Neophron percnopterus -- (Linnaeus, 1758) ANIMALIA -- CHORDATA -- AVES -- ACCIPITRIFORMES -- ACCIPITRIDAE Common names: Egyptian Vulture; Egyptian Eagle; Vautour percnoptère European Red List Assessment European Red List Status EN -- Endangered, (IUCN version 3.1) Assessment Information Year published: 2015 Date assessed: 2015-03-31 Assessor(s): BirdLife International Reviewer(s): Symes, A. Compiler(s): Ashpole, J., Burfield, I., Ieronymidou, C., Pople, R., Wheatley, H. & Wright, L. Assessment Rationale European regional assessment: Endangered (EN) EU27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU)

Within Europe this vulture has undergone very rapid declines over three generations (53 years) and it is therefore classified as Endangered. In the EU27 declines have apparently stabilised but it qualifies as Vulnerable based on the rate of past declines. Occurrence Countries/Territories of Occurrence Native: Albania; Andorra; Armenia; Azerbaijan; Bosnia and Herzegovina; Bulgaria; Croatia; Cyprus; France; Georgia; Greece; Italy; Macedonia, the former Yugoslav Republic of; Malta; Moldova; Montenegro; Portugal; Romania; Russian Federation; Serbia; Spain; Canary Is. (to ES); Turkey; Ukraine; Gibraltar (to UK) Vagrant: Austria; Belgium; Czech Republic; Denmark; Estonia; Finland; Hungary; Norway; Svalbard and Jan Mayen (to NO); Poland; Slovakia; Slovenia; Sweden; Switzerland; United Kingdom Population The European population is estimated at 3,000-4,700 pairs, which equates to 6,000-9,300 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 1,500-1,700 pairs, which equates to 3,000-3,300 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see Supplementary PDF. Trend Based on past population size estimates in Spain (Perea et al. 1990), Greece (Handrinos 1985) and in other countries where the species has become extinct since 1980 (Abuladze & Shergalin 1998, Kotro�an & Hatibovi? 2012), the population size in Europe is estimated to be decreasing by 50-79% in 53.4 years (three generations). In the EU27 the population size is estimated to be stable currently, but, based on past population size estimates in Spain (Perea et al. 1990) and Greece (Handrinos 1985), it is estimated to have decreased by 30-49% during 1960-2014 (three generations). For details of national estimates, see Supplementary PDF. Habitats and Ecology This species forages principally in arid open areas such as steppes, savannas and river banks (Tucker and Heath 1994). Nesting occurs in cliffs or crags, occasionally in trees and it sometimes occupies the old nest of another raptor. Birds usually form monogamous pairs but occasionally polyandrous trios too. Both sexes construct a nest of sticks with a deep central cup, which is usually heavily lined with a range of materials including wool, hair, rags and the remains of food, even excrement, although sometimes scarcely lined at all. Clutches vary from one to three eggs, although normally two (Orta et al. 2013). It has a broad diet including carrion, tortoises, organic waste, insects, young vertebrates, eggs and faeces. It is usually solitary, but will congregate at feeding sites, such as rubbish tips, or vulture restaurants (i.e. supplementary feeding stations). It also scavenges at human settlements, and forms roosts of non-breeding birds (Ceballos & Donázar 1990). This species is migratory and most European birds will winter in sub-Saharan Africa between 14° and 17°N although a few winter in Spain (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). Habitats & Altitude Habitat (level 1 - level 2) Importance Occurrence Artificial/Terrestrial - Arable Land suitable non-breeding Artificial/Terrestrial - Urban Areas suitable non-breeding Grassland - Temperate suitable breeding Grassland - Temperate suitable non-breeding Rocky areas (eg. inland cliffs, mountain peaks) major breeding Rocky areas (eg. inland cliffs, mountain peaks) major breeding Shrubland - Mediterranean-type Shrubby Vegetation suitable breeding Shrubland - Mediterranean-type Shrubby Vegetation suitable non-breeding Wetlands (inland) - Bogs, Marshes, Swamps, Fens, Peatlands suitable non-breeding Altitude max. 3000 m Occasional altitudinal limits Threats This species faces a number of threats across its range. Disturbance, lead poisoning (from gun shot), direct poisoning, electrocution (by powerlines), collisions with wind turbines, reduced food availability and habitat change are currently impacting upon European populations (Donázar et al. 2002, N. Petkov in litt. 2005, Kurtev et al. 2008, Zuberogoitia et al. 2008, Carrete et al. 2009, Dzhamirzoev and Bukreev 2009, Sara et al. 2009, Angelov et al. in prep. 2011). Illegal poisoning against carnivores seems to be the main threat operating on the breeding grounds in Spain (Hernandez and Margalida 2009) and the Balkans (I. Angelov in. litt. 2012). Within the European Union, regulations introduced in 2002, controlling the disposal of animal carcasses, greatly reduced food availability, notably through the closure of traditional muladares in Spain and Portugal (Donázar 2004, J. C. Atienza in litt. 2007, Lemus et al. 2008, Donázar et al. 2009, Cortás-Avizanda et al. 2010, Donázar et al. 2010a, Cortés-Avizanda 2011); however, recently-passed regulations will permit the operation of feeding stations for scavengers (A. Brunner in litt. 2010). Poisoning is a threat to the species, often through the use of poison baits targeted at terrestrial predators (Carrete et al. 2007, Carrete et al. 2009, Cortés-Avizanda et al. 2009), and through the consumption of inappropriately disposed of poisoned animals. Recent analyses from many countries such as Spain (Lemus et al. 2008) and Bulgaria (Angelov 2009) have highlighted high levels of contamination of the species leading to increased mortality. Antibiotic residues present in the carcasses of intensively-farmed livestock may increase the susceptibility of nestlings to disease (Lemus et al. 2008) (e.g. avian pox has been reported as a cause of mortality in Bulgaria (Kurtev et al. 2008)). It appears that Diclofenac, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) often used for livestock, and which is fatal to Gyps spp. when ingested at livestock carcasses (BirdLife International 2007 news (www.birdlife.org/news)), is driving the recent rapid declines in India (Cuthbert et al. 2006, A. Rahmani in litt. 2012). NSAIDs are reportedly toxic to raptors, storks, cranes and owls, suggesting that vultures of other genera could be susceptible to its effects (BirdLife International 2007 news (www.birdlife.org/news)). It seems plausible that this species previously had less exposure to the toxin owing to competitive exclusion from carcasses by Gyps spp. vultures (Cuthbert et al. 2006). Mortality at power lines has been found to be particularly common on the Canary Islands (Donazar et al. 2002, Donazar et al. 2007a) and potentially risky in other regions of Spain (Donazar et al. 2007b, 2010b). Competition for suitable nest sites with Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus) may reduce breeding success in the short-term (Kurtev et al. 2008). Threats & Impacts Threat (level 1) Threat (level 2) Impact and Stresses Agriculture & Agro-industry Timing Scope Severity Impact aquaculture farming Ongoing Minority (<50%) Slow, Significant Low Impact Declines Stresses Ecosystem conversion; Ecosystem degradation Biological resource Hunting & trapping Timing Scope Severity Impact use terrestrial animals Ongoing Unknown Unknown Unknown (intentional use - species is the target) Stresses Species mortality Threats & Impacts Threat (level 1) Threat (level 2) Impact and Stresses Biological resource Hunting & trapping Timing Scope Severity Impact use terrestrial animals Ongoing Minority (<50%) Slow, Significant Low Impact (persecution/ Declines control) Stresses Species mortality Biological resource Hunting & trapping Timing Scope Severity Impact use terrestrial animals Ongoing Minority (<50%) Slow, Significant Low Impact (unintentional Declines effects - species is not the target) Stresses Species mortality Energy production Renewable energy Timing Scope Severity Impact & mining Ongoing Minority (<50%) Rapid Declines Medium Impact Stresses Species mortality Human intrusions & Recreational Timing Scope Severity Impact disturbance activities Ongoing Majority (50-90%) Slow, Significant Medium Impact Declines Stresses Species disturbance Invasive and other Unspecified species Timing Scope Severity Impact problematic Ongoing Majority (50-90%) Slow, Significant Medium Impact species, genes & Declines diseases Stresses Competition; Reduced reproductive success Invasive and other Unspecified species Timing Scope Severity Impact problematic Ongoing Minority (<50%) Slow, Significant Low Impact species, genes & Declines diseases Stresses Species mortality; Reduced reproductive success Natural system Other ecosystem Timing Scope Severity Impact modifications modifications Ongoing Minority (<50%) Slow, Significant Low Impact Declines Stresses Species mortality; Reduced reproductive success Pollution Agricultural & Timing Scope Severity Impact forestry effluents Ongoing Majority (50-90%) Rapid Declines High Impact (type unknown/ unrecorded) Stresses Species mortality; Reduced reproductive success Pollution Herbicides and Timing Scope Severity Impact pesticides Past, Likely to Majority (50-90%) Rapid Declines Past Impact Return Stresses Species mortality; Reduced reproductive success Transportation & Roads & railroads Timing Scope Severity Impact service corridors Ongoing Minority (<50%) Slow, Significant Low Impact Declines Stresses Species mortality Transportation & Utility & service Timing Scope Severity Impact service corridors lines Ongoing Minority (<50%) Rapid Declines Medium Impact Stresses Species mortality; Reduced reproductive success Conservation Conservation Actions Underway CMS Appendix I and II. Occurs within a number of protected areas across its range. Monitoring programmes, supplementary feeding (Cortés-Avizanda et al. 2010) and campaigns against illegal use of poisons, including awareness-raising, are in place for a number of national populations. An International Species Action Plan for the species was published in 2008 (Iñigo et al. 2008). National species action plans are in place in France, Bulgaria and Italy, and the species is included in the Balkan Vulture Action Plan (BVAP). Efforts are being taken to release captive-bred individuals in parts of Italy. In Spain, France, Italy, Bulgaria and Macedonia birds have been fitted with satellite tags to study juvenile dispersion, migratory movements and wintering areas (e.g. García-Ripollés et al. 2010). Nest guarding schemes for pairs that are most threatened by poachers have been implemented in Italy and Bulgaria, where very small populations survive. Expeditions to study the limiting factors in the wintering areas and along the migration flyway have taken place together with local organizations in Turkey and other, non-European countries.

Conservation Actions Proposed Start and maintain intensive cooperation with local key stakeholders to ensure poison- and poaching-free zones at sites with high densities or congregations of the species throughout the breeding and migration, alongside similar efforts for other threatened species. Build capacity in countries along the migration flyways. Research the causes and extent of current declines across the species's range. Insulate dangerous electricity pylons in areas where high mortality is recorded. Coordinate monitoring to assess trends throughout the range. Relax the European Union animal hygiene regulations in relation to necrophagous birds. Establish supplementary feeding sites where appropriate, especially at sites where congregations of non-breeders can be supported. Effectively reduce risks of poisoning through strict enforcement of poison-bait ban and education. Lobby for the banning of Diclofenac for veterinary purposes throughout the species's range, and support the enforcement of this ban where it has been adopted. Where applicable, establish the impact of wind turbines, and lobby for effective impact assessments to be carried out prior to their construction. Where appropriate, reduce disturbance by guarding nests. Confiscate illegally-kept live birds and use them for the purposes of captive breeding and future restocking and reintroduction programs. In key areas of the species's range, implement long-term and large-scale education and community involvement programmes. Bibliography Angelov, I. 2009. Egyptian Vultures Neophron percnopterus exposed to toxic substances. BirdLife Europe e- News 3(2): 7. Angelov, I., Hashim, I. and Oppel, S. In prep. Persistent electrocution mortality of Egyptian Vultures Neophron percnopterus over 28 years in East Africa. Carrete, M., Grande, J.M., Tella, J.L., Sánchez-Zapata, J.A., Donazar, J.A., Díaz-Delgado R. and Romo, A. 2007. Habitat, human pressure, and social behavior: Partialling out factors affecting large-scale territory extinction in an endangered vulture. Biological Conservation 136(1): 143-154. Carrete, M., Sánchez-Zapata, J.A., Benítez, J.R., Lobón, M. and Donázar, J.A. 2009. Large-scale risk- assessment of wind-farms on population viability of a globally-endangered long-lived raptor. Biological Conservation 142: 2954-2961. Ceballos, O. and Donázar, J.A. 1990. Roost-tree characteristics, food habits and seasonal abundance of roosting Egyptian Vultures in northern Spain. Journal of Raptor Research 24: 19-25. Cortés-Avizanda, A., Ceballos, O. and Donázar, J.A. 2009. Long-term trends in population size and breeding success in the Egyptian Vulture (Neophron percnopterus) in northern Spain. Journal of Raptor Research 43(1): 43-49. Cortés-Avizanda, A., Carrete, M. and Donázar, J.A. 2010. Managing supplementary feeding for avian scavengers: guidelines for optimal design using ecological criteria. Biological Conservation 143: 1707-1715. Cortés-Avizanda, A. 2011. Ecological effects of spatial heterogeneity and predictability in the distribution of resources: individuals, populations and guild of scavengers. PhD Thesis, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid. Cuthbert, R., Green, R.E., Ranade, S., Saravanan, S., Pain, D.J., Prakash, V. and Cunningham, A.A. 2006. Rapid population declines of Egyptian Vulture (Neophron percnopterus) and Red-headed Vulture (Sarcogyps calvus) in India. Animal Conservation 9(3): 349-354. Donázar, J.A., Palacios, C.J., Gangoso, L., Ceballos, O., González, M.J. and Hiraldo, F. 2002. Conservation status and limiting factors in the endangered population of Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus) in the Canary Islands. Biological Conservation 107: 89-97. Donázar, J.A. 2004. Alimoche Común Neophron percnopterus. In: Madroño, A., González, C. and Atienza, J.C. (ed.), Libro Rojo de las Aves de España, pp. 129-131. Dirección General para la Biodiversidad & SEO/ BirdLife, Madrid. Bibliography Donázar J.A. and Benítez, J.A. 2007. La industria eólica, otra amenaza para el alimoche en el sur de Cádiz. Quercus 226: 68-69. Donázar, J.A., Margalida, A. and Campión, D. 2009. Vultures, feeding stations and sanitary legislation: a conflict and its consequences from the perpective of conservation biology. Sociedad de Ciencias Aranzadi, San Sebastian, Spain. Donázar, J.A., Cortés-Avizanda, A. and Carrete, M. 2010. Dietary shifts in two vultures after the demise of supplementary feeding stations: consequences of the EU sanitary legislation. European Journal of Wildlife Research 56: 613-621. Dzhamirzoev, G.S. and Bukreev, S.A. 2009. Status of Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus in the North Caucasus, Russian Federation. Sandgrouse 31(2): 128-133. Ferguson-Lees, J. and Christie, D.A. 2001. Raptors of the world. Christopher Helm, London. García-Ripollés, C., López-López, P. and Urios, V. 2010. First description of migration and wintering of adult Egyptian Vultures Neophron percnopterus tracked by GPS satellite telemetry. Bird Study 57(2): 261-265. Hagemeijer, W.J.M. and Blair, M.J. 1997. The EBCC Atlas of European Breeding Birds: Their Distribution and Abundance. T & A D Poyser, London. Hernández, A.E., and Margalida, A. 2009. Poison-related mortality effects in the endangered Egyptian Vulture (Neophron percnopterus) population in Spain. European Journal of Wildlife Research 55: 415-423. Iñigo, A., Barov, B., Orhun, C. and Gallo-Orsi, U. 2008. Action plan for the Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus in the European Union. BirdLife International for the European Commission. Kurtev M., Angelov, I. and Yankov, P. 2008. Action Plan for the Conservation of the Egyptian Vulture in Bulgaria. Sofia (BSPB) (In Bulgarian). Lemus, J.A., Blanco, G., Grande, J., Arroyo, B., García-Montijano, M. and Martínez, F. 2008. Antibiotics threaten wildlife: circulating quinolone residues and disease in avian scavengers. PLoS ONE: 1-6. Orta, J., Kirwan, G.M. and Christie, D.A. 2013. Egyptian Vulture (Neophron percnopterus). In: del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A., Sargatal, J., Christie, D.A. and de Juana, E. (eds.) 2013. Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. (retrieved from http://www.hbw.com/node/52993 on 15 January 2015). Sara, M., Grenci, S. and Di Vittorio, M. 2009. Status of Egyptian Vulture (Neophron percnopterus) in Sicily. Journal of Raptor Research 43(1): 66-69. Tucker, G.M. and Heath, M.F. 1994. Birds in Europe: their conservation status. BirdLife Conservation Series no. 3, BirdLife International, Cambridge. Zuberogoitia, I., Zabala, J., Martínez, J.A., Martínez, J.E. and Azkona, A. 2008. Effect of human activities on Egyptian Vulture breeding. Animal Conservation 11(4): 313-320. Map (see overleaf)