND USE AND FUTURE DEVELOPMENT areas such as these, it is extremely important to de- termine the thickness, texture, permeability, and Building, road construction, surface mining atmil sediment variation of each surficial deposit, because other engineering works are fraught with many their discharge could contaminate underlying problems in land-use planning and development. aquifers or significant groundwater recharge areas. Maintaining environmental quality and insuring wise Many of the large areas designated y-2 in the John- and safe use of the land calls for sound knowledge son-Hardwick Region directly underlie or are closely about the physical and chemical characteristics, engi- adjacent to such municipalities as Coventry, Eden, neering properties, and the geologic and hydrologic settings of the surficial and bedrock materials at the environmental problems already discussed, mined proposed construction site and in surrounding areas. out areas subject to subsidence, areas of steep, un- Plans for future development need not always in- stable slopes, and poorly drained lowland areas may volve the construction of additional homes or com- impose severe structural limitations. Those surficial mercial facilities, but merely involve a reassignment (leposits which commonly exhibit a poor potential of land use such as the cultivation of lands previously for supporting foundations include alluvial and lacus- used for grazing. For purposes of discussion, land trine silts and clays, organic muck and peat, and ex- use within the Johnson-Hardwick Region might best cessively wet glacial tills. In some instances, site be divided principally among agriculture, rangelaud, limitations can he overcome through careful design industry, urban business, residential development, and construction, but for many the probability of recreation, timber land, and small wetland tracts structural failure due to unstable soil conditions is with abundant wildlife. significantly high and development should not be While it is probable that agriculture, lumbering, undertaken. and recreation will continue to be important uses of The General Construction Conditions Map the land throughout the johnson-Hardwick Region (Plate VI) for the Johnson-Hardwick Region at- in the years to come, continue(l urban growth in the tempts to classify surficial materials according to their vicinity of Johnson, Hyde Park, Morrisville, and general suitability for foundations and structural Hardwick will place greater stresses on surrounding loads. The criteria used for evaluating individual environs. The unprededented rate of rural and sites include such geologic characteristics as the de- recreational facility development near Greensboro gree of land slope, the internal drainage characteris- and Jay Peak may ultimately produce similar prob- tics of surficial deposits, the plasticity and bearing lems, unless measures are taken immediately to strength of the kundation materials, and the proxim- regulate the direction such growth is to take and the ity of the site to flood-prone areas. The localities conditions under which it can occur. Despoiling of shown in green (g) are predominantly sand and Vermont's landscape cannot be permitted to go un- gravel deposits with less than 10 feet of overburden checked indefinitely. material. Sands and gravels are generally favorable In an attempt to combat the current problems as- for construct ion inasmuch as they are commonly well sociated with rapid and complex changes in the use drained, have adequate strength (high relative of land and water, the Vermont Legislature required density), and good supplies of groundwater (moder- (Act 250, 1969) that the State Environmental Board ate to high yields) are usually available. Due to the establish a statewide capability and development glacio-fluvial origin of many sand and gravel de- plan complete with the environmental goals and pro- posits, considerable caution must be exercised during tective guidelines fir land use. Consequently the individual site evaluations to detect abrupt lithologic Vermont Interim Land Capability Plan (1972) was variations within the surficial deposits. Such materials prepared as a logical predecessor to the State Capa- are among the most erratic with which an engineer bility and Development Plan and the State Land Use has to deal (Terzaghi and Peck, 1968, p. 4-8). Where Plan. While the Interim Land Capability Plan cx- lacustrine sands and gravels are known to overlie amities general land use, physical limitations for de- silts and clays, detailed investigations should be made velopment, capal)ilities for agriculture, forestry, and to ascertain both the thickness of each stratum, the mineral extraction, and unique or fragile areas in an shearing resistance and bearing capacity or com- attempt to provide a key to recognizing implications pressibility of the silt and clay layers, and the poten- of changing land use patterns and individual land tial for slope failure (slump, slide, or How). Prior to use decisions, it does not substitute for more precise construction on good quality sand and gravel de- data on local land use capability (Vermont Land posits, some consideration should always be given to Capability Plan, 1972). It is, therefore, in part the their short and long-range economic value. Many responsibility of individual communities and each environmentalists, planners, and construction engi- citizen to utilize the land and its resources in the most neers favor the removal of good quality deposits efficient manner without imposing severe disturb- prior to development. Once these materials have been ances to the immediate environment. removed, most locations still make good construction sites with only a minimum of filling or grading. The General Construction Conditions practice of abandoning gravel pits without reclama- tion or using them for waste disposal sites represents Among the physical requirements for successful poor planning (Stewart, 1973, p. 35). site development are soil conditions adequate to Those areas designated y-1 on the map are support foundations of the types planned. While covered predominantly with silts and clays. Because general construction conditions throughout the these fIne-grained lake deposits are often poorly Johnson-Hardwick Region are not as critical as those drained, of high plasticity, and low bearing capacity,

Im they are often subject to slumping or flow. 1hrough- throughout Vermont have increased at an alarming out the northeastern part of the Johnson-Hardwick rate. In an attempt to provide scenic panoramas and Region, lacustrine silts and clays fill the valleys to close proximity to outdoor recreational facilities, depths in excess of 100 feet. Due to their poor capac- many sites have been developed on relatively steep ity to support building foundations, plans for site hillsides without regard for various long-term en- development on such deposits should include evalua- vironmental problems. During construction and tions to determine soil moisture content (porosity and prior to soil stabilization, erosion on steep slopes permeability), plasticity, general shearing resistance, (10-15 percent) is significantly greater than on level and bearing capacity, as well as provisions for in- lands. As the surface area available for absorption of ternal drainage systems. rain water is reduced f'urther by the construction of Areas covered predominantly by glacial till are impervious surfaces (roof's, roadways, parking lots), designated y-2 on the map. Their suitability for con- surface runoff is increased and the potential for struction purposes is dependent upon overall till erosion is increased f'urther. Discharges of liquid thickness, soil moisture content, and general slope wastes from septic tanks and leaching fields amplify stability. Since till thicknesses vary greatly through- the problems of slope stability even more and niav out the region, construction suitability will vary ac- ultimately lead to their failure. In areas of thin or uti- cord itigly. In most upland areas the till cover is thin stable surfIcial materials, slumping, sliding, and and where the bedrock is found at a depth of three downhill creep may seriously endanger hillside (IC- feet or less, such areas will have limited potential for velopment. development. The presence of bedrock close to the General county-wide soils maps for Orleans, surface makes foundation and subsurface utility Franklin, Lamoille and Caledonia counties, prepaiccl excavations more difficult and expensive. In areas of by the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Con- less resistant, highly fractured and weathered schist servation Service (1972), may he used in conjunction and phyllite bedrock, excavation is not as difficult as with Plate VI as basic reference materials for thc in the eastern portion of the region where more re- delineation of areas with varying construction limit;t- sistant quartzite and granite bedrock is exposed. Re- tions. Limitation ratings used for homesites, recrt:t-• gar(lless of local bedrock characteristics, areas of thin tional buildings, commercial and industrial devel till cover are easily eroded and once erosion has ment, septic tank filter fields, sanitary landfills, high- begun, the likelihood of losing much of' this limited ways and access roads, and agriculture, have con- cover is greatly increased. siderable dillerences but are grouped iIlt() thice 'l'hroughout the region, most floodplain sedi- classes: I) slight - relatively free of limitations melits form continuous layers of silt and clay of fairly easily overcome; 2) moderate — limitations need to he uniform thickness (5-20 feet) separated by equally recognized but can he overcome with good niaii- persistent layers of coarser sediments. Medium- to agement and careful design; and 3) severe—limitt- hne-grained stream sediments are collectively called tions sufficiently great to make use questionable. alluvium and are designated as r-2 on the map. Al- Prior to development, however, detailed studies of luvium is a poor foundation material inasmuch as it is these and other engineering characteristics of each commonly of low strength, elastic, poorly drained, site's surficial materials is essential. Such investiga- and subject to periodic flooding. Recognizing that tions should include the distribution, type, sequen (t. floodplains are the natural extension of streams and thickness, and general physical character of the soil rivers intended to store and carry excess runofF strata and their stability for foundation or construe- waters at times of exceptionally heavy rain or during tion purposes. These studies are performed to ob- rapid s)ring thaws, restriction of future construction tain solutions to the following groups of' problems: in such areas should begin immediately. If the hot- I) foundation problems or determinations of t lie tomlands are, however, to be used for industrial or stability and deformation of undisturbed subsurfa other types of heavy construction, despite the materials under superimposed loads, on slopes and risks of flood damage, the total thickness of al- in cuts, or around f'oundation pits and tunnels: 2) luvium should be removed, improved drainage sys- construction problems or determinations of the ex- tents provided, and special designs employed. Red tent and character of materials to he excavated or the areas marked r-I on the map are poorly drained, location and investigation of soil and rock deposits swampy localities that cannot be used for any kind of for use as construction materials; 3) groundwaiei development. pn)blems or determinations of the depth, hydrostati While the General Construction Conditions Map pressure, flow, and composition of the groundwater, (Plate VI) does not directly indicate areas of steep and thereby the daiiger of seepage, underground slopes, their presence should be a very important erosion, and frost action as well as the influence 0d consideration in land development. In recent years, water on the stability and settlement of structures, it the number of vacation homes and ski developments act ion )n various ('c)IiStruct ion materials, and r ..._a J wr 3V'

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Figure 23. Aggregate processing plant and pit along Stony Brook three miles north of Coventry suital)ility as a water supply (Hvorslev, 1965, p. 5). such, their production, movement, or utilization will result in some modification of the environment; 2) the quantities involved in resource exploitation are Geologic Resources so huge and production and consumption activities so widespread geographically that their' effects are During the past several years, widespread con- observable to everyone. As sources of energy, as cern for environmental quality and demands for im- metallic and nonmetallic materials, and as plant mediate corrective action have greatly increased. This foods, minerals are directly related to, or involved in, expression of environmental concern has taken many almost every form of industrial, economic, and recre- forms and, in some cases, the demands and regula- ational activity. Between 3 and 4 billion tons of solid tions resulting from it are beyond industry's present fuels and minerals, 5 billion barrels of liquid fuels, technological and financial capability. In time, some and 22 trillion cubic feet of natural gas are consumed of the more unreasonable or impossible of these de- nationally each year. Furthermore, the rate of use of mands will give way to more rational approaches as some minerals has been doubling every 9 to 15 years; the general public recognizes that resource exploita- and 3) many minerals are so durable that they remain tion is not founded on a deliberate intent or dis- as scrap long after the product has served its useful regard for the environment, but is aimed at many purpose. Reclamation may not be economically worthwhile goals. As is true of many activities, how- attractive, but the production of new materials is ever, efforts to correct or avoid the detrimental criticized because old materials are so obviously effects of mineral production proceed slowly and at available. great expense. Thus, the problem that confronts the minerals Risser (1971, p. 2) gives three principal reasons industry today is that of finding ways to comply with why the mineral industry has received SO much the requirements for environmental quality protec- criticism lately from environmentalists. He suggests tion (the atmosphere, water, land, and plant and that: I) by virtue of their manner of occurrence and animal wildlife) and still produce the minerals our their physical and chemical makeup, minerals are nation requires at the lowest possil)le cost. act uallv an integral part of the environment, and as Nationally, growth in the use of nonmetallic resources, which consist primarily of construction and plant-food materials, has been considerably more rapid than that of metals. An especially significant aspect of this growth is the extremely large quantity of material involved. The combined output of the major construction minerals (crushed stone, sand and gravel) currently amounts to about 1.8 billion tons per annum and is projected to reach 5.6 to 8.0 billion tons per annum by the year 2000 (Risser, 197 1, p. 3; Legget, 1973, p. 361). Because most con- striiction activity normally occurs in or near large centers of population and industrial activity, most production of construction materials is highly visible to a large segment of the public and is therefore sub- jected to increasing objections and regulations (Fig- tire 23). In recent years, the production of nonmetallic minerals (asbestos, clay, granite, lime, marble, sand and gravel, slate, and talc) in Vermont has climbed to record proportions. In 1970, due largely to ac- celerated highway construction, the production of non-metallics reached a record 4.1 million tons; an increase of approximately 21 percent in tonnage and 36 percent in value over 1969 figures (Fulkerson, 1970). Further population growth, industrial cx- palision, and transportation development will un- doubtedly spur increased nonmetallic mineral I)r- duction in the years to come. At the present time, greater demands for Figure 24. Kame gravel exposed in a pit one-half mile south of foundation and construction materials have greatly Lowell. encouraged the growth of sand and gravel operations throughout the state and with it, have promoted a general degradation of Vermont's landscape. With- high quality agricultural and forest snils and liwatc in the Johnson-Hardwick Region, no fewer than 137 significant mineral resources in each county. active and/or abandoned sand and gravel pits scar The sand and gravel map (Plate VII), prepared the land's surface. From an environmental stand- during this survey, follows the procedures outlined in point, more planning should he given to the utiliza- the previous Environmental (;eology Reports (nos. tion of this region's sand and gravel resources and to 1, 2, and 3) and in part extends the concept of the the long-range usage of abandoned or exhausted County Resource Opportunities maps by attempting workings. Hackett and McComos (1969) recognized to classify deposits of aggregate material in the these problems some time ago and suggested that J ohnson-Hardwick Region as to their quality and additional sand and gravel reserves should he desig- estimated reserves. The approximate location current nated for open space use until they are needed. When and potential sources of sands and/or gravels shown exploitation of these materials becomes necessary, here are, in many instances, comparable to the find- planned methods of excavation should be employed ings of the Materials Laboratory, Vermont Depart- and, after the sand and/or gravel has been removed, ment of Highways. Evaluations of sand and gravel the area should be returned to productive use, there- deposits indicated on this map, are likely to change as by avoiding the development of more flagrant scars additional pits are opened and more subsurface in- in the landscape (Figure 24). formation becomes available. Although this studs In an attempt to promote better usage of the provides a reasonable degree of accuracy in ils land and to provide a key to recognizing the implica- evaluations it is only a general source of informal ion tions of changing land use patterns and individual and should be supported with additional in-deplll land use decisions, the Vermont State Planning Office site evaluations. has developed the Vermont Interim Land Capability Within the Johnson-Hardwick Region, there ale Plan (1972). The County Resource Opportunities few sand and gravel deposits that meet standai d maps (no. 3) for Caledonia, Franklin, Lamoille, and specifications for cement, consequently the highest Orleans counties identify areas of potentially good to rank llse(I in mapping is (onSi(lere(1 good in (jilalils Evaluations of all sand and gravel deposits range coarsen with increasing depth. Such sand and gravel from good to medium or low in quality while esti- deposits are often quite thick and would require mates of reserves range from large to moderate or subsurface investigation to more accurately deter- low. Where sand and gravel deposits were located but mine their quality at depth. Deposits near Eden Mills their quality and reserve were difficult to determine, are generally coarser in texture with localized ir- they were included (sgd) as sites for further investiga- regular stratification. Use of these deposits would ion. require screening and washing to remove incorpo- Esker, kame, deltaic and outwash gravel deposits rated silt and clay. The quality of the gravel pro- are widely scattered throughout the region, but most duced, like much of the material throughout the are considered to be of medium to low quality due region, would be of medium to low quality inasmuch to their weak, nonresistent rock composition and as the stone in the gravel is weak and highly sus- high sand content. With only limited population ceptible to wear. The section between the (;reen growth rates and sporadic urbanization in northern River Reservoir and the Lamoille River valley has Vermont, an adequate reserve of gravel will remain not been excavated sufficiently enough to determine available for future use. sand and gravel reserve and quality, but the type of Sand and gravel deposits of large reserve are the deposit suggests considerable reserves. commonly found to the east of the central Green Significant reserves of sand and gravel occur Mountains along the Black, Lamoille, and Missisquoi throughout the Irasburg Quadrangle, between Iras- River valleys. In the Hyde Park Quadrangle, large burg and Newport Center and between Lowell and reserves of sand and gravel have been identified be- North Troy. Their quality varies from good to low, tween Johnson and Morrisville along the Lamoille with the best deposits centered near Lowell and and Gihon rivers, near Eden Mills, and south of the Coventry. Deposit.s between Troy and North Froy Green River Reservoir. Kame deposits along the contain significant amounts of sand, silt and clay. mountain slopes, between Johnson and Morrisville, Sand and gravel deposits in the Hardwick and Jay commonly grade laterally into deltaic and lake de- Peak quadrangles are widely scattered and highly posits and as it result are sandy near the surface but varial)le in composition.

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Figure 25. Lowell Area Quarry of the GAF Asbestos Mine (General Aniline and Film Company) located on the southeast slopes of Belvidere Mountain

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Figure 26. Waste material from the abandoned Asbestos Mine (Eden Quarry) high on the southern slopes of Belvidere Mountain.

Sand deposits are scattered all over the Johnson- separate quarries; the Eden Quarry which is aban- Flaidwick Region. These are mostly lake sands of doned, the Lowell and "C" Area quarries which are highly variable thicknesses. The largest sand re- being mined at present (Figure 25). Although thirty- serves are located along the Lamoille River between two minerals are known to occur at the GAF Mine, Johnson and Morrisville, the Westfield-North Troy chrysotile (asbestos) is the principal product. It is area, the Newport Center area, the region around currently shipped to out-of-state company plants for Ricliford and the kame terraces north and south of the manufacture of asbestos-cement roofing and sid- Irasl)urg. ing, industrial board, corrugated sheets, and as- When compared with the quarrying of sand and bestos papers. Even though asbestos production in gravel, asbestos and talc mining operations constitute Vermont declined by approximately 9 percent in the second largest nonmetallic mineral production in 1970 (Fulkerson, 1970), moderate to large reserves the Johnson-Hardwick Region. At present, asbestos still exist in the Juhnson-Hardwick Region and pro- and talc mining operations are located throughout duction could no doubt continue for some time to portions of the Hyde Park, Jay Peak, and Irasburg conic. From an environmental point of view, the quadrangles in ultrabasic rocks (dunites and pen- large spoil piles of present and former asbestos quar - dotites) which have been completely or partially ries and their associated pits present an unsightly altered to serpentinite. These rocks and their sur- view. Land reclamation of these areas would be pos- rounding schists, gneisses, quartzites, and amphibol- sible if the material in the spoil piles (Figure 26) was ites comprise the Camels Hump Group of the central transferred to abandoned sections of the quarry and Green Mountains (Grant, 1968). thin layers of topsoil were used to cover the spoil. The (;AF Asbestos Mine (part of the Building At present, these large spoil piles exhibit highly un- and Industrial Floor Products Division of the (;en- stable and infertile slopes to an otherwise t.hickl' eral Aniline and Film Corporation) is located on the forested landscape. northeast side of Belvidere Mountain in the towns of The Eastern Magnesia Talc Company presenh! Eden, Lamoille County, and Lowell, Orleans County. operates an underground mine (the Johnson 1;t! Here, near the village of Eden Mills, there are three Mine) approximately 3 miles north-northeast

In Johnson (Figure 27) and a processing plant south- west of the village. Mining activities are centered in an ultramafic body of rock approximately 3,500 feet long and 200 feet wide, which has become completely altered through metamorphism to a talc-carbonate rock with localized concentrations of serpentinite (Grant, 1968). Production statistics for 1970 show that the Johnson Mine experienced an increase in tonnage and commercial value of about 11 percent over the previous year (Fulkerson, 1970). Processed talc is used in the manufacture of roofing paper, paint, insecticides, plastics, and rubber. While numer- ous old dumps and mine holes serve as a reminder of more than 70 years of talc mining throughout the J ohnson-Hardwick Region, a more serious environ- mental problem is posed by the collapse of mine overburden near the Johnson Mine. Perhaps slag materials could be used to backfill these collapsed areas and thereby lessen the hazards imposed by shallow mining practices. While nonmetallic mineral production continues to expand in the state, metallic mineral production has virtually ceased. To the writer's knowledge, there has been no metallic mining in Vermont since 1958, when the Elizabeth Copper Mine located in South Strafford, closed (Morrill and Chaffee, 1964). Over the years, however, mineral exploration has located various lead, copper, iron, manganese, and placer

gold concentrations throughout the Johnson-Hard- Figure 27. The Johnson Talc Mine three rreles ciortheost of wick Region. These deposits characteristically occur Johnson. in either various iron- and sulfide-rich igneous in- trusives or immediately adjacent altered bedrock and the local economy. The extraction and process- throughout the central portion of the state. A wide ing of nonmetallic minerals will continue to provide variety of secondary minerals (chromite, magnetite, employment opportunities for many local people in graphite, garnet, magriesite, molybdenum, titanium the years to come and as market values and demands and others) are also associated with these intrusives. for metallic minerals fluctuate, there will be periodic Moderate to low grade iron concentrations have been attempts to reactivate old mines or establish other found along the eastern flank of the central Green operations in new localities. Opportunities for Mountains between Westfield and Jay. Highly van- mineral extraction will not materialize or will be made able concentrations of copper-bearing ore (pyrrhotite considerably more difficult if mineral localities and and chalcopyrite) have been located in the rocks of adjoining areas have been committed to conflicting the Stowe Formation on Foothacher Hill near Wol- uses. Furthermore, when new mineral resources are cott and in the vicinity of Richfird. Lead-zinc and developed, conflicting uses and values are certain to manganese prospects have been identified west of be established as greater demands are placed on the Morristown and in the Tibbit Hill volcanics between environment. Unless areas of significant mineral po- Richford and Berkshire respectively. Placer gold tential are located early and set aside for future ex- deposits have been located along Wild Brook and the ploitation, important opportunities for economic de- Lamoille River between Johnson and Cambridge, velopment may be lost. Jay Branch and Crook Brook north of Jay, the east In an attempt to identify mineral deposits and branch of the Missisquoi River, Burgess Branch be- adjacent areas of possible economic significance, the tween 'Froy and Lowell, and Sterling Brook south of Vermont State Planning Board, in cooperation with Morristown (Morrill and Chaflèe, 1964; (;rant, the Vermont Geological Survey and the Department 1968). of (;eology at the University of Vermont, has already Regardless of the type of product sought, it be- prepared county-wide capability maps (1972) show- comes apparent that the utilization of mineral re- ing sites worked in the past, those currently in pro- sources in the Johnson-Hardwick Region carries with duction, and some sites which have been investigated it a wide range of implications regarding land use but which remain undeveloped. Greater efforts must

17 .t,>Ifl ...... -.

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Figure 28. Flood-swollen Lamoille River near Ithiel Falls.

be made to locate additional mineral sites for future dam failure, earthquake, mudslide, and urban fire use. Obviously, as individual mineral deposits are (T. P. Dunne, Administrator of the Federal Disaster played-out and each site is abandoned, attempts must Assistance Administration). he made on state and local leycis to reduce the While volcanic eruptions do not occur in Ver- deleterious effects of mineral production. mont, the land may, however, occasionally be shaken by minor earth tremors. Such disturbances have not NATURAL HAZARDS yet had any effect on the land or man-made struc- tures in Vermont. Severe storms, floods, landslides, The term natural hazard refers to a variety of and droughts pose more serious problems (Figure destructive phenomena that can result in death or 28). In general, the Vermonter is incapable of con- endanger the works of man (Durrenherger, 1973, p. trolling these phenoniena and, indeed, in some in- 159). Annually in the United States, the actual and stances his activities tend to increase their frequency potential losses from such natural hazards as earth- of occurrence and the resulting damage. As an ap- quakes, volcanic disturbances, landslides and slope preciation for an area's vulnerability to natural (us- failures, severe storms, floods, droughts, frosts, and asters is developed, greater allowances can be made forest and grass fires are estimated to average from for them. Sound geologic and soils information tens to hundreds of lives, and from several hundred million to more than a billion dollars in direct and in- applied with ad equate planning can substantially direct costs (Office of Emergency Preparedness, 1972, reduce the vulnerability of people and property to P. I). many natural hazards by encouraging the selective In 1973, the United States was struck by 46 major location of construction and development projects. natural disasters which caused more than $1.2 bil- Other 1)Otential problems may he ameliorated lion worth of damage in 31 states. Of these presi- through such corrective measures as slope modifica- deiitially declared disasters, 39 involved flooding tion and stabilization, reforestation, and the constri,c- while the others included tornadoes or other storms, t.ion of various drainage and 1100(1 control sv.stcnis. Landslides tiofls of asphalt were carried with the slide. Irregular scars of similar form can readily be identified in It is perhaps a natural reaction to think that all many parts of the region. landslides are something that cannot be avoided and During the same weekend, a large section of a must be accepted as part of the natural order of parking area adjacent to the Village Restaurant in things. It is true that landslides do constitute an es- Hardwick collapsed into the Lamoille River (Figure sential part of the geologic cycle and that many large 30). While structural damage to the restaurant itself landslides occur in nature without any assistance was minor, release of a large mass of glacial sediment from man. At the same time, it may he emphasized nearby carried portions of a log and granite block that most landslides can be prevented, especially the retaining wall, old foundation material, and fencing smaller ones (Legget, 1973, p. 423). into the river. Judging from the nature of this slope Technically, landslides are part of a more gen- failure and the pronounced rotation of another sec- eral category of erosional processes called mass- tion of the retaining wall directly under the rear wasting - the process of downsh)pC movement of corner of the restaurant, another period of excessive earth materials, primarily by gravity. Landslides take rainfall could destroy the building and others nearby. place in widely different rock types and are of almost While these examples emphasize the ongoing every possible size and shape. Their causes can he nature of landslides, those slope failures that have traced to the inherent properties of underlying, low occurred did not do significant amounts of damage to strength rock materials (presence of bedding planes, man-made features. As hill slopes contillue to be joints and fractures) and such external factors as modified by man's activities, landslides will probably the slope of the land, the amount, type, and duration become more common and cause more damage. of precipitation, and the dominant erosional proces- ses for each area. Flash Floods From a planning point of view, when potentially Floods are natural and normal phenomena. hazardous conditions (excessive groundwater erosion, ['hey are catastrophic simj)ly because man occupies artificially cut slopes, general slope instability, and intensive hillside development) are identified, pre- ventative measures against landslides should be un- dertaken immediately. Such measures should in- clude proper site preparation through drainage, re- moval of overburdened material, safe grading of slopes, and where possible, the limiting of construc- tion, especially of homes and other habitable build- ings. These control measures are becoming more common and when properly executed they are effec- tive in reducing the incidence of all forms of land- slides. At present, county-wide soils maps prepared by the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Con- servation Service (1972) for Orleans, Franklin, La- moille, and Caledonia counties may prove helpful in site evaluation within the Johnson-Hardwick Re- gion in that they provide information on natural soil stability for each identified soil type and land use limitations. More f-ielcl and laboratory work is needed, however, on the causes and mechanics of landslides and on soil and rock slope stability before greater protective assurance is olicred. One of the larger slides in the Johnson-Hard- wick Region occurred along Alder Brook between Little Eligo and Eligo ponds on Saturday, June 30, 1973. The slide (Figure 29) is located along the steep, eastern side of the river valley adjacent to State Route 14. As a result of prolonged rainfall, a thin layer of saturated glacial till and gravel dropped 35 to 40 feet down the steep slope and blocked the highway. Electrical power was briefly disrupted and various Figure 29. Landslide scar and debris one-half mile south of Eligo trees, shrubs, road signs, posts, guard rails, and see- Pond. ii icasu res. l'lixd control measures arc of a perinailelit na- ture, deliberately planned and executed over a period of time and based on the expectancy of floods of' various magnitudes. These measures include land treatment (flood proofing) in the watersheds to abate water runoff; engineering works such as dams and detention reservoirs to regulate river flow, and flood walls (levees), channel improvements, and diversion or fly-pass channels to keep flood waters out of specific areas; and regulations for land use to insure the most economical use of the flood plain. Detention reservoirs are the most prominent and familiar form of flood control. Their purpose is to hold and release slowly large volumes of water but they may also provide recreational and power generating facilities. / Due to the considerable storage areas required fr such projects and their restriction of free-flowing rivers, environmentalists consider the construction of dams as a last resort solution to the problem of flood control. Alternatives include flood plain zon- ing, public acquisition of some flood plain rights, scenic easements, and agricultural incentives. Chan- nel improvements constitute another well accepted method of diminishing flood damage. Projects to clear, straighten, widen and deepen stream channels have been used extensively in restricted urban and industrial locations to increase the velocity arid carr\- ing capacity of a stream and thereby diminish the Figure 30. Collapsed embankment along the south side of the effects of high floodwater stages. Channel improve Lomoille River in Hordwick. ments, while not initially as expensive as dams and detention reservoirs, are relatively impermanent and the flood plain, the high water channel ofa river. Man necessitate repeated expenditures for maintenance occupies these lowlands because it is convenient and Furthermore, they tend to disrupt the natural strearri profitable to do so, but, at the same time, he must regime, increase erosion, promote downstream flood purchase his occupancy at a price - either sustain damage beyond the termination of the dredging flood damage or provide flood control facilities (Bue, project, and generally impair landscape esthetics. 1967, p. 1). Where flood damages have been relatively Preventative measures (both incentive and regula- minor or where flood protection costs greatly ex- tory) use the approach of keeping damage-prone de- ceed anticipated reductions in flood damage, they are velopment out of flood hazard areas. The regulator\ usually permitted to continue unchecked. Where method is most effective in areas that have not been flood damages become unbearably high, attempts are widely developed and is implemented through sub- made to lessen their impact. The type of corrective division regulations, building codes, encroachment or preventive measures taken depends on the nature limits, and other controls on the use and develop- of the development on the flood plain arid the ment of property on the flood plain (Bue, 1967, p.2; physical and economic feasibility of providing pro- Emerson, 1971, p. 62; Office of Emergency Pre- tection. paredness, 1972, p. 15). Flood problems, like problems of water supply, Flood emergency measures are of a temporary are without any clear-cut solutions. Various ap- nature, taken on an emergency basis when flooding proaches to the flood problem have been made and seems imminent. Included here are: I) land treat- found effective to a degree or another. No one mea- ment of watersheds suddenly denuded by fire or sure is considered adequate except in minor floods, other natural causes; 2) engineering measures such and if the flood is of considerable magnitude all as building temporary levees or improving perma- measures fail as a complete solution to the problem. netit ones, clearing channels, and flood fighting activi- Measures most commonly taken to reduce losses ties; 3) evacuation of people and property from en- from floods fall into two categories: 1) corrective dangered areas; arid 4) rescheduling production, flood control measures and 2) flood emergency transportation, and services to minimize interrup-

50 tions and loss from the flood (Office of Emergency type and amount of vegetative cover. Consequently, Preparedness, 1972, P. 15). tributaries which appear alike and have near equal The State of Vermont has had a long history of drainage areas often have dissimilar flood-flow flooding. In the past two hundred years Vermont has characteristics. Long duration, high intensity summer been subjected to twenty major floods and many storms may initially saturate the soil and swell in- more less intensive or localized ones, particularly in dividual headwater streams within a particular basin, the Green Mountains. In many cases, these floods but as the volume of runoff increases, the trunk have been devastating. The flood of November 3-4, stream flow velocities, the flood peak amplitude, and 1927, resulted in damages estimated at $35,000,000 the amount of overbank flow and sediment pro- and the death of 84 Vermonters (Wernecke and duction may increase rapidly causing considerable Mueller, 1972, p. vii). The flood ofJune 29-30, 1973, damage and destruction to ill-placed works of man was estimated to have caused more than $47,000,000 (Figures 31 and 32). damage and the loss of one life. Such was the case during the month of June, Throughout the Johnson-Hardwick Region, as 1973. Twelve significant thunderstorms delivered a in many other parts of Vermont's (;reen Mountains, record breaking 7.69 inches (average) of precipita- rain storms occurring between May and September tion throughout Vermont; 4.20 inches above a are commonly of high intensity and short duration. normal of 3.49 inches (The Bur/iugton Free l'reo, In areas of little bedrock cover and steep slopes, most July 4, 1973, p. 4). The last of these rainstorms be- precipitation runs oil the land rather than returning gan as a fine drizzle on 'Fhursday,June 28th and con- to the atmosphere through evapotranspiration or tinued through Saturday,June 30th dumping half of soaking into the ground. Under these conditions, the storm's total precipitation during a 6-hour period local areas commonly experience small flash floods. early on Saturday morning. With the ground already Flash flood frequencies and their magnitude will saturated from previous rains, most of this storm's vary with differences in such tributary stream basin precipitation ran off the land swelling nearby streams characteristics as altitude, slope, soil texture, and and rivers. In response to this excessive runoff,

lk

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TW . Figure 31. Flood damaged access rood along Jay Branch east of Jay Peak.

51 Mew 1e - -- -. ,.- . ,.; , - I

Figure 32. Road damage due to excessive runoff on Jay Peak.

stream gauges near Johnson and Richford recorded 1973). the second and third highest discharges respectively As it result of Ilic late June Hash flooding, nimy for this century. Records kr the Lamoille River public and private buildings, roads, bridges, and rail- (Johnson Station) indicate an average stream dis- road lines were damaged or destroyed (Figures 33 charge of 514 cubic feet of water per second (cfs.) and 34). Similarly, water and sewer facilities inun- for a discharge area of approximately 310 square dated by flooding waters were damaged and thereby miles. A maximum flood discharge of 13,000 cfs. and pro(luced serious contamination l)rol)lenls in some a water height (stage) of 16.48 feet was, however, re- localities. Crops in lowland areas were very seriously corded for this station on March 18, 1936, while a damaged or totally destroyed by raging currents, minimum discharge of 16 cfs. was recorded on Oc- standing water, or subsequent sedimentation over tober 26, 1947. On July 1, 1973, the Lamoille River's sprouting crops. stage was measured at 17.33 feet and a discharge of While average flood damage estimates for the 14,400 cfs. was recorded. Normally. the Missisquoi Lamoille River Basin are set at $139,000, flash flood- River gauging station near Richford indicates stream ing during this single storm resulted in excess of discharges approaching the average of 90() cfs. for a $542,000 in damages in Lamoille County alone. Here, discharge area of approximately 479 square miles. A damage estimates for municipal roads and culverts maximum flood discharge of 17,200 cf's. and a stage ranged from $200 in Belvidere to more than $20,000 of IS. 15 feet was, however, recorded for this station in Wolcott and Morristown. Hardest hit in this re- on May 4, 1940, while a minimum discharge of 8 cfs. gion were Vermont farmers. After it previous sum- was recorded on July 14, 1911. Estimates of the No- mer of little hay, a year of record grain prices, and vember 1927 Flood indicate a discharge of 45,000 generally high operating costs, kar was expressed ci's. and a stage of 23.10 feet for the Missisquoi River that the June 1973 Flood would Sl)ell the end for at this station. On July 2, 1973, stream stage was many a dairy man and farmer. Ihe long term danger measured at 11.28 feet and a discharge of 9,450 cfs. was that valley farms given up because of the flood, was recorded (U. S. Department of Interior, Geo- might pass into the hands of developers who would logical Survey, Water Resources Division, August 31, create housing tracts, resorts, and/or shopping ecu-

52 • MOP

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Figure 34 Sand-choked cornfield resulting from flooding of the Lamoille River one mile west of Wolcott.

53 ­., ......

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Figure 35 Flood damaged Village Motel along the south bank of the Lomoille River in Hardwick ters out of them (J'he Caledomaii Record, July 2 1973). businesses were directly affected by the flood and of The June 1973 Flood demonstrated once again those, fewer still sustained structural damage. If nature's terrible capacity for destruction. One of the nothing else, the flood of June 1973 should strongl' more dramatic examples of flash flood damage with- reinforce the fact that flood plains are Ihose portions in the johnson-Hardwick Region occurred when of river valleys which are covered with water when raging waters of the Lamoille River breeched a rivers overflow Iheir banks and that man should avoid ten-foot thick dike behind the Village Motel in Hard- construction of dwellings and businesses in such wick, undercut the motel's foundation, and caused it areas. Tragically, public awareness and concern fr to topple halfway into the river (Figure 35). 'l'his flood problems usually declines in proportion to time disaster could have been avoided simply by not build- since the last occurrence of disastrous flooding. The ing on a flood plain, on the outer bend of a meander- greater the time lapse since a major flood, the ing river. 'l'hese areas are highly subject to flooding greater the tendency of people to forget the devas- and erosion. 1ortunately, population pressures and tating effects, and the more apt they are to take urban development have not yet spurred construc- greater risks by encroaching further into lloof tion on the flood plains in the johnson-Hardwick hazard areas (Wernecke and Mueller, 1972, p. Region to any marked degree. Only a few homes and ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This report is based on data contributed by various state and local agencies and on field investiga- tions conducted during the summer of 1973, under the direction of Dr. Charles G. Doll, the Vermont State Geologist. \iVithnut the open contribution of interested citizens, the geologic interpretations made here for environmental planning in the Johnson- Hardwick Region would have been greatly hanipered. Much appreciation is expressed to landowners for their contribution of infrmation pertaining to specific geologic site conditions and cooperation in granting access to their lands for geologic mapping and seismic profiling studies. Special thanks are expressed for the assistance of Mr. David Butterfield, Geologist, Vermont Water Resources Department, Mr. Arthur L. Hodges, Geologist, United States Geological Survey, and Mr. Thomas F. Sexton, Weston Geophysical Engineers, Inc. Ferry M. Kramer and Alan Egler, graduate students at Miami University and field assistants, did much of the l)edrock and groundwater data collec- tion and the drafting of the planning maps in this report. John Moore, graduate student at the Uni- versity of Vermont and field assistant, contributed much to the summer's work and did some of the drafting of the planning maps. Dr. David P. Stewart, c;eology Department, Miami University, counciled the author on many aspects of the field program, read the report. and made many helpful suggestions. The Survey extends thanks to Roderick F. Pratt and Gordon Young, Department of Water Resources, for their corrective and supplementary drafting work on the maps.

55 REFERENCES

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