The Criminal Justice System and Social Exclusion

The Criminal Justice System and Social Exclusion:

Race, Ethnicity, and Gender

A Selected Bibliography for a National Academies Workshop

Panel I: Perspectives on Criminal Justice’s Role in Social Exclusion

Panel II: Illustrative Patterns of Inequality in Criminal Justice

Panel III: Inequality, the Criminal Justice System, and Social Exclusion

Panel IV: Youth and Young Adult Populations: Special Concerns

Panel V: Innovations, Policies, and Practices with Implications for Social Inclusion

Perspectives on the Criminal Justice’s Role in Social Exclusion

Alexander, Michelle. 2012. The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness. New York: The New Press

Banaji, Mahzarin. 2013. Blindspot: Hidden Biases of Good People. New York: Bantam Books.

Crenshaw, Kimberle. 2012. From Private Violence to Mass Incarceration: Thinking Intersectionally About Women, Race, and Social Control. UCLA Law Review 59(6): 1418-1472.

Crutchfield, Robert D. 2015. From Slavery to Social Class to Disadvantage: An Intellectual History of the Use of Class to Explain Racial Differences in Criminal Involvement. Crime and Justice, 44: 1–47. DOI: 10.1086/681665

Crutchfield, Robert D., April Fernandes, and Jorge Martinez. 2010. Racial Disparity in the Criminal Justice System: How Much is Too Much? Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 100: 903– 932.

Drakulich, Kevin and Robert D. Crutchfield. 2013. The Role of Perceptions of the Police in Informal Social Control: Implications for the Racial Stratification of Crime and Control. Social Problems 60(3): 383-407. DOI: 10.1525/sp.2013.60.3.383

Du Bois, W. E. B. (1899[1973]). The Philadelphia Negro: A Social Study. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.

Duck, Waverly. 2015. No Way Out: Precarious Living in the Shadow of Poverty and Drug Dealing. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Forman, James Jr. 2017. Locking Up Our Own: Crime and Punishment in Black America. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux.

Foster, Holly, and John Hagan. 2009. The Mass Incarceration of Parents in America: Issues of Race/Ethnicity, Collateral Damage to Children, and Prisoner Reentry. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 623(1): 179-194. DOI: 10.1177/0002716208331123

Goffman, Alice. 2014. On the Run: Fugitive Life in an American City. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Gottschalk, Marie. 2014. Democracy and the Carceral State in America. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 656(1):288-295. DOI: 10.1177/0002716213503787

Howell, K. Babe. 2009. Broken Lives from Broken Windows: The Hidden Costs of Aggressive Order Maintenance Policing. New York University Review of Law and Social Change 33(3): 271- 330.

Iguchi, Martin Y., James Bell, Rajeev N. Ramchand, and Terry Fain. 2005. How Criminal System Racial Disparities May Translate into Health Disparities. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved 16(4): 48-56. DOI: 10.1353/hpu.2005.0114

Johnson, Brian D., Eric Stewart, Justin Pickett, and Marc Gertz. 2011. Ethnic Threat and Social Control: Examining Public Support for Judicial Use of Ethnicity in Punishment. Criminology 49(2): 401-441. DOI:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2011.00225.x

Justice, Benjamin, and Tracey L. Meares. 2014. How the Criminal Justice System Educates Citizens. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 656(1): 159- 177. DOI: 10.1177/0002716213502929

Kirk, David S. 2008. The Neighborhood Context of Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Arrest. Demography 45(1): 55–77. DOI: 10.1353/dem.2008.0011

Krivo, Lauren J. and Ruth D. Peterson. 1996. Extremely Disadvantaged Neighborhoods and Urban Crime. Social Forces 75(2): 619–650. DOI: 10.1093/sf/75.2.619

Krivo, Lauren. J., Ruth. D. Peterson, and Danielle C. Kuhl. 2009. Segregation, Racial Structure, and Neighborhood Violent Crime. American Journal of Sociology 114 (6): 1765–1802. DOI: 10.1086/597285

Loury, Glenn C. 2014. Detention, Democracy, and Inequality in a Divided Society. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 656(1):178-182. DOI: 10.1177/0002716213502930

National Research Council. 2008. Parole, Desistance from Crime, and Community Integration, Committee on Community Supervision and Desistance from Crime. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. DOI: 10.17226/11988

Petersilia, Joan. 2003. When Prisoners Come Home: Parole and Prisoner Reentry. New York: Oxford University Press.

Peterson, Ruth D. 2012. The Central Place of Race in Crime and Justice-The American Society of Criminology’s 2011 Sutherland Address. Criminology 50(2):303-28. DOI: 10.1111/j.1745- 9125.2012.00271.x

Porter, Nicole D. 2016. Unfinished Project of Civil Rights in the Era of Mass Incarceration and the Movement for Black Lives. Wake Forest Journal of Law & Policy 6:1-34.

Provine, Marie, Monica Varsanyi, Paul Lewis, and Scott Decker. 2016. Policing Immigrants: Local Law Enforcement on the Front Lines. Chicago: University of Chicago Press (Law and Society Series).

Rios, Victor M. 2017. Human Targets: Schools, Police, and the Criminalization of Latino Youth. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Ritchie, Andrea J. and Delores Jones-Brown. 2017. Policing Race, Gender, and Sex: A Review of Law Enforcement Policies. Women and Criminal Justice 27(1):21-50. DOI: 10.1080/08974454.2016.1259599

Russell, Katheryn K. 1998. The Color of Crime: Racial Hoaxes, White Fear, Black Protectionism, Police Harassment, and Other Macroaggressions. New York: New York University Press.

Russell-Brown, Katheryn. 2009. The Color of Crime (2nd Ed.). New York: New York University Press.

Sampson, Robert J. 2014. Criminal Justice Processing and the Social Matrix of Adversity. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 656(1): 296-301. DOI: 10.1177/0002716213502936

Saperstein, Aliya, Andrew M. Penner, and Jessica M. Kizer. The Criminal Justice System and the Racialization of Perceptions. The ANNALS of the American Society of Political and Social Science 656(1): 104-121. DOI: 10.1177/0002716213503097

Sentencing Project, The. 2013. Report of The Sentencing Project to the United Nations Human Rights Committee: Regarding Racial Disparities in the United States Criminal Justice System. Available at: http://sentencingproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/Race-and-Justice- Shadow-Report-ICCPR.pdf

Stoudt, Brett G., Michelle Fine, and Madeline Fox. 2011. Growing Up Policed in the Age of Aggressive Policing Policies. New York Law School Law Review 56(4): 1331-1372.

Tellis, Katherine, Nancy Rodriguez, and Cassia Spohn. 2010. “Critical Race Perspectives: Explaining the Differential Treatment of Racial Minorities by the Criminal Justice System,” pp 233-253 in Hugh D. Barlow and Scott H. Decker (eds.), Criminology and Policy: Putting Theory to Work. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.

Wakefield, Sara, and Christopher Wildeman. 2013. Children of the Prison Boom: Mass Incarceration and the Future of American Inequality. New York: Oxford University Press.

Wilson, William Julius. 1987. The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Wilson, Wilson Julius. 1996. When Work Disappears: The World of the New Urban Poor. New York: Alfred A Knopf.

Illustrative Patterns of Inequality in Criminal Justice

Abrego, Leisy, Mat Coleman, Daniel E. Martínez, Cecilia Menjívar, and Jeremy Slack. 2017. Making Immigrants into Criminals: Legal Processes of Criminalization in the Post-IIRIRA Era. Journal on Migration & Human Security 5(3): 694-715.

Armenta, Amada. 2017. Protect, Serve, and Deport. Oakland: University of California Press.

Armenta, Amada. 2017. Racializing Crimmigration: Local Law Enforcement Agencies and the Institutional Production of Immigrant Criminality. Sociology of Race and Ethnicity 3(1): 82-95. DOI: 10.1177/2332649216648714

Armenta, Amada. 2016. Between Public Service and Social Control: Policing Immigrants in the Era of Immigration Enforcement. Social Problems 63(1): 111-126. DOI: 10.1093/socpro/spv024

Blumstein, Albert. 1982. On the Racial Disproportionality of the U.S. States’ Prison Population. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 73(3): 1259–1281.

Blumstein, Alfred. 1993. Racial Disproportionality of U.S. Prison Populations Revisited. University of Colorado Law Review 64(3): 743–760.

Blumstein, Alfred and Allen J. Beck. 1999. Population Growth in U.S. Prisons, 1980-1996. Crime and Justice 26: 17–61.DOI: 10.1086/449294

Blumstein, Alfred and Allen J. Beck. 2017. Racial Disproportionality in U.S. State Prisons: Accounting for the Effects of Racial and Ethnic Differences in Criminal Involvement, Arrests, Sentencing, and Time Served. Journal of Quantitative Criminology. DOI: 10.1007/s10940-017- 9357-6.

Brennan, Pauline K., and Cassia Spohn. 2009. The Joint Effects of Offender Race/Ethnicity and Sex on Sentence Length Decisions in Federal Courts. Race and Social Problems 1(4):200-217. DOI: 10.1007/s12552-009-9016-0

Bridges, George S., Robert D. Crutchfield and Edith E. Simpson. 1987. Crime, Social Structure and Criminal Punishment: Influences of Stratification and Urbanization on White and Nonwhite Rates of Imprisonment. Social Problems 34(4):345 – 361. DOI: 10.2307/800812

Bridges, George S. and Robert D. Crutchfield. 1988. Law Social Standing and Racial Disparities in Imprisonment. Social Forces 66(3): 699 - 724. DOI: 10.1093/sf/66.3.699

Brunson, Rod K., and Jody Miller. 2005. Young Black Men and Urban Policing in the United States. British Journal of Criminology 46(4): 613-640. DOI: 10.1093/bjc/azi093

Brunson, Rod K. and Eric A. Stewart. 2014. Examining Racial Disparities in a Post-Racial Era. Race and Justice: An International Journal 4(3):183-184. DOI: 10.1177/2153368714543419

Burt, Callie H., Man Kit Lei, and Ronald L. Simons. 2017a. Racial Discrimination, Racial Socialization, and Crime over Time: A Social Schematic Theory Model. Criminology 55(4): 938–979. DOI: 10.1111/1745-9125.12164

Burt, Callie H., Man Kit Lei, and Ronald L. Simons. 2017b. Racial Discrimination, Racial Socialization, and Crime: Understanding Mechanisms of Resilience. Social Problems 64(3): 414–438. DOI: 10.1093/socpro/spw036

Cano, Mario V., and Cassia Spohn. 2012. Circumventing the Penalty for Offenders Facing Mandatory Minimums: Revisiting the Dynamics of “Sympathetic” and “Salvageable” Offenders. Criminal Justice and Behavior 39(3):308-332. DOI: 10.1177/0093854811431419

Christianson, Scott. 1980. Legal Implications of Racially Disproportionate Incarceration Rates. Criminal Law Bulletin, 16(1): 59-63.

Correll, Joshua, Sean M. Hudson, Steffanie Guillermo, and Debbie S. Ma. 2014. The Police Officer's Dilemma: A Decade of Research on Racial Bias in the Decision to Shoot. Social and Personality Psychology Compass 8(5): 201-213. DOI: 10.1111/spc3.12099

Crutchfield, Robert D., George S. Bridges and Susan R. Pitchford. 1994. Analytical and Aggregation Biases in Analyses of Imprisonment: Reconciling Discrepancies in Studies of Racial Disparity. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 31(2): 166 - 182. DOI: 10.1177/0022427894031002005

Crutchfield, Robert D., Martie L. Skinner, Kevin P. Haggerty, Anne McGlynn, and Richard F. Catalano. 2009. Racial Disparities in Early Criminal Justice Involvement. Race and Social Problems 1(4): 218-230. DOI: 10.1007/s12552-009-9018-y

Crutchfield, Robert D., Martie L. Skinner, Kevin P. Haggerty, Anne McGlynn, and Richard F. Catalano. 2012. Racial Disparity in Police Contacts. Race and Justice 2(3):179-202. DOI: 10.1177/2153368712448063

Deer, Sarah. 2015. The Beginning and End of Rape: Confronting Sexual Violence in Native America. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.

Demuth, Stephen. 2003. Racial and Ethnic Differences in Pretrial Release Decisions and Outcomes: A Comparison of Hispanic, Black, and White Felony Arrestees. Criminology 41(3): 873-908. DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-9125.2003.tb01007.x

Engel, Robin Shepard, and Jennifer M. Calnon. 2004. Examining the Influence of Drivers’ Characteristics during Traffic Stops with Police: Results from a National Survey. Justice Quarterly 21(1): 49–90. DOI: 10.1080/07418820400095741

Engen, Rodney L., Randy R. Gainey, Robert D. Crutchfield, and Joseph G. Weis. 2003. Discretion and Disparity under Sentencing Guidelines: The Role of Departures and Structured Sentencing Alternatives. Criminology 41(1): 99-130. DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-9125.2003.tb00983.x

Engen, Rodney and Sarah Steen. 2000. The Power to Punish: Discretion and Sentencing Reform in the War on Drugs. American Journal of Sociology 105(5): 1357–1395. DOI: 10.1086/210433

Fagan, Jeffrey, Anthony A. Braga, Rod K. Brunson, and April Pattavina. 2016. Stops and Stares: Street Stops, Surveillance, and Race in the New Policing. Fordham Urban. Law Journal 43: 539- 614.

Gelman, Andrew, Jeffrey Fagan, and Alex Kiss. 2007. An Analysis of the New York City Police Department’s ‘Stop-And-Frisk’ Policy in the Context of Claims of Racial Bias. Journal of the American Statistical Association 102(479): 813–823. DOI: 10.1198/016214506000001040

Goel, Sharad, Justin M. Rao, and Ravi Shroff. 2016. Precinct or Prejudice? Understanding Racial Disparities in New York City’s Stop-and-Frisk Policy. The Annals of Applied Statistics 10(1): 365–394. DOI: 10.1214/15-AOAS897

Golash-Boza, Tanya, and Pierrette Hondagneu-Sotelo. 2013. Latino Immigrant Men and the Deportation Crisis: A Gendered Racial Removal Program. Latino Studies 11(3):271-292. DOI: 10.1057/lst.2013.14

Johnson, Brian D. 2003. Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Sentencing Departures across Modes of Conviction. Criminology 41(2): 501-542. DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-9125.2003.tb00994.x

Johnson, Brian D. 2005. Contextual Disparities in Guideline Departures: Courtroom Social Contexts, Guidelines Compliance, and Extralegal Disparities in Criminal Sentencing. Criminology 43(3): 761-796. DOI: 10.1111/j.0011-1348.2005.00023.x

Johnson, Brian D. 2006. The Multilevel Context of Criminal Sentencing: Integrating Judge‐ and County‐Level Influences. Criminology 44(2): 259-298. DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-9125.2006.00049.x

Johnson Brian D. 2017. Facial Profiling: Race, Physical Appearance, and Punishment. Criminology 55(3):520-547. DOI: 10.1111/1745-9125.12143

Johnson, Brian D., and Sara Betsinger. 2009. Punishing the Model Minority: Asian American Sentencing Outcomes in Federal District Courts. Criminology 47(4): 1045-1090. DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-9125.2009.00169.x

Johnson, Brian D., and Stephanie DiPietro. 2012. The Power of Diversion: Intermediate Sanctions and Sentencing Disparity Under Presumptive Guidelines. Criminology 50(3): 811-850. DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-9125.2012.00279.x

Johnson, Brian D., and Jacqueline Lee. 2013. Racial Disparity under Sentencing Guidelines: A Survey of Recent Research and Emerging Perspectives. Sociological Compass 7(7): 503-514. DOI: 10.1111/soc4.12046

Kautt, Paula M. 2002. Location, Location, Location: Interdistrict and Intercircuit Variation in Sentencing Outcomes for Federal Drug-Trafficking Offenses. Justice Quarterly 19(4): 633–671. DOI: 10.1080/07418820200095381

Kautt, Paula M. 2002. Crack-ing Down on Black Drug Offenders? Testing for Interactions among Offenders’ Race, Drug Type, and Sentencing Strategy in Federal Drug Sentences .Justice Quarterly 19(1):1-35. DOI: 10.1080/07418820200095151

King, Ryan D., and Bryan D. Johnson. 2016. A Punishing Look: Skin Tone and Afrocentric features in the Halls of Justice. American Journal of Sociology 122(1):90-124. DOI: 10.1086/686941

Kleck, Gary. 1981. Racial Discrimination in Criminal Sentencing: A Critical Evaluation of the Evidence with Additional Evidence on the Death Penalty. American Sociological Review 46(6): 783–805. DOI: 10.2307/2095079

Klinger, David, Richard Rosenfeld, Daniel Isom, Michael Deckard. 2016. Race, Crime, and the Micro‐Ecology of Deadly Force. Criminology & Public Policy 15(1): 193-222. DOI: 10.1111/1745-9133.12174

Krivo, Lauren J. and Ruth D. Peterson (Special Editors). 2009. Race Crime, and Justice: Contexts and Complexities. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 623.

Kutateladze, Besiki L. 2018. Tracing Charge Trajectories: A Study of the Influence of Race in Charge Changes at Case Screening, Arraignment, and Disposition. Criminology 56(1): 123-153. DOI: 10.1111/1745-9125.12166

Kutateladze, Besiki L. 2012. Do Race and Ethnicity Matter in Prosecution? A Review of Empirical Studies. New York: Vera Institute of Justice. Available at: https://www.vera.org/publications/do- race-and-ethnicity-matter-in-prosecution-a-review-of-empirical-studies

Kutateladze, Besiki Luka, Nancy R. Andiloro, and Brian D. Johnson. 2016. Opening Pandora’s Box: How Does Defendant Race Influence Plea Bargaining? Justice Quarterly 33(3): 398-426. DOI: 10.1080/07418825.2014.915340

Kutateladze, Besiki L., Nancy R. Andiloro, Brian D. Johnson, and Cassia C. Spohn. 2014. Cumulative Disadvantage: Examining Racial and Ethnic Disparity in Prosecution and Sentencing. Criminology 52(3): 514-552. DOI: 10.1111/1745-9125.12047

Kutateladze, Besiki L., and Victoria Z. Lawson. 2017. Is a Plea Really a Bargain? An Analysis of Plea and Trial Dispositions in New York City. Crime & Delinquency DOI: 10.1177/0011128717695224

LaFrentz, Chandra D., and Cassia Spohn. 2006. Who is Punished More Harshly in Federal Court? The Interaction of Race/Ethnicity, Gender, Age, and Employment Status in the Sentencing of Drug Offenders. Justice Research and Policy 8(2):25-56. DOI: 10.3818/JRP.8.2.2006.25

Langan, Patrick A. 1985. Racism on Trial: New Evidence to Explain the Racial Composition of Prisons in the United States. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 76(3): 666–683.

Lauritsen, Janet L. and Karen Heimer. 2010. Violent Victimization among Males and Economic Conditions. Criminology & Public Policy 9: 665–692. DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-9133.2010.00660.x

La Vigne, Nancy, Pamela Lachman, Andrea Matthews, and S. Rebecca Neusteter. 2012. Key Issues in the Police Use of Pedestrian Stops and Searches. Washington, DC: Urban Institute. Available at: https://www.urban.org/research/publication/key-issues-police-use-pedestrian-stops-and- searches

Legewie, Joscha. 2016. Racial Profiling and Use of Force in Police Stops: How Local Events Trigger Periods of Increased Discrimination. American Journal of Sociology 122(2): 379-424. DOI: 10.1086/687518

Lewis, Paul, Scott Decker, Marie Provine, and Monica Varsanyi. 2013. Why Do (Some) City Police Departments Enforce Federal Immigration Law? Political, Demographic, and Organizational Influences on Local Choices. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 23(1): 1-25. DOI: 10.1093/jopart/mus045

Lopez, German. 2016. Why police so often see unarmed black men as threats. Vox. Sept. 20. Retrieved from https://www.vox.com/2014/8/28/6051971/police-implicit-bias-michael-brown- ferguson-missouri

Lynch, Mona. 2016. Hard Bargains: The Coercive Power of Drug Laws in Federal Court. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

Lynch, Mona. 2013. Institutionalizing Bias: The Death Penalty, Federal Drug Prosecutions, and Mechanisms of Disparate Punishment. American Journal of Criminal Law 41(1): 91-131.

Lynch, Mona and Craig Haney. 2018. Death Qualification in Black and White: Racialized Decision-Making and Death-Qualified Juries. Law & Policy (forthcoming). DOI: 10.1111/lapo.12099

Lynch, Mona and Craig Haney. 2015. Emotion, Authority, and Death: (Raced) Negotiations in Mock Capital Jury Deliberations. Law & Social Inquiry 40(2): 377-405. DOI: 10.1111/lsi.12099

Lynch, Mona, and Craig Haney. 2009. Capital Jury Deliberation: Effects on Death Sentencing, Comprehension, and Discrimination. Law and Human Behavior 331: 481-496. DOI: 10.1007/s10979-008-9168-2

Lundman, Richard J., and Robert L. Kaufman. 2003. Driving While Black: Effects of Race, Ethnicity, and Gender on Citizen Self‐Reports of Traffic Stops and Police Actions. Criminology, 41(1): 195-220. DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-9125.2003.tb00986.x

Martinez, Ramiro, Jr. 2015. Latino Homicide: Immigration, Violence, and Community (2e). New York: Taylor and Francis.

Markowitz, Michael W., and Delores D. Jones-Brown (eds). 2000. The System in Black and White: Exploring the Connections between Race, Crime, and Justice. Westport, CT: Praeger.

Mauer, Marc, and Ryan King. 2007. Uneven Justice: State Rates of Incarceration by Race and Ethnicity. Washington, DC: Sentencing Project. Available at:

https://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/uneven-justice-state-rates-of-incarceration-by- race-and-ethnicity/

Mustard, David. B. 2001. Racial, Ethnic, and Gender Disparities in Sentencing: Evidence from the US Federal Courts. The Journal of Law and Economics, 44(1), 285-314. DOI: 10.1086/320276

National Research Council. 2008. Understanding Crime Trends: Workshop Report. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. DOI: 10.17226/12472

National Research Council. 2010. Understanding the Demand for Illegal Drugs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. DOI: 10.17226/12976.

National Research Council. 2012. Deterrence and the Death Penalty. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. DOI: 10.17226/13363.

Nix, Justin, Bradley A. Campbell, Edward H. Byers, and Geoffrey P. Alpert. 2017. A Bird’s Eye View of Civilians Killed by Police in 2015. Criminology & Public Policy, 16(1): 309–340. DOI: 10.1111/1745-9133.12269

Parker, Karen F. 2008. Unequal Crime Decline: Theorizing Race, Urban Inequality, and Criminal Violence. New York: New York University Press.

Peterson, Ruth D., and John Hagan. 1984. Changing Conceptions of Race: Towards an Account of Anomalous Findings of Sentencing Research. American Sociological Review 49(1):56-70. DOI: 10.2307/2095557

Peterson, Ruth D., and Lauren J. Krivo. 2010. Divergent Social Worlds: Neighborhood Crime and the Racial-Spatial Divide. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

Peterson, Ruth D., and Lauren J. Krivo. 2005. Macrostructural Analyses of Race, Ethnicity and Violent Crime: Recent Lessons and New Directions for Research. Annual Review of Sociology 31: 331–356. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.soc.31.041304.122308

Peterson, Ruth D., Lauren J. Krivo, and Katheryn Russell-Brown (Special Issue Eds.). Forthcoming. Color Matters: Understanding Race, Crime and Justice in the Twenty-First Century. Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race 15(1).

Peterson, Ruth D., Lauren J. Krivo, and John Hagan, eds. 2006. The Many Colors of Crime: Inequalities of Race, Ethnicity, and Crime in America. New York: New York University Press.

Pettit, Becky. 2012. Invisible Men: Mass Incarceration and the Myth of Black Progress. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

Pettit, Becky, and Bruce Western. 2004. Mass Imprisonment and the Life Course: Race and Class Inequality in US Incarceration. American Sociological Review 69(2): 151-169. DOI: 10.1177/000312240406900201

Pierson, Emma, Camelia Simoiu, Jan Overgoor, Sam Corbett-Davies, Vignesh Ramachandran, Cheryl Phillips, and Sharad Goel. 2017. A Large-Scale Analysis of Racial Disparities in Police Stops Across the United States (Working Paper). Stanford, CA: Stanford Open Policing Project. Available at: https://arxiv.org/abs/1706.05678

Provine, Doris Marie. 2007. Unequal under Law: Race in the War on Drugs. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Reiman, Jeffrey, and Paul Leighton. 2013. The Rich Get Richer and the Poor Get Prison: Ideology, Class, and Criminal Justice, 10e. New York: Routledge.

Rice, Stephen K. and Michael D. White (eds). 2010. Race, Ethnicity, and Policing. New York: New York University Press.

Richie, Beth E. 2012. Arrested Justice: Black Women, Violence, and America’s Prison Nation. New York: New York University Press.

Richie, Beth E. 1996. Compelled to Crime: The Gender Entrapment of Battered Black Women. New York: New York University Press.

Ridgeway, Greg. 2007. Analysis of Racial Disparities in the New York Police Department's Stop, Question, and Frisk Practices. Rand Corporation. Available at: https://www.rand.org/pubs/technical_reports/TR534.html

Rios, Victor M. 2011. Punished: Policing the Lives of Black and Latino Boys. New York: New York University Press.

Rojek, Jeff, Richard Rosenfeld and Scott Decker. 2012. Policing Race: The Racial Stratification of Searches in Police Traffic Stops. Criminology 50(4): 993–1024. DOI: 10.1111/j.1745- 9125.2012.00285.x

Ross, Cody T. 2015. A Multi-Level Bayesian Analysis of Racial Bias in Police Shootings at the County-Level in the United States, 2011–2014. PloS ONE 10(11): e0141854. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0141854

Sampson, Robert J. 2009. Racial Stratification and the Durable Tangle of Neighborhood Inequality. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 621(1): 260–280. DOI: 10.1177/0002716208324803

Skolnick, Jerome H. and James J. Fyfe. 1993. Above the Law: Police and the Excessive Use of Force. New York: Free Press.

Smith, Michael R., Robert J. Kaminski, Geoffrey P. Alpert, Lorie A. Fridell, John MacDonald, and Bruce Kubu. 2009. A multi-method evaluation of police use of force outcomes: Final report to the National Institute of Justice. Washington: DC: National Institute of Justice. Available at: https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/231176.pdf

Spohn, Cassia. 2015. Race, Crime, and Punishment in the Twentieth and Twenty-First Centuries. Crime and Justice 44: 49-97. DOI: 10.1086/681550

Spohn, Cassia. 2008. Race, Sex, and Pretrial Detention in Federal Court: Indirect Effects and Cumulative Disadvantage. University of Kansas Law Review 57: 879-902.

Spohn, Cassia, and Pauline K. Brennan. 2011. The Joint Effects of Offender Race/Ethnicity and Gender on Substantial Assistance Departures in Federal Courts. Race and Justice 1(1):49-78. DOI: 10.1177/2153368710396228

Spohn, Cassia, and Jerry Cederblom. 1991. Race and Disparities in Sentencing: A Test of the Liberation Hypothesis. Justice Quarterly. 8(3):305-327. DOI: 10.1080/07418829100091071

Spohn, Cassia, and Miriam DeLone. 2000. “When does Race Matter?” pp3-37 in Jeffrey T. Ulmer (ed.), Sociology of Crime, Law and Deviance. West Yorkshire, England: Emerald Publishing.

Spohn, Cassia, Miriam DeLone, and Jeffrey Spears. 1998. Race/Ethnicity, Gender, and Sentence Severity in Dade County, Florida: An Examination of the Decision to Withhold Adjudication. Journal of Crime and Justice 21(2):111-138. DOI: 10.1080/0735648X.1998.9721603

Spohn, Cassia, John Gruhl, and Susan Welch. 1987. The Impact of the Ethnicity and Gender of Defendants on the Decision to Reject or Dismiss Felony Charges. Criminology 25(1):175-192. DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-9125.1987.tb00794.x

Spohn, Cassia, and David Holleran. 2000. The Imprisonment Penalty Paid by Young, Unemployed Black and Hispanic Male Offenders. Criminology 38(1):281-306. DOI: 10.1111/j.1745- 9125.2000.tb00891.x

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Wildeman, Christopher. 2014. Parental Incarceration, Child Homelessness, and the Invisible Consequences of Mass Imprisonment. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 651(1): 74-96. DOI: 10.1177/0002716213502921

Wildeman, Christopher, and Christopher Muller. 2012. Mass Imprisonment and Inequality in Health and Family Life. Annual Review of Law and Social Science 8: 11-30. DOI: 10.1146/annurev- lawsocsci-102510-105459

Wildeman, Christopher and Bruce Western. 2010. Incarceration in Fragile Families. Future of Children 20(2):181-202.

Youth and Young Adult Populations: Special Concerns

Annie E. Casey Foundation. 2002. Workforce and Youth Development – Barriers and Promising Approaches to Workforce and Youth Development for Young Offenders. Baltimore, MD. Available at: http://www.aecf.org/resources/barriers-and-promising-approaches-to-workforce- and-youth-development-for-yo/

Armstrong, Gaylene S., and Nancy Rodriguez. 2005. Effects of Individual and Contextual Characteristics on Preadjudication Detention of Juvenile Delinquents. Justice Quarterly 22(4): 521-539. DOI: 10.1080/07418820500364643

Ayers, William, Bernadine Dohrn, and Rick Ayers. 2001. Zero Tolerance: Resisting the Drive for Punishment in Our Schools. New York: The New Press.

Bridges, George S., and Sara Steen. 199). Racial Disparities in Official Assessments of Juvenile Offenders: Attributional Stereotypes as Mediating Mechanisms. American Sociological Review, 63(4): 554-570. DOI: 10.2307/2657267

Darensbourg, Alicia, Erica Perez, and Jamilia J. Blake. 2010. Overrepresentation of African American Males in Exclusionary Discipline: The Role of School-Based Mental Health Professionals in Dismatling the School to Prison Pipeline. Journal of African American Males in Education 1(3):196-211.

Dunbar, Adam, Charis E. Kubrin, and Nicholas Scurich. 2016. The Threatening Nature of ‘Rap’ Music. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law 22(3):280-292.

Durán, Robert. 2013. Gang Life in Two Cities: An Insider’s Journey. New York: Columbia University Press.

Fagan, Jeffrey. 1996. The Comparative Impacts of Juvenile and Criminal Court Sanctions On Adolescent Felony Offenders. Law and Policy 18 (1): 77-119. 10.1111/j.1467- 9930.1996.tb00165.x

Fagan, Jeffrey. 2002. This Will Hurt Me More that It Hurts You: Social and Legal Consequences of Criminalizing Delinquency. Notre Dame Journal of Law, Ethics and Public Policy 16 (1): 101- 149.

Fagan, Jeffrey, Martin Forst, and T. Scott Vivona. 1987. Racial Determinants of the Judicial Transfer Decision: Prosecuting Violent Youth in Criminal Court. Crime & Delinquency 33(2): 259-286. DOI: 10.1177/001112878703300204

Fagan, Jeffrey, E. Slaughter, and E. Hartstone. 1987. Blind Justice? The Impact of Race on the Juvenile Justice Process. Crime & Delinquency 33(2): 224-258. DOI: 10.1177/001112878703300203

Feierman, Jessica, Marshaa Levick, and Ami Mody. 2009. The School to Prison Pipeline… and Back: Obstacles and Remedies for the Re-Enrollment of Adjudicated Youth. New York Law School Review 54(4): 1115-1130.

Foster, Holly, and John Hagan. 2015. Punishment Regimes and the Multilevel Effects of Parental Incarceration: Intergenerational, Intersectional, and Interinstitutional Models of Social Inequality and Systemic Exclusion. Annual Review of Sociology 41: 135-158. DOI: 10.1146/annurev-soc- 073014-112437

Gaarder, Emily, Nancy Rodriguez, and Marjorie S. Zatz. 2004. Criers, Liars, and Manipulators: Probation Officers’ Views of Girls. Justice Quarterly 21(3):547-578. DOI: 10.1080/07418820400095901

Gonzalez, Thalia. 2012. Keeping Kids in Schools: Restorative Justice, Punitive Discipline, and the School to Prison Pipeline. Journal of Law and Education 41(2): 281-336

Gottfredson, Denise C. 2010. Deviancy Training: Understanding How Preventive Interventions Harm. The Academy of Experimental Criminology 2009 Joan McCord Award Lecture. Journal of Experimental Criminology 6 (3): 229-243. DOI: 10.1007/s11292-010-9101-9.

Harris, Alexes, and Walter Allen. 2003. “Lest We Forget Thee…The Under‐ and Over‐ Representation of Black and Latino Youth in California Higher Education and Juvenile Justice Institutions. Race & Society 6(2): 99‐123. DOI: 10.1016/j.racsoc.2004.11.008

Johnson, Brian D., and Megan C. Kurlycheck. 2012. Transferred Juveniles in the Era of Sentencing Guidelines: Examining Judicial Departures for Juvenile Offenders in Adult Criminal Court. Criminology 50(2):525-564. DOI: 0.1111/j.1745-9125.2011.00270.x

Jones, Nikki. 2009. Between Good and Ghetto: African American Girls and Inner-City Violence. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.

Jones-Brown, Delores D., and Zelma Weston Henriques. 1997. The Promises and Pitfalls of Mentoring as a Juvenile Justice Strategy. Social Justice 24(4):212-233.

Kubrin, Charis E. and Erik Nielson. 2014. Rap on Trial. Race and Justice 4(3):185-211. DOI: 10.1177/2153368714525411

Kupchik, Aaron. 2009. Things Are Tough All Over: Race, Ethnicity, Class, and School Discipline. Punishment & Society 11: 291-317. DOI: 10.1177/1462474509334552

Kupchik, Aaron. 2007. The Correctional Experiences of Youth in Adult and Juvenile Prisons. Justice Quarterly 24(2): 247-270. DOI: 10.1080/07418820701294805

Kupchik, Aaron. 2006. Judging Juveniles: Prosecuting Adolescents in Adult and Juvenile Courts. New York: New York University Press.

Kupchik, Aaron, and Thomas Catlaw. 2015. Discipline and Participation: The Long-Term Effects of Suspension and School Security on the Political and Civic Engagement of Youth. Youth and Society 47(1): 95-124. DOI: 10.1177/0044118X14544675

Kupchik, Aaron, and Nicholas Ellis. 2008. School Discipline and Security: Fair for All Students? Youth and Society 39(4):549-574. DOI: 10.1177/0044118X07301956

Kurlychek, Megan and Brian D. Johnson. 2010. Juvenility and Punishment: Sentencing Juveniles in Adult Criminal Court. Criminology 48(3): 725-757. DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-9125.2010.00200.x

Lee, Rosalyn D., Xiangming Fang, and Feijun Luo. 2013. The Impact of Parental Incarceration on the Physical and Mental Health of Young Adults. Pediatrics 131(4): e1188-e1195. DOI: 10.1542/peds.2012-0627

Lieber, Michael J., Jennifer H. Peck, and Nancy Rodriguez. 2013. Minority Threat and Juvenile Court Outcomes. Crime & Delinquency 62(1):54-80. DOI: 10.1177/0011128713495776

Lopez, Vera. 2017. Complicated Lives: Girls, Parents, Drugs, and Juvenile Justice. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.

Lopez, Vera, and Lidia Nuño. 2018. Racial/ Ethnic Differences in Mental Health and Drug Treatment Among Juvenile Arrestees. Journal of Crime and Justice. DOI: 10.1080/0735648X.2018.1440249

McCarthy, Patrick, Vincent Schiraldi, and Miriam Shark. The Future of Youth Justice: A Community-Based Alternative to the Youth Prison Model. New Thinking in Community Corrections Bulletin. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, 2016. NCJ 250142.

Miller, Jody. 2008. Getting Played: African American Girls, Urban Inequality, and Gendered Violence. New York: New York University Press.

Na, Chongmin, and Denise C. Gottfredson. 2011. Police Officers in Schools: Effects on School Crime and the Processing of Offending Behaviors. Justice Quarterly 30(4): 619-650. DOI:10.1080/ 07418825.2011.615754.

Paik, Leslie. 2011. Discretionary Justice: Looking Inside a Juvenile Drug Court. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.

Pasko, Lisa, and Vera Lopez. 2015. The Latina Penalty: Juvenile Court and Correctional Attitudes toward the Latina Juvenile Offender. Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice. DOI: 10.1080/15377938.2015.1015196

Payne, Allison Ann, and Kelly Welch. 2010. Modeling the Effects of Racial Threat on Punitive and Restorative School Discipline Practices. Criminology 48(4): 1019-1062. DOI: 10.1111/j.1745- 9125.2010.00211.x

Peguero, Anthony A., Nadine M. Connell, and Jun Sung Hong (Special Issue Eds.). 2016. School Violence and Safety. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice 16(2).

Redfield, Sarah E., and Jason P. Nance. 2016. School-to-Prison Pipeline: Preliminary Report. Washington, DC: American Bar Association.

Rodriguez, Nancy. 2013. Concentrated Disadvantage and the Incarceration of Youth: Examining How Context Affects Juvenile Justice. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 50(2):189-215. DOI: 10.1177/0022427811425538

Rodriguez, Nancy. 2010. The Cumulative Effect of Race and Ethnicity in Juvenile Court Outcomes and Why Preadjudication Detention Matters. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 47(3): 391-413. DOI: 10.1177/0022427810365905

Rodriguez, Nancy. 2007. Restorative Justice at Work: Examining the Impact of Restorative Justice Resolutions on Juvenile Recidivism. Crime & Delinquency 53(3): 355-379. DOI: 10.1177/0011128705285983

Rodriguez, Nancy. 2005. Restorative Justice, Communities, and Delinquency: Whom Do We Reintegrate? Criminology & Public Policy 4(1):103-130. DOI: 10.1111/j.1745- 9133.2005.00010.x

Rodriguez, Nancy, Hilary Smith, Marjorie S. Zatz. 2009. “Youth is Enmeshed in a Highly Dysfunctional Family System”: Exploring the Relationship among Dysfunctional Families, Parental Incarceration, and Juvenile Court Decision Making. Criminology 47(1): 177-208. DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-9125.2009.00142.x

Shedd, Carla. 2015. Unequal City: Race, Schools and Perceptions of Justice. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

Simkins, Sandra B., Amy E. Hirsch, Erin McNamama Horvat, and Marjorie B. Moss. 2004. The School to Prison Pipeline for Girls: The Role of Physical and Sexual Abuse. Children’s Legal Rights Journal 24(4): 56-72

Simons, Ronald L. and Eric T. Klopack. 2015. Invited Address: “The Times They Are A-Changin”: Gene Expression, Neuroplasticity, and Developmental Research. Journal of Youth and Adolescence 44(3): 573–580. DOI: 10.1007/s10964-014-0245-1

Snapp, Shannon D., Jennifer M. Hoenig, Amanda Fields, and Stephen T. Russell. 2015. Messy, Butch, and Queer: LGBTQ Youth and the School-to-Prison Pipeline. Journal of Adolescent Research 30(1):57-82. DOI: 10.1037/0003-066X.63.9.852

Stickle, Wendy Povitsky, Nadine M. Connell, Denise M. Wilson, and Denise Gottfredson. 2008. An Experimental Evaluation of Teen Courts. Journal of Experimental Criminology 4(2): 137-163. DOI: 10.1007/s11292-008-9050-8

Turney, Kristin. 2014. Stress Proliferation across Generations? Examining the Relationship between Parental Incarceration and Childhood Health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 55(3): 302- 319. DOI: 10.1177/0022146514544173.

Uggen, Christopher, and Sara Wakefield. 2005. “Young Adults Reentering the Community from the Criminal Justice System: Challenges to Adulthood ” pp 114-144 in D. Wayne Osgood, E. Michael Foster, Constance Flanagan, and Gretchen R. Ruth (eds.), On Your Own Without a Net: The Transition to Adulthood for Vulnerable Populations. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Valdez, Avelardo. 2009. Mexican American Girls and Gang Violence: Beyond Risk. New York: Palgrave MacMillan.

Ward, Geoff K. 2012. The Black Child Savers: Racial Democracy and Juvenile Justice. Chicago: Chicago University Press

Welch, Kelly, and Allison Ann Payne. 2012. Exclusionary School Punishment: The Effect of Racial Threat on Expulsion and Suspension. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice 10(2):155-171. DOI: 10.1177/1541204011423766

Welch, Kelly, and Allison Ann Payne. 2010. Racial Threat and Punitive School Discipline. Social Problems 57(1):25-48. DOI: 10.1525/sp.2010.57.1.25

Wildeman, Christopher. 2009. Parental Imprisonment, the Prison Boom, and the Concentration of Childhood Disadvantage. Demography 46(2): 265-280. DOI: 10.1353/dem.0.0052

Wilkinson, Deanna. 2003. Guns, Violence, and Identity among African American and Latino Youth. El Paso, TX: LBF Scholarly Publishers

Wright, Kevin A., Jillian J. Turanovic, and Nancy Rodriguez. 2016. Racial Inequality, Ethnic Inequality, and the System Involvement of At-Risk Youth: Implications for the Racial Invariance and Latino Paradox Theses. Justice Quarterly 33(5): 863-889. DOI: 10.1080/07418825.2014.987310

Zatz, Marjorie S. and Nancy Rodriguez. 2015. Dreams and Nightmares: Immigration Policy, Youth, and Families. Oakland, CA: University of California Press.

Innovations, Policies, and Practices with Implications for Social Inclusion

Agan, Amanda, and Sonja Starr. 2018. Ban the Box, Criminal Records, and Racial Discrimination: A Field Experiment. The Quarterly Journal of Economics 133(1): 191-235. DOI: 10.1093/qje/qjx028

Agan, Amanda, and Sonja Starr. 2016. Ban the Box, Criminal Records, and Statistical Discrimination. The CATO Institute - Research Briefs in Economic Policy No. 65. Available at: https://object.cato.org/sites/cato.org/files/pubs/pdf/rb65.pdf

Braithwaite, John. 1989. Crime, Shame and Reintegration. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Crutchfield, Robert D. 2017. Current Criminal Justice System Policy Reform Movements: The Problem of Unintended Consequences. Indiana Journal of Law and Social Equality 5(2): 329– 354. Available at: repository.law.indiana.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1068&context=ijlse.

D’Alessio, Stewart J., Lisa Stolzenberg, and Jamie L. Flexon. 2015. The Effect of Hawaii’s Ban The Box Law on Repeat Offending. American Journal of Criminal Justice 40(2): 336-352. DOI: 10.1007/s12103-014-9251-9

Gill, Charlotte, David Weisburd, Cody W. Telep, Zoe Vitter, and Trevor Bennett. 2014. Community-Oriented Policing to Reduce Crime, Disorder and Fear and Increase Satisfaction and Legitimacy among Citizens: A Systematic Review. Journal of Experimental Criminology 10(4): 399–428. DOI: 10.1007/s11292-014-9210-y

Harris, Alexes. 2016. A Pound of Flesh: Monetary Sanctions as Punishment for the Poor. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

Harris, Alexes, Heather Evans, and Katherine Beckett. 2011. Courtesy Stigma and Monetary Sanctions: Toward a Socio‐Cultural Theory of Punishment. American Sociological Review 76(2): 1‐31. DOI: 10.1177/0003122411400054

Harris, Alexes, Heather Evans, and Katherine Beckett. 2010. Drawing Blood from Stones: Legal Debt and Social Inequality in the Contemporary United States. American Journal of Sociology 115(6): 1753-1799. DOI: 10.1086/651940

Jackson, Osborne, and Bo Zhao. 2017. Does Changing Employers’ Access to Criminal Histories Affect Ex-Offenders’ Recidivism?: Evidence from the 2010–2012 Massachusetts Cori Reform. FRB of Boston Working Paper No. 16-31. Retrieved from: https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2942006

Lofstrom, Magnus and Steven Raphael. 2016. Prison Downsizing and Public Safety: Evidence from California. Criminology & Public Policy 15(2): 349-365. 10.1111/1745-9133.12203

Porter, Nicole D. 2016. Expanding Public Safety in the Era of Black Lives Matter. University of Miami Law Review 70(2): 533-555.

Rodriguez, Nancy, and Elizabeth Eell. 2013. An Impact Evaluation of Three Strategies Created to Reduce Disproportionate Minority Contact and the Detention Population. Report. Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Available at: https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/grants/241506.pdf

Stacy, Christina and Mychal Cohen. Ban the Box and Racial Discrimination: A Review of the Evidence and Policy Recommendations. Research Report. Washington DC: The Urban Institute. Retrieved from: https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/88366/ban_the_box_and_racial_discriminat ion_1.pdf

Tonry, Michael. 2014. Remodeling American Sentencing: A Ten‐Step Blueprint for Moving Past Mass Incarceration. Criminology & Public Policy 13(4): 503–533. DOI: 10.1111/1745- 9133.12097

Turney, Kristin. 2014. Incarceration and Social Inequality: Challenges and Directions for Future Research. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 651(1): 97- 101. DOI: 10.1177/0002716213501273

U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Public Affairs. 2015. President’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing Recommendations: From Print to Action. Retrieved from justice.gov/archives/opa/blog/president-s-task-force-21st-century-policing-recommendations- print-action

Western, Bruce. 2014. Incarceration, Inequality, and Imagining Alternatives. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 656(1): 302-306. DOI: 10.1177/0002716213503107