DOCSLIB.ORG

Reverse Brain Drain in Hong Kong ?

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Reverse Brain Drain in Hong Kong ? International scientific migrations Reverse Brain Drain in Hong Kong? Wenhui Zhong Two important historic events have provided passionate reference points both for the Hong Kong residents who are immigrating and for whose who are returning from abroad. One was the Tiananmen Incident in June 1989, which ended with the bloody crushing of the student democracy movement. The other is the looming hand over of Hong Kong’s sovereignty from Britain to China on July 1, 1997. The professional class in Hong Kong -engineers, scientists, academics, lawyers, doctors, accountants and managers- have been under tremendous pressure to re-evaluate their loyalty to Hong Kong. Many have in fact voted on this matter with their feet. For those who have left Hong Kong in search of a better environment for career and family, adjusting to a new culture and coping with prolonged economic stagnation in the West has posed great challenges. By contrast, they saw that the economy in Hong Kong kept booming in spite of the political dark clouds hanging over the last days of this prosperous British colony. Thus the resulting reverse brain drain. From the late 1980s, immigration to countries such as Canada, the United States and Australia became commonplace. And it was the professional class that benefited most from the generous immigration policies of these countries that wanted to attract skilled and wealthy people to boost their economy. But into the mid-1990s, another trend was making itself increasingly apparent. Many of the Hong Kong immigrants, who had by now acquired a foreign passport as a kind of political insurance policy, were flocking back to Hong Kong for what they now saw as better career opportunities. They reasoned that should the situation in Hong Kong worsen to such an extent that they had to leave, they could always return to their adopted countries. As Hong Kong thrives on its well-developed commercial resources and infrastructure, which in turn are skillfully managed by highly professional and cosmopolitan people, stabilizing the phenomenon of brain drain vs. reverse brain drain seems to be a logical priority for the present and future Hong Kong governments. However, there has been little research that provides a basic insight into the composition, mentality and dynamics of this important segment of the Hong Kong population. This paper is an attempt to understand the Hong Kong returnees : their views on the future of Hong Kong, their career aspirations, their sense of belonging and their role in merging cultures east and west. Much of the data are based on my intensive interviews in December 1994 with Hong Kong professionals. These are supplemented by my continuing observation of Hong Kong affairs in the course of my radio production for the BBC World Service, which covers China and the Chinese people. The 1997 Factor In anticipation of the hand over of sovereignty back to China on July 1, 1997, many Hong Kong residents have considered immigration plans for themselves and their children. According to estimates by the Hong Kong government, there are about 450,000 foreign pas- 1 International scientific migrations Reverse brain drain in Hong Kong? sport holders among the 6.3 million people in Hong Kong. But other sources, such as newspa- per surveys, easily double that number to about 900,000. And these do not yet include holders of the British National (Overseas) passports offered by the UK to about three million Hong Kong residents as travel documents (but with no right of abode in the UK). The jittery menta- lity in Hong Kong was illustrated by the deadline of March 31, 1996 for submitting applica- tions for the BNO passports. For a long time, many believed that the BNO passport was worth little because it did not allow the holder to live in the UK. Thus they waited until the last two days of the deadline and then scrambled to get one. After all, having one more passport still gave you that much more sense of security, however limited it might be. But for those who have already solved the immigration problem -or some would even say, having served the immigration sentence (i.e., having met the residence requirements for acqui- ring a foreign passport), their major concerns are whether or not the 1997 hand over will be a deterrent to their future prosperity, should they decide to return to Hong Kong. I met in Hong Kong people from a cross-section of professions who had made the decision to return. They seemed cautiously optimistic about 1997. One reassuring element for returnees working in Hong Kong is that most companies they work for are multi-national conglomerates. As Dennis Chiu of the Star TV network said, because the company had many operations in different parts of the Asia Pacific region, he felt he would have many opportunities to thrive in the company. And Hong Kong was not the only place he saw for career development. Returnee lecturers in the seven universities told me that their cautious optimism rested on the belief that as long as they stayed away from politics they would be left alone. Though they expect some changes in high level positions, such as that of university president, they believed their expertise in teaching and academic research would be valued by the new government as important assets to keep Hong Kong competitive. Perhaps Fai Au Yeung of the J P Morgan Securities Asia Ltd. reflects the mentality of many returnees when he gave this reasoning for his plan for 1997. “ I think 1997 is a factor, but it’s not a big factor. If I didn’t have a British passport, I wouldn’t have stayed here. I would have joined thousands of others in finding ways to get a passport or to get some insurance, so to speak. But will I plan to stay in Hong Kong for long ? I really don’t know. But one thing I know for sure. And that is : I wouldn’t buy a house here even if I had the money, because I still have some concerns for the future...I don’t care where I live. What mat- ters to me is my job and career prospects. But of course, when you live in Hong Kong where you are among many friends, so much the better. I am still not planning to stay here for long. But who knows, perhaps after twenty years, I might still find myself here. ” Reasons for the Reverse Brain Drain The single most often cited reason for returning to Hong Kong after a period of immigrant life in the West is for a better job prospect. To start with, most of the people I spoke with had been selec- ted as immigrants under the “ points system ” by countries such as Canada, Australia and the USA, whereby candidates had to score enough points in areas such as job skills, language, and suitability to live in a foreign place. In other words, they are in a class of professional and skilled human resources that a modern, developed society values. In turn, this desirability by the indus- trialized world gives them the mobility to up-root from one place and settle down in another. 2 International scientific migrations Reverse brain drain in Hong Kong? Most immigrants left Hong Kong, during the late 1980s, a time that coincided with the econo- mic recession in most Western countries. It was therefore not surprising that most Hong Kong immigrants found it hard to get jobs suited to their experience and qualifications. And many had to switch to completely different jobs, accepting whatever was available. They said that this was the price they paid for their family and for the future of their children. Esther Chow in the new City University of Hong Kong was such an example. She qualified for immigration to Canada in 1987 but did not leave Hong Kong until 1989, because giving up her job as an executive officer at a health centre was too dear a price to pay. After settling down in Toronto, she was in fact lucky enough to find a similar job, counselling Chinese immigrants. Her husband worked in real estate. Both seemed to fit into the Canadian society quite well as both had spent years studying for degrees from a Canadian university. But as soon as they ful- filled the requirement for a Canadian passport, they returned to Hong Kong for better career prospects, reasoning that in Canada, they could see where their careers would lead in the next 10 years or even to retirement. But in Hong Kong, the potential for change and the pace of development would offer them huge opportunities. And it was this kind of excitement and work ethic in Hong Kong immigrants that seemed to make them feel uncomfortable about missing out on the economic change taking place there. Another reason often cited for returning to Hong Kong was related to the family. Even those who have lived in the West for a long time and feel well adjusted to the way of life there, had to consider how they should care for their elderly parents. Some have made arrangements for their parents to live with them but find that the elderly members of the family would rather live in Hong Kong in the familiar linguistic and cultural milieu. The strong sense of filial piety and family responsibility dictated that someone from the family, preferably the oldest daughter, should not be too far away. That sometimes meant they could live together in Hong Kong, which solved the expense and problem of finding another accommodation.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Should You Be Worried About Brain Drain?
    SUMMARY Should You Be Worried about Brain Drain? Brain circulation and linkages can enhance the social and economic development of developing countries, regardless of whether or not students decide to return home. Photo credit: ADB. Studies show that migrant high-skilled professionals can help increase trade, capital flows, and knowledge and technology transfers whether or not they return to their home countries. Published: 15 October 2019 Overview The migration of highly educated or high-skilled professionals under the conventional human capital approach is considered a zero-sum game since host countries receive an inflow of human capital from home countries, enhancing the competitiveness of host countries (“brain gain”) at the home countries’ expense (“brain drain”). However, an emerging approach indicates that brain drain in a global market economy actually creates an opportunity for brain circulation and brain linkage. First, the migration of high-skilled professionals from developing countries fosters opportunities to form transnational social capital that connects members of different countries and contributes to knowledge transfers from advanced countries (“knowledge remittances”). Second, it helps establish ties to the center of development and promotes integration into the global value chains with benefits such as increased trades, capital flows, and technology transfers. With such benefits, social and economic ties among high-skilled professionals can create a win-win, positive-sum situation for both home and host countries. This article was adapted from the working paper, From Brain Drain to Brain Circulation and Linkage, with permission from Stanford University’s Walter H. Shorenstein Asia-Pacific Research Center. The study was supported by the Asian Development Bank’s South Asia Human and Social Development Division.
    [Show full text]
  • Brain Drain” from Developing Nations
    th rd th 8 ​ Campion School Model United Nations | 3 –​ 4 ​ October 2020 ​ ​ ​ Forum: Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) ​ Issue: Eliminating “brain drain” from developing nations. ​ Student Officer: Maria Karatoliou ​ Position: Deputy President ​ Personal Introduction Dear Delegates, My name is Maria Karatoliou, I am a student in the 12th grade of the Anavryta Model Lyceum and it is my honor to serve as one of the Deputy Presidents of the Economic and Social Council on Eliminating “brain drain” from developing nations in the 8th session of CSMUN. I attended my first ​ conference a little less than three years ago, and up to this day I have attended 10 conferences in total. The institution of Model UN has played an important role in my everyday life. What I find most intriguing about MUN conferences is that one gets to take action on global issues in one’s own hands, one has the opportunity to interact with completely different people from all over the world, and learn from them as they learn from said person. MUN helps people step out of their comfort zone therefore evolve themselves as they broaden their horizons and strengthen their sense of unity and solidarity. Therefore, I look forward to serving as Deputy President. I would like to remind you, that this study guide has been made to provide a comprehensive summary of most, yet not all, essential information on this topic, therefore you should make your own research in order to be fully informed about it. If you have any questions regarding this study guide, our topic, your delegation’s policy or the rules of procedure in general, do not hesitate to contact me via my email: [email protected] ​ CSMUN | Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) th rd th 8 ​ Campion School Model United Nations | 3 –​ 4 ​ October 2020 ​ ​ ​ With that being said, I would like to welcome you to the 8th CSMUN ​ conference and assure you that it will be an unforgettable experience that you will look back to and cherish.
    [Show full text]
  • Human Capital Flight; Effect on Income, Brain Drain in Sending Countries and Economic Growth in Host Countries: Evidence from MINT Countries
    EconWorld2015@Torino 18-20 August, 2015; IRES, Torino, Italy Human Capital Flight; Effect On Income, Brain Drain In Sending Countries And Economic Growth In Host Countries: Evidence From MINT Countries Nick Blessing O’GUNLEY, Kocaeli University, TR [email protected] Abstract Human Capital Flight and its endless resulting effect have been a crucial issue worthy of discussion in both the traditional and contemporary global economic sphere. After the stock market crash of 1929 which marked the emergence of the Great depression, and the end of the Second World War in 1945, the emigration of skilled workforce from poor countries increased rapidly. The loss of intellectual capital, called the Brain drain, has been one of the greatest obstacles to the development of some countries of the world. In 2000 almost 175 million people (2.9%) of the world’s population, were living outside their country of birth for more than a year. Of these, about 65 million were economically active. The purpose of this research is to understand the cause of Human Capital Flight in MINT countries (Mexico, Indonesia, Nigeria and Turkey), the socio-economic impact on income and economic growth to the sending country as well as the host country, and ways to reverse the effects of brain drain, thereby creating a brain-gain. Brain drain is a product of both internal and external factors working simultaneously to push educated and highly-skilled individuals out of their country and pull them into developed nations respectively. Although, human capital flight in a way stimulates education, generates significant remittances, and brings about unequaled contributions from both the returnees and the diaspora abroad.
    [Show full text]
  • Brain Drain to Brain Gain: Reverse Migration to Asia
    BRAIN DRAIN TO BRAIN GAIN: REVERSE MIGRATION TO ASIA WHAT IS THE INSIGHT? Improved political, economic, social, and educational circumstances in Asia are generating new opportunities for migrant talent, students, and labour. Figure 1 As a result, potential migrants from Asia are beginning to question the value of migrating outside of the region to countries like Canada. These new opportunities are also exerting a pull on members of Canada’s Asian diaspora from countries such as China, India, and South Korea, especially those who are frustrated by the difficulty of breaking the “glass ceiling,” those who feel their qualifications are under-appreciated or underutilized (so-called “brain waste”), and those who lack a sense of social belonging in Canada. The appeal is even extending to Canadians who do not have family connections to Asia (see Figure 1), but whose skill sets are well matched to take advantage of professional opportunities there. Together, these trends could spark a phenomenon of reverse migration, which includes not only a reversal of the current flow of migration from Asia, but also a reversal of the current direction of migration (outflow of Canadians to Asia) in the upcoming decades. WHY IT IS IMPORTANT? Over the past few decades, a steady stream of migrant talent and labour from Asia has given receiving countries, including Canada, a competitive edge in the knowledge-based global economy. Many of these migrants not only come with sought-after skills and training, thus contributing to the constant flow of “brain gain”, but they also help sustain a relatively young, fertile, and taxpaying population in a highly mobile and aging world.
    [Show full text]
  • 644110Pub0cont00public00bo
    AFRICA DEVELOPMENT FORUM Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Contemporary Migration to South Africa Public Disclosure Authorized A Regional Development Issue Aurelia Segatti and Loren B. Landau, Editors Public Disclosure Authorized Contemporary Migration to South Africa Contemporary Migration to South Africa A Regional Development Issue Aurelia Segatti and Loren B. Landau Editors A copublication of the Agence Française de Développement and the World Bank © 2011 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org All rights reserved 1 2 3 4 14 13 12 11 This volume is a product of the staff of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank. The fi ndings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this volume do not necessarily refl ect the views of the Executive Directors of The World Bank or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judge- ment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Rights and Permissions The material in this publication is copyrighted. Copying and/or transmitting portions or all of this work without permission may be a violation of applicable law. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank encourages dissemination of its work and will normally grant permission to reproduce portions of the work promptly.
    [Show full text]
  • Immigration and Reverse Brain Drain in South East Asia Trang T
    Union College Union | Digital Works Honors Theses Student Work 6-2012 Immigration and Reverse Brain Drain in South East Asia Trang T. Tran Union College - Schenectady, NY Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalworks.union.edu/theses Part of the Asian Studies Commons, and the Economics Commons Recommended Citation Tran, Trang T., "Immigration and Reverse Brain Drain in South East Asia" (2012). Honors Theses. 913. https://digitalworks.union.edu/theses/913 This Open Access is brought to you for free and open access by the Student Work at Union | Digital Works. It has been accepted for inclusion in Honors Theses by an authorized administrator of Union | Digital Works. For more information, please contact [email protected]. IMMIGRATION AND REVERSE BRAIN DRAIN IN SOUTH EAST ASIA by Trang T. Tran * * * * * * * * * Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for Honors in the Department of Economics UNION COLLEGE June, 2012 ABSTRACT TRANG, TRAN T. Immigration and Reverse Brain Drain in South East Asia, Department of Economics, Union College, June 2012. ADVISOR: Professor Suthathip Yaisawarng In recent years, governments around the world have shown increasing concerns about brain drain, the shift in human intelligence of many of their best educated citizens from developing countries to developed countries, as it causes negative effects on social and economic sectors of the source country. Nonetheless, Kuhn and McAusland (2006) argue that talent might often be wasted at home; migration to more supportive environments raises global innovation. Saxenian (2003) finds that gains may flow back to the developing country via returnees with enhanced skills, personal connections, and ideas for innovation.
    [Show full text]
  • Developing a Road Map for Engaging Diasporas in Development
    Developing a Road Map for Engaging Diasporas in Development A HANDBOOK FOR POLICYMAKERS AND PRACTITIONERS IN HOME AND HOST COUNTRIES Dovelyn Rannveig Agunias and Kathleen Newland Chapter 8: From “Return of Talent” to “Brain Circulation” to “Virtual Return”: Evolving Ideas on the Transfer of Human Capital In today’s world, a country’s competitiveness in the global economy, its productivity, and economic growth depend on a workforce whose skills and knowledge are constantly upgraded. But many countries do not have educational systems capable of meeting this challenge and many others see their most highly skilled workers emigrate to modern innovation hubs where practitioners, engineers, scientists, and inventors come together and work both collaboratively and competitively. Indeed, many countries 159 are isolated not only from global flows of trade and capital but from the knowledge and technology that make these possible. Recently, however, concepts such as “brain gain,” “brain bank,” “brain trust,” and “brain circulation”263 have gained currency, signaling a growing interest in finding ways to use the skills and experience of the diaspora to fill knowledge and skills gaps in their countries of origin. Backed by forward-thinking policies, these concepts are helping to attract skilled emigrants and their descendants to endeavors in their countries of origin — where they deploy their professional skills as teachers, mentors, research directors, or simply practitioners who perform services in return visits. Transferring Human Capital: A Menu of Viable Options 1. Engage diasporas as practitioners to fill resource and knowledge gaps • Ask diasporas to volunteer their time and expertise • Offer material and nonmaterial incentives in exchange for services • Administer “return” programs in partnership with private actors 2.
    [Show full text]
  • Brain Drain, Brain Circulation, Remittances and Development: Prospects for the Caribbean
    The Centre for International Governance Innovation THE CARIBBEAN PAPERS A Project on Caribbean Economic Governance Brain Drain, Brain Circulation, Remittances and Development: Prospects for the Caribbean LAURA RITCHIE DAWSON Caribbean Paper No.2 June 2007 An electronic version of this paper is available for download at: www.cigionline.org Building Ideas for Global ChangeTM THE CARIBBEAN PAPERS Abstract Letter from the The issue of brain drain as a result of south-north migration Executive Director has been a preoccupation for developing countries around the world and the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) It is my pleasure to introduce The Caribbean states in particular. In recent years, the debate has moved Papers, a product of our major research project beyond brain drain to speculate on the development on Caribbean Economic Governance. CIGI is an prospects of brain circulation through return migration. international research centre that identifies and Also on the current agenda are the prospects for economic develops ideas for global change by supporting development through remittances and the engagement of research, fostering exchange among experts and diaspora communities. This paper examines the evolution leaders in the private and public sectors, and of the debate and key issues with particular attention to the providing informed advice to decision-makers on implications for small, developing states within CARICOM. multilateral governance issues. Of particular importance is the conclusion that remittances alone are not sufficient for economic development and are, This project convenes researchers and leaders in fact, a reverse subsidy to wealthier countries. However, within the private and public sectors to examine through domestic reforms and international advocacy and and provide substantive answers and policy cooperation it may be possible to improve the development prescription to current economic governance returns of highly skilled emigration.
    [Show full text]
  • From Brain Drain to Brain Gain: Reverse Migration to Bangalore and Hyderabad, India's Globalizing High Tech Cities
    See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225654622 From Brain Drain to Brain Gain: Reverse Migration to Bangalore and Hyderabad, India's Globalizing High Tech Cities Article in GeoJournal · June 2007 DOI: 10.1007/s10708-007-9078-8 CITATIONS READS 86 951 1 author: Elizabeth Chacko George Washington University 25 PUBLICATIONS 480 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects: Geomorphic and Social Impacts of Check Dams in the Eco-sensitive Shiwalik Foothills of India View project All content following this page was uploaded by Elizabeth Chacko on 14 April 2015. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. GeoJournal (2007) 68:131–140 DOI 10.1007/s10708-007-9078-8 From brain drain to brain gain: reverse migration to Bangalore and Hyderabad, India’s globalizing high tech cities Elizabeth Chacko Published online: 26 May 2007 Ó Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2007 Abstract This paper assesses the mutual impact of Keywords Reverse brain-drain Á India Á Bangalore Á returning Indian-origin skilled workers on the cities Hyderabad Á Transnational migration of Bangalore (Bengaluru) and Hyderabad, which have emerged as India’s leading ‘‘tech cities’’. The cities of Bangalore (also known as Bengaluru) During the 1970s and 1980s, there was concern that and Hyderabad gained recognition recently as leading India was losing its educated workforce to the West, centers of high tech industry and high level services. particularly to the United States through a phenom- Located in the Indian states of Karnataka and Andhra enon known as ‘‘brain drain’’.
    [Show full text]
  • Skilled Labour Migration from Developing Countries: Annotated Bibliography
    INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION PAPERS 56 Skilled Labour Migration from Developing Countries: Annotated Bibliography ________ B. Lindsay Lowell INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION PROGRAMME INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE GENEVA ii iii Table of Contents Page Foreword............................................................................................................................. v Economic Analyses and Policy Implications...................................................................... 1 Policy Implications .............................................................................................................5 Skilled Migration Processes and Policies ........................................................................... 6 Policy Issues and Skilled Migration ................................................................................. 11 Developed Countries: News Reports................................................................................ 14 Developing Countries: News Reports............................................................................... 23 Canadian Brain Drain ....................................................................................................... 36 Contributor........................................................................................................................ 47 iv v Foreword This paper forms part of a series of studies conducted by the International Labour Office under the DFID-sponsored project on “Skilled labour migration (the ‘brain drain’) from developing countries:
    [Show full text]
  • 1 Doctors with Borders: Medical Brain Drain Through the Ethical Lens by Loro Qianhui Pi Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of the G
    View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Vanderbilt Electronic Thesis and Dissertation Archive Doctors with Borders: Medical Brain Drain Through the Ethical Lens By Loro Qianhui Pi Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Vanderbilt University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS in Medicine, Health, and Society August 9, 2019 Nashville, Tennessee Approved: Kym Weed, PhD JuLeigh Petty, PhD 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURE .......................................................................................................................... iii 1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 1 2. LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................................... 5 Background ................................................................................................................................. 5 Causes of medical brain drain ..................................................................................................... 9 Consequences of medical brain drain........................................................................................ 11 Ethics of migration .................................................................................................................... 14 Current measures taken ............................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • International Migration Papers Policy Responses to the International Mobility of Skilled Labour
    INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION PAPERS 45 POLICY RESPONSES TO THE INTERNATIONAL MOBILITY OF SKILLED LABOUR ________ B. Lindsay Lowell International Migration Branch INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE GENEVA ii Table of contents iii Foreword v Executive Summary 1 1. Introduction 2 2. Policy Responses to High Skilled Emigration: The Six R’s 3 3. Return of Migrants to their Source Country 4 3.1. Program for the return of qualified African nationals 6 4. Restriction of International Mobility 7 5. Recruitment of International Migrants 8 6. Reparation for Loss of Human Capital (Tax) 11 7. Resourcing Expatriates: “Diaspora Options” 12 7.1. Expatriate organizations / technology transfer 13 7.2. Remittances and monetary flows 15 8. Retention through Educational Sector Policies 16 9. Retention through Economic Development 17 10. Conclusions 19 References 22 Appendixes Appendix 1. The Malaysian Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC) 26 Appendix 2. Pacific Economic Cooperation Council (PECC) 1999) 28 Appendix 3. e-ASEAN Framework Agreement: Fourth ASEAN Informal Summit 29 Appendix 4. West African Migration and Development Plans: Dakar Declaration 30 Endnotes 33 Contributors 34 International Migration Papers 35 List of Tables Table 1. Policy responses to high skilled emigration: The “Six R’s”4 Table 2. Return of nationals abroad: Selected policy examples5 Table 3. Restriction of international mobility: Selected policy examples 7 Table 4. Recruitment of international migrants: Selected policy examples 9 Table 5. Reparation for loss of human capital (tax) 11 Table 6. Resourcing
    [Show full text]