DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES

ASSESSMENT OF SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION

PRACTICES IN SODO ZURIA DISTRICT, WOLITA ZONE, SNNPR

By: Tekalegn Balcha

ADVISOR: BEHAILU TADDESSE (PhD) CO: ADVISOR: MULATU TILAHUN (MA)

OCT, 2018 A Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Art (MA) in Natural Resource and Environmental Management at the University of Gondar

Assessment of soil and water conservation Practices in Wolita Zone: a case of Sodo Zuria District, SNNPR.

Tekalegn Balcha

MA

Department of Geography and Environmental Studies

College of Social Sciences and Humanities University of Gondar 2018

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Head, Department Signature Date ABSTRACT

The study was conducted in Soddo Zuria District, Wolita Zone, SNNPR, Ethiopia. Soil erosion, over grazing and over cultivation was the most common problem in the study area. The objective of the study is assessment of soil and water conservation practices .Cross sectional study design was used and purposive sampling technique used to select the study area .The Kebeles stratified into two based on their agro ecology. Two kebeles were selected by simple random sampling. 324 households were selected. For house hold survey through Household survey, FGD, key informant interview and field observation were used to get primary data. And also different documents, journal articles and reports were used as secondary data. In the study area farmers used both traditional and improved swc measures i.e. physical measures like soil bund, contour farming, as well as biological methods like planting trees, grass strips, area closure and agronomic measures like leaving crop residues in the field/mulching. Lack of knowledge to apply swc methods, narrow farm size, and crop destroy pests in the structural swc measures and technical challenges at selection of technology were challenges of swc works in the study area. Farmers get extension education from public meetings, peer group farmers, kebele extension agents, development agents and electronic media. Chi-squre and t-test were used to measure the association between the variables and swc practices. According to the t-test and chi-square- test result, the sex, education level, farm size and extension contact was significantly affects the adoption of swc technologies at less than 1% significant level. Age, family size and marital status of the the house hold head was no significant at 0.286, 0.545 and 0.387siginificacnt levels. To sustain swc works select best technology that favorable for the agro ecology of the area, give attention for structural swc works and maintain regularly and give lessons about swc practices was important to manage soil and water in Dega kebele and protect community level swc works like planted trees, community ponds,water diversion canals with regular maintainance is important in Woina Dega keble.

Key terms: Soil degradation, soil conservation practices, conservation

i ACKNOWLEDGMENT

First of all, I would like to thank almighty God for helping me to start and successfully complete this work. Then I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my advisors, Dr. BehailuTadesse and Mr.MulatuTilahun for helping me in working the thesis by providing the necessary advices and kind communication. Then my gratitude also extends to Soddo Zuria Woreda Agriculture and natural resource development Office, all the development agents of the study kebeles, respondents who participated in this work by giving their precious time in answering the questions. My heartfelt gratitude also goes to my family specially my mother (BizuneshAshengo) and my father Ato Balcha Bekele for their support to me by giving motherly and fatherly love and strength to achieve my study. In addition, I extend my heartfelt and deep gratitude to all my lovely brothers (Sintayehu and Hailu,) and sisters (Aynalem and Birtukan). Finally I deeply thank University of Gondar and all the Department of Geography and Environmental Study staffs for their kindness.

ii List of Acronyms

ADLI: Agricultural development Led to Industrialization

DAs: Development Agents

FDG: Focus Group Discussion

GDP: Gross Domestic Product

UNCED: United Nation Conference on Environment and Development

UNCCD: United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification.

SWC: Soil and Water Conservation

SLM: Sustainable land Management

SPSS: Statistical package for Social science

SNNPR: Southern Nations Nationalities peoples Region

WOCAT: World Overview of Conservation Approaches and Technologies

iii Table of contents

Contents------pages

ABSTRACT ...... i

ACKNOWLEDGMENT ...... ii

List of Acronyms...... iii

List of figures...... vii

List of tables ...... viii

Lists of Appendices...... ix

CHAPTER ONE...... 1

1. Introduction ...... 1 1.1 Back ground of the study...... 1 1.2 Statement of the problem...... 3 1.3 Objectives of the study ...... 5 1.3.1 General objective of the study...... 5 1.3.2 Specific objectives of the study...... 5 1.4 Research questions...... 5 1.5 Significance of the study...... 6 1.6 Scope of the Study ...... 6 1.7 organization of the study ...... 7 CHAPTER TWO...... 7

Review of Related Literatures ...... 7 2.1. Concepts of Soil and Water Conservation...... 7 2.2. Soil and Water Conservations...... 9 2.2.1. Global Overview ...... 9 2.2.2. Soil and Water Conservation Technologies in Africa ...... 11 2.2.3. Soil and Water Conservation in Ethiopia...... 12 2.3 Community participation in sustainable soil and water conservation ...... 13 2.4 Woreda level decentralization and participatory development planning...... 15

iv 2.5 Causes of soil erosion...... 16 2.5.1 Woodland Clearing...... 16 2.5.2 Poor Arable Land Management ...... 17 2.5.3 Degradation of Grazing Land ...... 17 2.5.4 Population Pressure and the Problem of soil erosion...... 18 2.5.5 Tenure Right and the Problem of soil erosion ...... 18 2.5.6 Lack of Awareness as Factors for soil erosion ...... 19 2.6 Types of Soil and Water Conservation...... 20 2.6.1 Indigenous Soil and Water Conservation ...... 20 2.6.2 Structural Soil Conservation Methods...... 21 2.7 Assessment of Soil and Water Conservation Practices ...... 21 2.8 Challenges of Soil and Water Conservation...... 23 2.9 Major Factors Determining Soil and Water Conservations Measures ...... 23 2.10 Conceptual Frame work ...... 24 2.11 Empirical studies ...... 25 CHAPTER THREE...... 27

METHODS AND MATERIALS ...... 27 3.1 Back ground of the study area...... 27 3.1.1 Location ...... 27 3.1.2 Local climate and agro ecology...... 28 3.1.3 Temperature...... 29 3.1.4 Topography ...... 30 3.1.5 Soil Types...... 30 3.2 Socio economic back ground...... 31 3.2.1 Economic activities...... 31 3.2.2 Infrastructure...... 32 3.2.3 Population characteristics ...... 32 3.3. Research Design ...... 32 3.4 Data Types and Sources...... 32 3.5 Data collection tools ...... 33 3.5.1 Primary Data sources ...... 33

v 3.6 Sampling technique and sample size...... 34 3.6.1 Sampling technique ...... 34 3.6.2 Sample size...... 34 3.7. Method of data Analysis ...... 35 CHAPTER FOUR...... 36

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION...... 36 4.1 methods of Soil and water conservation practices...... 36 4.2 Currently used soil and water conservation practices ...... 39 4.3 Water harvesting methods on Farm land...... 42 4.4 Challenges of soil water conservation practices...... 43 4.5 Sources of Extension services ...... 45 5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 51

5.1 CONCLUSION ...... 51 5.2 RECCOMENDATION ...... 52 REFERENCE...... 53

Appendices...... I

vi List of figures

Figure 1 conceptual frame work ...... 24

Figure 2 map of the study area ...... 27

Figure 3 Average rain fall data for 10 years (2002-2011) wolita sodo station...... 29

Figure 4 Average temperature data for 10 years (2002-2011) wolita sodo station...... 29

Figure 5 Slope map of the study area ...... 30

Figure 6 Soil map of the study area...... 31

Figure 7 Tid/junipers tree planted in kutto sorppela kebele by community participation 38

Figure 8 Elephant grass planted in both Damot Wajja and Kutto sorpela kebele to stabilize the structural swc works ...... 38

Figure 9 Soil bund and Bench terrace in Damot Wajja kebele ...... 40

Figure 10 Community pond in Kutto Sorpella kebele ...... 41

Figure 11 Community pond which broken by flooding in Kutto Sorpella ...... 44

vii List of tables

Table 1 Sample size determination ...... 35

Table 2 Respondents response on Vegetative type of SWC measures ...... 36

Table 3 Currently Used SWC measures ...... 39

Table 4 Water catching methods on farm land...... 42

Table 5 Challenges on SWC practices...... 43

Table 6 Source of information about SWC Practices ...... 45

Table7 Description of Continuous Variables which influences the adoption of SWC practices...... 47

Table 8 Description of Categorical Variables which influences the adoption of SWC practices...... 49

viii Lists of Appendices annex1. Soil and water conservation practices in Soddo Zuria District annex2. Water conservation practices in Soddo Zuria District annex3. House Hold survey questionnaires

ix CHAPTER ONE

1. Introduction

1.1 Back ground of the study

In Sub-Sahara Africa, soil conservation has a long history. Indigenous methods from the pre colonial era focused on erosion control in mixed with water conservation by ridging, mulching, constructing earth bunds and terraces, multiple cropping, fallowing, and the planting of trees (Asnake & Elias, 2017).

The most African countries, during colonial times considerable efforts had made to conserve soil and water resource. But, most soil and water conservation projects in sub-Saharan Africa have failed (Kristiansen, 2011). The reason for its little success was due to poor planning, poor design of structures, lack of participation by the communities, inappropriate conservation methods, poor linkages with livelihoods of the poor and lack of an integrated approach that goes beyond soil conservation to address the interlinked productivity, market access, land policy and resource management problems (Alam, Alam, & Mushtaq, 2017).

Crop production systems are expected to produce food to keep pace with the global population that will amount 9.1 billion people in 2050 and over 10 billion by the end of the century (Asnake & Elias, 2017). The population of the world is growing by approximately one billion people per decade. Land degradation and consequent decline in soil fertility has become a serious threat to agricultural productivity in Sub-Saharan Africa (Pfeiffer, 2012).

The declining fertility of soils because of soil nutrient mining is regarded as a main cause of decreased crop yields and per capital food production in Africa; and decreasing soil fertility accompanied with increasing population pressure is one of the major causes of the gap between demand for and supply of food (Bationo, 2009).

In Ethiopia agriculture is not only an economic activity but also a means of life for which agricultural land is an essential resource upon which the welfare of the society is dependent on. Such dependence obviously leads to increased vulnerability of the economy to problems related to land degradation (Pfeiffer, 2012). According to (Kebede et al., 2016),

1 achievement of SWC practices improves soil fertility and increases crop productivity, which enables farmers to grow more food, which translates into better diets and under market conditions that offer a level playing field, into higher farm incomes.

SWC measures are growing food production without further depleting soil and water resources, adding high amounts of biomass to the soil, causing minimal soil disturbance, conserving soil and water, restoring soil fertility, and increasing the resilience of farming systems to climatic risk (Ashoori et al., 2016).

The backbone of the agrarian economy in most developing countries is rain fed agriculture. The economic development of developing countries depends on the performance of the agricultural sector, and the contribution of this sector depends on how the natural resources are managed (Mena, 2017). This naturally abundant resource plays an important role for its productivity (Moges et al., 2013). However, soil erosion is recognized as one of the most serious, common and widely spread and well known environmental problem facing human society associated with agricultural land uses and intensive uses of soil throughout the world.

The unsustainable and exploitative land use practice is due to an increasing demand for food, fiber, and fodder by the growing human and livestock population are responsible for accelerated soil erosion in many parts of Ethiopia (Adugna & Cerdà, 2015).Soil is an essential input to agricultural production, especially for countries like Ethiopia, where agriculture is the backbone of the economy and the livelihood of the majority of the population depends on agriculture.

Soil erosion is the main form of land degradation, caused by the interacting effects of factors, such as biophysical characteristics and socio-economic aspects. Degradation resulting from soil erosion and nutrient depletion is one of the most challenging environmental problems in Ethiopia. The Ethiopian highlands have been experiencing declining soil fertility and severe soil erosion due to intensive farming on steep and fragile land (Antonio, 2016) .Soil and water conservation measures have been carried out in different parts of the country that have been recommended for minimizing soil loss by erosion.

For a number of years, the communities of Ethiopia have been carrying out traditional soil and water conservation measures. Soil and water conservation measures that have been used include:

2 the construction of terraces, reforestation, forestation of areas that have not been used for cultivation, inter cropping, controlling livestock population, the protection of regenerating natural vegetation, soil bunds, and micro basin (Kebede et al., 2016).Farmers are initially obligated to participate in the construction of conservation structures because this is undertaken through group labor. Although food aid has helped to fight hunger in famine-stricken areas, it has not been successful in improving soil and water conservation in the long run(Antonio, 2016).

Sustainable land management in the Ethiopian context defined as the use of renewable land resources for agricultural and other purposes to meet individual and community needs, while simultaneously ensuring the long-term productive potential of these resources and the maintenance of their environmental functions through systematic use of indigenous and scientific knowledge or technologies (Kebede et al., 2016).

In this regard, sustainable land management involves more than the use of physical soil conservation measures, it also includes the use of appropriate soil fertility management practices, agricultural water management, forestry and agro forestry practices forage and land management, and the application of these measures in a more integrated way to satisfy community needs with solving ecological problems (Gebremariam & Tsadik, 2010).

1.2 Statement of the problem

The Current estimates using satellite imagery show that land degradation hotspots over the last three decades faced about 23 % of the land area in the country. The assessment of nationally representative household survey also shows that key drivers of sustainable land management in Ethiopia are biophysical, regional and socio-economic determinants (Laekemariam et al., 2016).In Ethiopia, natural resource degradation has been going on for centuries in different parts of the country (Ashoori et al., 2016).

Land degradation process such as land and soil degradation and overgrazing are as old as human settlements and land use history. Still, population pressure in several areas has accelerated these processes (Antonio, 2016). Similar to other parts of the country, population pressure and overgrazing are recognized as the major factors of land degradation currently observed in the Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Region. Extreme deforestation often as function of

3 growing demand for fuel wood and cultivation land have had another equally significant implication on the soil erosion, land degradation and disturbance in water resources (Balta, 2015).

The main problems regarding soil resources in Southern Nation Nationalities and Peoples Regional state is include sever soil erosion due to steep cultivation, over grazing in mid and highlands, deforestation and planting eucalyptus causing high moisture strain. The major cause of low soil fertility is soil erosion due to run off. Therefore, crop productivity remains very low and because of that some farmers were registered even for migration (Bimerew, 2015). Nowadays there is severe deforestation in the most parts of Wolaitta zone that has caused fuel shortage. As a result of all these factors land degradation, wild life extinction, over grazing and shortage of fodder for livestock have occurred. These in turn have led to soil and water resource degradation, low agricultural productivity, food shortage and change in agro ecology of surrounding areas (Ashoori et al., 2016). Because of high population pressure in wolita zone, sloppy lands which used to be grazing areas or tree plots became under cultivation (Kebede et al., 2016).

Local communities are cultivating the slopes from the top to the bottom without using best management practices (Tessema, 2017). The research work conducted by others in the study area are (Kebede et al., 2016) investigation focused on root crops contribution to house hold food security and (Biruk, 2013) research focused on rural livelihood diversification strategies. But, soil and water conservation practices are not well studied in the study area. Soil and water resource degradation is a hot topic in 21st century. Therefore, this research work conducted to fill the research gap by providing the necessary information about the soil and water resource conservation practices to the concerned bodies and institutions (Dubale, 2001).

4 1.3 Objectives of the study

1.3.1 General objective of the study

To assess of soil and water conservation practices in Soddo Zuria District, Wolita Zone.

1.3.2 Specific objectives of the study

1. To describe types of soil and water conservation practices in the study area

2. To examine the current soil and water conservation methods in the study area

3 To identify major challenges that affects the implementation of soil and water conservation practices in the study area

4. To asses services given to the farmers by extension agents that promotes the best soil and water conservation practices .

1.4 Research questions

The following questions are the bases of the study to achieve the following objectives:-

1. What type of soil and water conservation practices used in the study area?

2. What are the current measures taken to conserve soil and water resources in the study area?

3. What are the major challenges that affect the implementation of soil and water resource conservation practices in the study area?

4. What are the services which given to the farmers by extension agents that promote the best soil and water conservation practices?

5 1.5 Significance of the study

The study conducted on Soddo Zuria District, Wolita Zone, South Nation and Nationalities Region. The soil resource of the area has been vulnerable to erosion and mismanagement with less attention to its sustainability. So this research work helps to inform the community, concerned governmental institutions at the district and other interested bodies about the seriousness of environmental crisis as a result of soil erosion in the area and to encourage them to involve in the soil and water conservation programs. It identifies major factors related with soil erosion, and inhabiting effectiveness of its conservation strategies and suggests possible means to alleviate the challenges, which may serve policy makers as an input to taking policy measures. It would also serves as a secondary data sources for those who want to conduct further investigations in this area.

1.6 Scope of the Study

The scope of the study assessed soil and water conservation practices in Wolita Zone Sodo Zuria District,SNNPR. The surveying activities conducted in two representative kebele administrations of the District. There are different SWC measures in the study area and factors that affects them. It constitutes the demographic, socio-economic, political and cultural factors. Even though, those factors are many in number they are interrelated and multiple. The following list of determining factors such as age; educational status, family size, farm size and access to information were taken into account to the sake of these study. This was due to the time and budget constraints for further study of the rest of the factors. In addition, the study is confined to small geographical area, i.e. a single District within which only two kebeles were surveyed.

6 1.7 organization of the study

The thesis organized in to five chapters. In the first chapter introduction of the paper was presented. This section covers background of the study, statement of the problem, objective of study, research questions, and significance of the study with scope and limitation of the study. Chapter two presents review of related literature, which encompasses definition of concepts, empirical literatures related to soil and water conservation practices. Chapter three encompasses description of the study area, the research methodology employed to collect relevant data and how under collected data are analyzed. In chapter four the results and discussion was presented and finally in chapter five,the conclusion and recommendation defined based on the results of the findings.

CHAPTER TWO

Review of Related Literatures

2.1. Concepts of Soil and Water Conservation

Soil and water conservation activities used by farmers prior to the food-for-work projects were mainly building of drainage canals and ditches as well as soil and stone bunds. Farmers practiced fallowing, mulching and crop rotation (Laekemariam et al., 2016).

Still, traditional as well as modern soil conservation actions have been carried out in different parts of the country, to combat soil erosion and soil nutrient depletion. For centuries communities in Ethiopia have been carrying out traditional soil conservation measures. Soil conservation measures that have been used to date include the building of terraces, soil bunds, micro-basins, the protection of regenerating natural vegetation, and tree planting. Despite the efforts that have been made to conserve as well as restore soil fertility of arable lands, soil degradation is proceeding so fast currently that it can constraint the expectation of achieving sustainable agriculture for future. The livelihoods of millions are being put at risk as a result of lower yields, water shortages and a shortage of natural resources(Cipryk, 2009).

Sustainable land management (SLM): it can be defined as the use of land resources such as soils, water, animals and plants for the production of goods to meet changing human needs while

7 assuring the long-term productive potential of these resources, and the protection of their environmental functions ( Secretariat, 2011)

In the concept of SLM, the term management refers to an activity on the ground, using suitable technologies in the particular land use systems. The word sustainable is used to refer to the long- term nature of the ways and means used to recognize Sustainable Land Management activities, and can be seen from diverse dimensions mainly the economic, social, institutional, political and ecological scope. The wide concept of land management practices refers to activities on the ground that uses appropriate technologies for the improvement or maintenance of productive capacity of the land. This includes activities such as soil and water conservation, soil fertility management and controlled-grazing. Thus sustainable land management approach emphasizes finding economically viable, socially acceptable and ecologically sound solutions at a local level, which could promote participatory land management practices to deal with land degradation. In doing this due emphasis is given to the use of appropriate technologies(Abdo, 2014).

Any land use system is indefensible if it leads to irreversible biophysical changes in the ability of the land to produce uniformly well in a future cycle of similar land use, or if the costs of reversing the changes are too expensive. The most common categorization is describing sustainability as a function of three dimensions: ecological, economic and social, while the social dimension may as well include policy, institutional and cultural aspects. Thus, un sustainability may be either biophysical, social, economic or a mixture of these factors or dimensions of sustainability (Reda, 2014)

Sustainable conservation: it is both directly and indirectly the focus of this study and it is also supposed to be the wish and expectation of both governments and contributor organizations. Unfortunately, the process of ensuring sustained conservation has been a difficult task for a country that almost entirely depends on others for survival. Sustainable land management (SLM) can be define as the use of land resources such as soils, water, animals and plants for the production of goods whereas assuring the long-term productive potential of these resources, and the maintenance of their environmental functions(A. Moges et al., 2013).

8 Ethiopia, being one of the poorest countries in the world, may continue to find it difficult to provide adequate funding that would ensure sustainable conservation and rehabilitation works (Pfeiffer, 2012).

Other reasons attributable to this are: the habitual payments for conservation and rehabilitation works in Ethiopia; the effect of the short term duration of government and/or donor funded conservation projects; and lack of capacity to maintain existing conservation structures while at the same time, ensure continuous survival and wellbeing of local people who are directly affected by land resource degradation. To be sustainable, community participation, community capacity building, unconditional roles of governments and donor agencies and effective joint management and coordination of conservation projects have to be ensured. The nation’s economy is mainly dependent on rain fed agriculture, which accounts for half the GDP, 60% of exports and 80% of employment (Giusti, 2009).

Community based conservation: it can be seen at one end and from one extreme in which conservation agencies retain control but consult with local communities in planning and implementation (Reda, 2014). At the other ends, from the other extreme, there is a situation where local communities are completely in control. Community–based conservation is therefore that type of conservation which ensures equity in participation (Welu & Solomon, 2015). Conservation of land resources process involves empowering the local communities to generate their own initiative and develop their capacities to manage and sustain land resources.

2.2. Soil and Water Conservations

2.2.1. Global Overview

World Overview of Conservation Approaches and Technologies (WOCAT) is a global network of SWC specialists, contributing to Sustainable land management. According to (Kebede et al., 2016), their vision is to improve land and livelihoods through sharing and enhancing knowledge about sustainable land management. In the soil and water conservation handbook by sustainable agriculture or sustainability ensures the availability and productivity of the natural resources, for continued use by present and also by future generation. The resources are seen, by including the future generation, in a long-term scale. Further the definition contains, besides conservation of

9 the soil and other resources, the requirement to minimize or avoid environmental degradation. The management practices have to be technically appropriate, economically viable, and socially acceptable and ensure the sustained productivity of natural resources.

Soil erosion has been a major global agenda because of its adverse impact on environment and food security and the quality of life (Alam & Mushtaq, 2017). Productivity impacts of land degradation are largely due to decline in soil depth and soil fertility (Sentís, 2002). The situation is severe in the Ethiopian highlands where land degradation has rendered vast areas of fertile lands unproductive (Pfeiffer, 2012).Water, land and other natural resources are the basis for humans to generate income and produce consumable goods and services (Jufare, 2008).

Therefore, population growth, resource management and degradation are central elements for sustainable ecosystem functioning. Conversely, resource deterioration cumulatively leads to environmental and land degradation (Tessema, 2017).The additional labor gained could also positively contribute to land management through land development practices such as conservation and irrigation. In this case, population increase provides auxiliary labor for conservation activities. The world population is expected to rise to 9.2 billion in 2050, and growth will be highest in developing countries (Karlen & Rice, 2015).

Currently rapid deforestation is taking place in the tropics and damaging the thin layer of soil that is fragile and quickly washed away when exposed to the heavy rain. Globally, agricultural activities that makes the land surface more susceptible to soil erosion account for 28% (2 billion hectares), overgrazing for 34% and deforestation for 29% of soil degradation (Asnake & Elias, 2017). Water erosion is the most threatening and degradation processes in the world and accounts for 56% of the total degraded land surface of the world. In Africa alone, it is estimated that five to six million hectares of productive land are affected by water erosion each year. Erosion reduces root depth, removes soil organic matter and nutrients and decreases water holding capacities of the soils (Kristiansen, 2011).

10 2.2.2. Soil and Water Conservation Technologies in Africa

Since agriculture, environment and farmland management are interlinked, the performance of agricultural productivity and environmental health of a country, mainly where agriculture is the main stay of the national economy, depend on the appropriateness of the management techniques to be practiced on farm plots. The management practices to be implemented have negative and positive effects. Land degradation is the most serious problem which results inappropriate application of farmland management practices (Ashoori et al., 2016)

Soil erosion has been regarded as the most serious and wide-spread forms of land degradation, and itself a cause of fertility decline, through removal of organic matter and nutrients. Evidence is accumulated that fertility decline which is the summary of changes in soil physical structure and water holding capacity, chemical loss of plant nutrients and acidification, and biological is extremely widespread in areas that have been under annual cropping and consequently opens the way for serious environmental deterioration (Jufare, 2008). Water and soil nutrient management form a critical component of agricultural production. Water and nutrient conservation technologies are dictated by the need for soil conservation on usually very steep slopes while draining excess runoff safely, the need for water harvesting and conservation in the drier areas, the available technology, which is usually manual, or draught animal, and labor (Cipryk, 2009).

The line between SWC technologies for crop production is very thin. Ditches, construction of earth and some stone bunds, and vegetative barriers are normally defined as SWC structures, and are primarily promoted to reduce soil erosion. On sloping lands, terracing is necessary for reducing overland flow rates thereby, contributing to water and nutrient conservation. Although terracing steep lands in East Africa has been an indigenous technology among some communities, new methods have been evolving over the years as the need to be innovative with ever-decreasing space for cultivation grows with the population, especially in the densely populated and erosion-prone highlands (Mcguire & Sperling, 2008).

Grass strips are the least costly and least labor-demanding soil conservation structures. They combine characteristics of both biological and structural measures. Grass strips are a popular and easy way to terrace land, especially in areas with relatively good rainfall, where grass is used also as fodder (Pfeiffer, 2012).

11 2.2.3. Soil and Water Conservation in Ethiopia

Population pressure, mismanagement of agricultural lands, deforestation and overgrazing area among the major causes of soil erosion and environmental degradation. The average annual rate of soil loss in Ethiopia is estimated to be 12 tons/hectare/year, and can be even higher on steep slopes (greater than 300 tons/hectare/year or about 250 mm/year) where vegetation cover is scant (Kuma & Guchi, 2016).

Moreover, it keeps proper soil compaction; maintain or improve soil fertility and conserve or drain water. Physical soil conservation structures are the permanent features made of earth, stones. They are designed to protect the soil from uncontrolled runoff or erosion, and to retain water where it is needed. In steep land farming, physical structures such as rock barriers and contour bunds; waterways such as diversion ditches, terrace channels and grass water ways; and, stabilization structures or dams, windbreaks, and terraces such as diversion, retention and bench, are often necessary. The construction of physical structures is often labor intensive since steep slopes make construction difficult. Thus, both construction and maintenance require long-term collaborative effort by farmers, the local community and the government (Reda, 2014).

People were already aware of the negative consequences of soil erosion on agricultural production and the environment centuries ago. As a result, soil and water conservation practices exist as indigenous knowledge in some areas of Ethiopia (Atnafe et al, 2015).

The Konso terraces are estimated to be older than 400 years. Some rudimentary and poorly established terraces depicted on older aerial photographs and physical remnants can also be observed in different parts of the northern highlands. This is an indication of indigenous knowledge on SWC practices, and terracing is not only limited to the Konso area but also found in other parts of the country (Gebretsadik, 2012).

12 2.3 Community participation in sustainable soil and water conservation

Ethiopia saves drinking water coverage, the current data according to water irrigation and Energy minister is 79 %( mean national). But urban and rural part of the country reached 86% and 78% respectively. The ultimate goal would be to achieve “sustainable poverty alleviation and food security through the introduction of appropriate SLM techniques” and further “through the protection and conservation of natural resources, support to land certification and the development of SLM. Sustainable land management (SLM) has emerged as an issue of major international concern. This is not only because of the increasing population pressure on limited land resources, demanding for increased food production, but also by the recognition of accelerated land and water resource degradation. It is also becoming clear that limits to lands, which are suitable for agriculture, are now being reached. If the lands, which are moderately or well suited for agriculture, are currently in use, then it follows that further increases in production, to meet the food demands of rising populations, must come about by the more intensive use of existing agricultural lands (Ashoori et al., 2016).

The growing interest in the concept of sustainability was given added stimulus at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), held in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992. Agenda 21, a major action plan developed at UNCED, focused attention on the need to make development more economically and environmentally sustainable, and socially acceptable. Chapter 10 of Agenda 21 is concerned with the planning and management of land resources. For these reasons sustainable land management is now receiving considerable attention from development experts, policy makers, researchers and educators. In addition to the low soil fertility, soil degradation is an increasing threat in many parts of Ethiopia (Abdo, 2014).Although it is difficult to compare the governmental structure of different regimes; in Ethiopia that is the Imperial, the Derg, and the current Government, it can be said that the trend of Ethiopian Governments is towards pushing its own tentacles to the lowest possible unit of the society. The Imperial State depended on the various forms of ruling that extended to power sharing at local political level) and the lowest Government structure was Woreda. The two subsequent Regimes have in various ways increased and intensified state penetration down to kebeles level in the Derg Regime and to go and Government team level in the current Government (Reda, 2014).

13 He argued that the move of the government structure down to the lowest unit particularly during the Derg Regime had challenged civil society organizations. Rural development projects and programs in Ethiopia have been characterized by top down imposition (Kristiansen, 2011). According to these authors, this is because of different macro level factors among which recurrent drought, uncontrolled population growth, inappropriate land use policy, shortage of land and landlessness, poverty and state violence operate together to create a political atmosphere that is highly centralized that did not give chance for other stakeholders.

Beginning towards the end of the Derg Regime, a number of development programs have been attempted to work on participatory orientations. Following the demise of the Derg Regime, the current Government has explicitly stated in the Federal Constitution Chapter 10 Article 89 no. 16 that the Government shall at all times promote the participation of people in the formulation of policies and programs (Tekelemichael, n.d.). The military regime that took over in 1974 proclaimed land reform. The reform abolished feudal land tenure system and eliminated large holding, landlessness and absentee landlordism.

Although this was expected to improve the situation and provide incentive for investing in soil and water conservation, it could not succeed triggering adoption of conservation practices. Policy support for credit, input distribution output marketing, and extension was mainly targeted towards cooperatives and state farms that jointly accounted for only 10% of agricultural produce (Jufare, 2008).

Therefore, the economic system that was pursued focused on collectivization, nationalization of natural resources including agricultural land, coercive promotion of service cooperatives and producers cooperatives, the establishment of state farms, imposition of production marketing quota, state intervention in marketing and pricing, and forced villegization rather created disincentive and resulted in opposite outcome by decreasing security of land tenure and the profitability of agricultural investment (Ashoori et al., 2016).

Despite the fact that the reform policy enabled many landless peasants to gain access to land, the state ownership of land and insecurity of usufruct rights hindered utilizing the full potential of the reform. After over throw of the military regime in 1991, the current government has made

14 changes in economic policy. Some regarded the change introduced by the current government as going in opposite direction compared to that of military regime (Fentie et al.,2013).

Along with this, different policies and strategies that favor proper use and management of agricultural land through use of different conservation and rehabilitation mechanisms and rational use of country’s land resources have been embarked so far. These policies and strategies include Rural Development Policy and Strategy (Jie et al.,2002), Food Security Strategy (Fentie et al., 2013), New Coalition for Food Security Program (Water, n.d.).

Natural Resource and Environment Policy, and Land Administration and Use, Forest Conservation and Development Policies. These policies and strategies are expected to restore incentives for improved land resource management. This ADLI and other policies the country is currently pursing could not overcome cyclical famine, and starvation engendered by land degradation and drought (Gebretsadik, 2012). Because of this, land tenure arrangement has been topic of heated debate among scholars and politicians on whether the arrangement provides incentive or disincentive on increasing land productivity and land improvement.

2.4 Woreda level decentralization and participatory development planning

The 1994 Ethiopian Federal Constitution lined the way for decentralization initially to regional level with an intention of extending it to woreda level. Decentralization is used to denote the transfer of responsibility from central government bodies and its agencies to field units of the central government, and semi-autonomous private or voluntary organizations (Balta, 2015)).

Block grants have been started to be given to woreda since 2002 as a means of empowering local community, democratization and improving service delivery. The researcher has found out that, following the decentralization process, different institutions – government team, sub kebeles, kebeles and woreda– are involved in planning. Planning is undertaken annually. And also he indicated that planning process initiated at local level (government team or sub kebele) is perfumed under series of community consultation. This is expected at identifying the problems facing communities and ranking these problems in order of priority until it is completed at woreda level (Laekemariam et al., 2016).

15 According to (Atnafe & Adane,2015), the priority lists developed at local level are sent up to the kebele where kebele officials with DAs (Development Agents) that consolidate them into a single priority list for the kebele. Again at woreda level, kebele priorities are aggregated and segregated in to sect oral groups by finance and economic development office and passed on to the concerned sectoral desk and finally form a woreda plan. It has been found out that the merging of different community level reduces the involvement of people at grass root level to the extent of problem identification. The actual planning and decision making is made at woreda level. Therefore, it can be said that community involvement at woreda level due to decentralization is limited to consultation at problem identification level.

2.5 Causes of soil erosion

2.5.1 Woodland Clearing

According to (Shibru, 2017), land degradation and deforestation in Ethiopia impairing the capacity of forest and the land to contribute to food security and to provide other benefits such as fuel wood and fodder. The former sources indicate that high forests that might have covered about 35-40% of the total areas of Ethiopia have now been reduced to 2.7%. According to recent government sources, estimates of deforestation currently “vary from 80,000 to 200,000 hectares per annum”, and the main cause is believed to be the harsh expansion of rain-fed agriculture (Antonio, 2016).

Huge destruction of forests and woodlands in Ethiopia happening on three significant occasions in the decades following the 1960’s. This was when the imperial government proclaimed in the mid-sixties that all large-scale forests belonged to the state; the second occasion was in 1975,following the land reform and expropriation of all forests; and the third was at the time of the fall down of the Derg in 1991(Fentie et al., 2013).

But, in recent decades, especially after the 1950’s an increasing tendency of degradation of natural resources, such as farmland, soil, water, forest and pasture, has been witnessed in Ethiopia (Maitima et al., 2009). In present time deforestation is a major problem in Ethiopia, since it is one of the main Causes of the land degradation.

16 The expansion of agriculture, using wood and other biomass for fuel consumption makes high rate of deforestation and eventually exposed the land of vegetative biomass to exposing to high level soil erosion. Still, the remaining forest resource is being depleted at terrifying rate, partly because approximately 95% of nation’s energy utilization is from biomass fuels (Reda, 2014).

2.5.2 Poor Arable Land Management

Ethiopian farmers now continuing implementing traditional method of cultivation, the top soil was eroded by wind and rain. As a result of erosion water could not percolate into the soil instead it is wasted as run-off. Because of that, the soil cannot maintain the required amount of soil moisture. As a result of depletion of soil moisture and soil nutrients, the soil cannot sustain plant growth (Gebremariam et al., 2010).In Ethiopia, cultivating the land continuously without any improvement in land management and farming practice has led to severe soil erosion. It is widely accepted that land degradation is mainly caused by cultivation. Agricultural activities that can cause land degradation including shifting cultivation without adequate fallow periods, absence of soil conservation measures, cultivation of fragile marginal lands, unbalanced fertilizers use, and a host possible problem arising from quality planning or management of irrigation (S. Moges & Reddy, 2013).

2.5.3 Degradation of Grazing Land

According to (Bibi et al., 2017) the uncontrolled browsing of trees and shrubs is another aspect of overgrazing and a cause of deforestation, leading to flooding and siltation in adjacent areas. Because, rains are no longer held back by the sponge effect of the trees and carry with them large loads of eroded soil. The degradation of sparse rangeland vegetation by overgrazing exposes the soil to erosion by wind and water. Ethiopia has one of the largest livestock populations in Africa with 30 million head of cattle, 22 million sheep, 17 million goats, 7 million equines and 1million camels (Risk & Portfolio, 2011).

From 70 to 80% of these livestock are found in the highlands (Atnafe et al., 2015a).Only 25 percent of Ethiopia’s high livestock population which includes 35.3 million cattle-graze in the rangelands (the lowland areas of Afar, Somali, and Borena), while the remaining 75 percent graze in the highlands, leading to severe overgrazing of areas before now under high agrarian

17 pressure (Kuma & Guchi, 2016). In the highlands, the increase of grazing beyond the land’s carrying capacity occurs at the expense of the remaining natural vegetation and further land degradation. The shortage of grazing land and livestock feed has forced the extensive use of crop residue to feed livestock. When crop residues are removed for feed and cow dung is used for fuel, the soil loses organic matter and nutrients. This contravene in the soil nutrient cycle seriously depletes soil quality, increases erosion, and ultimately reduces soil productivity.

2.5.4 Population Pressure and the Problem of soil erosion

Still there are many point of views which about the population growth is the Cause of land degradation in Ethiopia it has certainly direct consequences for the environment; growing demand for more land for crop production; for fuel wood; shortening of fallow cycles and contribution to over cultivation(Mcguire & Sperling, 2008). Furthermore, high population growth, the size of individually owned plots is decrease in the relatively fertile highland and medium altitudes. This shrinking will lead to intensive cultivation, which will predictably result in a loss of soil fertility. In the lack of modern techniques for enriching the soil, and with dung being increasingly converted into a source of fuel, the reduction in soil fertility is imminent. According to (Welu & Solomon, 2015). Study this shrinking leads to reduce soil fertility and consequently a decline both the capacity of soil to produce food and its capacity to resist drought.

2.5.5 Tenure Right and the Problem of soil erosion

According to (Jufare, 2008) In Ethiopia, tenure insecurity has been strongly accused of leading to resource degradation. The insecurity prevailing prior to the Revolution is believed to be “one of the main causes to blame for the widespread land degradations that occurred in the past”. The effects of land tenure on the adoption of land management practices are mostly to the transferability of property rights, which in turn affects the reversibility of land investments and the ability to use land as guarantee.

The present land policy of Ethiopia is based on the view that land is both a factor of production, contributing to growth, and the essential element in providing the benefits of the population. Under the 1994 constitution, land is the state property and farmers have only use rights over the

18 parcels they farm. Land cannot be sold or exchanged. Land is innate, but with conditions in some regions. Private property on land is forbidden in all regions. Land is transferred through sporadic redistributions with each person getting the age of 18 being permitted to land in the Keble (Kuma & Guchi, 2016).

2.5.6 Lack of Awareness as Factors for soil erosion

There are different understandings as to whether the problem is well recognized by the grass roots population some studies and observations at specified areas indicate. Farmers are responsive of the problems of land degradation in its diverse forms in unlike ways. According to (Ashoori et al., 2016), reported that farmers’ view of land degradation problems in its case primarily in terms of soil erosion and soil fertility problem as follows: for farmers, soil movement is not that clear unless rills and gullies are created.

Their concern with soil is fertility that they measure using different indicators i.e. its color (dark or light), compare the crop stand and yield, and they see its physical characteristics such as weight on the plough shear and plough depth, stoniness and the like. The farmer’s outlook towards land degradation and conservation exposed farmer’s awareness on the problems of land degradation (Welu & Solomon, 2015). In this case, the farmers identified soil erosion as the main cause of land degradation, followed by drought, deforestation, variability of rainfall and improper farming practices.

The farmers further explained the effects of land degradation by mentioning famine and drought in general and reduction in yield in their farm land by relationship of the trend of crop yield. Farmers view of erosion problems and their conservation knowledge and practices in the Beressa Watershed in the central highlands of Ethiopia was also studied by (Pfeiffer, 2012) are confirmed about 72% of farmers supposed soil erosion problem as the major form of land degradation.

19 2.6 Types of Soil and Water Conservation

2.6.1 Indigenous Soil and Water Conservation

In the emerging global knowledge economy a country’s ability to build and mobilize knowledge capital, is equally essential for sustainable land management as the availability of physical and financial capital (Fentie et al., 2013). The basic component of any country’s knowledge system is its indigenous knowledge. It encompasses the skills, experiences and insights of people, applied to maintain or improve their livelihood.

Because of rapidly changing natural environments and fast pacing economic, political and cultural changes on a global scale, indigenous knowledge is at risk. Practices vanish, as they become inappropriate for new challenges or because they adapt too slowly. However, many practices disappear only because of the intrusion of foreign technologies or development concepts that promise short-term gains or solutions to problems without being capable of sustaining them. The tragedy of the impending disappearances of indigenous knowledge is most obvious to those who have developed it and make a living through it. But implications for others can be detrimental as well, when skills, technologies, artifacts, problem solving strategies and expertise are lost (Policy & Aid, 2016).

Farmers in Ethiopia have a wide variety of indigenous land management techniques that they have been employing for generations though some of them are in danger of being lost (A. Moges et al., 2013). These measures are broadly grouped as physical, vegetative, and agronomic methods. These measures are the result of a gradual learning process and emerge from a knowledge base accumulated by rural people by observation, experimentation, and a process of handing down through generation people’s experience and wisdom (Atnafe et al., 2015b). These practices are also shaped by and emerge from a detailed understanding of local conditions, and are modified in response to changing socio-economic, political and ecological conditions.

20 2.6.2 Structural Soil Conservation Methods

Structural soil conservation methods control erosion by shortening the length and minimizing the gradient of the ground slope. This technique involves construction of tied ridges, bunds, fanyajuu terraces, bench terraces, hillside terraces, diversified ditches (cutoffs) water ways and special water harvesting structures. Certain farming practices which are believed to conserve the natural resource base and at the same time raise productivity are noted. These include inter cropping and relay or regulation cropping; crop rotation; integration of livestock farming with arable cultivation the cut and carry method of using degraded pasture, controlling grazing and tethering; wide spread use of semi-permanent crops like enset (false banana)and cassava- or self-seeding and volunteering crops, such as legumes and sweet potatoes. It is not surprising that emphasis has now been put on agro forestry (Welu & Solomon, 2015).

2.7 Assessment of Soil and Water Conservation Practices

For quite a long time, soil and water conservation has been considered a more or less technical issue, based on years of dominantly biophysical problem-oriented research on factors such as climate, soils, topography, vegetation, etc. Consequently, many SWC guidelines were published with dominantly technical character Much less information is available concerning solution- oriented research including that addresses, among other things, also negative side effects, about the compatibility of technical solutions with prevailing socio cultural and economic settings of a specific area, and about the process of adapting SWC to such settings (Fentie et al., 2013).

In the 1980s, SWC in Ethiopia focused on preventing further decline of the remaining soil resources and to rehabilitate already degraded soils. It was most unfortunate that the issue of resource management was split into different tasks addressed by different ministries and departments, e.g. controlling soil erosion (Community Forestry and Soil Conservation Department; SCRP) and agricultural production Agronomic Development Department, Institute of Agricultural Research – without appropriate coordination.

Ethiopian farmers began on a large scale, removing and modifying SWC schemes that were previously established by the government under the food for work program. These reactions can be seen as an eye-opener for many SWC experts who had to learn that SWC could only be made

21 effective if it’s economic viability and social acceptability is given the same attention as ecological soundness and technical feasibility. The poor conservation practices that cause land degradation in sub- Saharan Africa countries cut across sectors of agricultural practices, works and construction (Sentís, 2002).

Some of these include insufficient lengths of drainage network, over - grazing of rangelands, drainage constructed to earths’ beds and the use of heavy machinery. Others are: absence of crop rotation and manure; planted trees and shrubs which do not survive because of lack of proper and adequate encouragement; poor human attitude, as when some politicians and individuals cut down trees planted by their political opponents; plugging of soil which leads to decline of soil organic matter of between 25 and 40 percent, in this manner exposing land to wind and water erosion (Bationo, 2009)

Thus, the past and present human interventions in the utilization and manipulation of environmental resources have had unanticipated consequences (Maitima et al., 2009).

These interventions and manipulations are particularly crucial in the sub - Saharan Africa region, where unsustainable conservation practices have been identified as a threat to sustainable land uses. This study also notes that governments’ disregard for traditional solutions to land degradation negatively affects conservation efforts. Further focuses attention on poor practices, so as to include the impact of a chain of international trade and economic practices which result in low prices for agricultural and livestock commodities. This forces most developing countries to promote adverse land use practices with the intention of earning foreign exchange assistance in small scale irrigation project indicate that same irrigation scheme are not operating the full potential land same is not function at all due to factor related to shortage of water damage the structure of and poor water management (Raafat & Samira, 2003).

22 2.8 Challenges of Soil and Water Conservation

Enhancing Water, Soil, and Habitat Geographical and political challenges due to competition for water resources from other economic sectors as well as increased human population. Alarming water scarcities present a serious threat. According to the United Nations, almost a half billion people in 29 countries suffered from water shortages in 2008—and the situation is expected to get worse. Similarly by 2025, the United Nations estimates that “two out of every three people will live in water-stressed areas” (Water, n.d.). Climate change is expected to affect both temperatures and precipitation rates in various parts of the world. Even though it is a global phenomenon, it likely effects will vary significantly by region. Incidence of drought from changing rainfall patterns could dramatically reduce yields in some regions that rely heavily on rain-fed agriculture. An example of such a region is sub-Saharan Africa, where approximately 95 percent of the crop production area relies entirely on rainfall (Mcguire & Sperling, 2008).

In addition to affecting precipitation rates and patterns, climate change is expected to affect temperature; growing season; soil moisture levels; sea level rise leading to inundation and Stalinization of coastal areas, deltas, estuaries, and aquifers; rates of pest invasion; and other critical agricultural production factors. Further, research suggests that adverse consequences of a changing climate will disproportionately affect the world’s poor. “Hardest hit will be small scale farmers and other low income groups in areas prone to drought, flooding, salt water intrusion, or sea surges ( Tesfay,2010).

2.9 Major Factors Determining Soil and Water Conservations Measures

There is a general consensus that it is far less expensive to prevent land degradation via the application of good management based on both cultural and scientific knowledge than to rehabilitate degraded land. Because several natural (such as climate change) and manmade factors like misaligned policies and incentives as well as weak enforcement capabilities of policies; put hindrances on activities to be practiced to assure sustainable land management (Ashoori et al., 2016).

Globally there are numerous factors that determining farmland management practices to prevent land degradation and/or to rehabilitate degraded land. Of these, government policies and

23 programs, socio-economic and institutional factors, education, farmers’ indigenous knowledge and active participation, endowments of Physical and Human capital as well as topography and climate are the most determinant factors (Water, n.d.).

2.10 Conceptual Frame work

Institutional factors

Government policies

Extension education

Tenure security

Socio-Economic and demographic factors Physical factors Determinants of soil and water - Income -slope conservation -Age practices -farm size -sex -Education level

Figure 1 conceptual frame work Adopt from review literature (by the researcher).

24 2.11 Empirical studies

According to (Weldegebriel & Gustavsson, 2017), On SWC use in Konso, Wolita and Wello, Ethiopia; indicated that land size, livestock ownership, family size, risk perception, land tenure on non- arable lands, labor organization, characteristics of technology, indigenous institution and physical factors are significant determinants of SWC. He explained that farmers’ SWC decision is affected by the interaction of social economic and institutional factors. Even though various factors are more important than others under a given situation, consideration should be given to all of them in order to understand what farmers do in SWC.

According (Atnafe et al., 2015a) on factors influencing adoption of soil conservation measures in southern Ethiopia: Gununo area showed that farmer’s perception of soil erosion problem, technology attributes, the number of economically active family members, farm size, family size, wealth status of the farmer and the location of the farm land are influencing adoption of physical soil conservation measures.

According to (Fentie et al., 2013) in central highlands of Ethiopia Salale area showed that land security, size of cultivated land, technology specific characteristics, formal schooling, wealth status of the household, availability of off farm income and assistance from different sources were determinants of adoption of physical soil conservation measures.

The assessment of nationally representative household survey shows that key drivers of sustainable land management in Ethiopia are biophysical, regional and socio-economic determinants (Santos et al.,2013). The causes of land degradation are the agents that decide the rate of degradation. These are biophysical (land use and land management, including deforestation and tillage methods), socioeconomic (e.g. land tenure, marketing, institutional support, income and human health), and political (e.g. incentives, political stability) forces that influence the effectiveness of processes and factors of land degradation (Gebreslassie & Tamirat, 2015). Soil degradation was major global problem during the 20th centuries, and remains of very significance issue in the 21st centuries as its effects on the environment, the productivity of the soil, food security and quality of life (Atnafe et al., 2015b).

25 Due to land degradation in most developing countries, in particularly, agricultural productivity showed a dramatic decline and reached the level beyond the subsistence requirement of a household (Gebremariam et al., 2010). The evidences (physical and economic) shows that the loss of land resource productivity is an serious problem in Ethiopia and that with continued population growth the problem is likely to be even more important in the future. There are several studies that deal with land degradation at the national level in Ethiopia (Mena, 2017).

Agricultural activities that can cause land degradation including shifting cultivation without adequate fallow periods, absence of soil conservation measures, cultivation of fragile marginal lands, unbalanced fertilizers use, and a host possible problem arising from quality planning or management of irrigation (S. Moges & Reddy, 2013). Now there are many point of views which about the population growth is the Cause of land degradation in Ethiopia it has certainly direct consequences for the environment; growing demand for more land for crop production; for fuel wood; shortening of fallow cycles and contribution to over cultivation(Mugume E, 2014). Soil erosion is most severe on cultivated lands, averaging 42 metric tons per hectare per year on currently cultivated lands and 70 metric ton per hectare per year on formerly cultivated degraded lands (Sporton, 2009). Ethiopia loses annually 1.5 billion metric ton of topsoil from the highlands by soil erosion (Gurmessa, 2015).

The problem of soil erosion is compounded by the fact that some farmers dismantled the conservation structures built in the past through food for work incentives (Karlen & Rice, 2015). The population pressure on arable land has more than doubled since 1950. Some 80 percent of the population still lives in rural areas, especially in the highlands areas, where an estimated 50 percent of the land is degraded (Jie et al., 2002).

26 CHAPTER THREE

METHODS AND MATERIALS

3.1 Back ground of the study area

3.1.1 Location

Soddo Zuria Woreda is one of the twelve Woredas in Wolaita Zone and founds in Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Regional State (SNNPR).Geographically it is located between 6°48’0"N-7° 4’30"N and 37°37’0"E-37°53’30"E. The woreda is bordered in the south by Humbo Woreda, in the West by the Offa, Kindo Koisha and Damot Sore in the North by Boloso Sore Woreda, and in the east by Damot Woide Woreda. The administrative center of Soddo Zuria Woreda is Wolita Soddo Town.

Figure 2 map of the study area Source: developed by the researcher (2018).

27 3.1.2 Local climate and agro ecology

In Soddo zuriaWoreda, there are two agro-ecological zones, namely Dega and Woina Dega. From the above agro-ecological zones of the District, the largest part is covered by Woina Dega which accounts for 60 percent of the total area. On the other hand, Dega accounts for about 40 percent of the total area(Balta, 2015).

Wolaita has a bi-modal rainfall pattern that extends from March to October. The first rainy period (Belg) occurs in March to May, while the second rainy period (Kremt) covers July to October, with its peak in July/August. The average annual rain fall over 43 years is 1014 mm. The mean annual rainfall for the decades of the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s was 1,015mm, 920 mm and 1,290 mm, respectively. The average annual rainfall between 2002 up to 2011 was 107.7mm with a maximum of average annual rainfall 134.4 mm in 2007 and a minimum of 75.9mm in 2002. The rainfall follows a Bimodal annual distribution with more than 72% of the annual rainfall during the four months from April to August (locally called kiremt). It is in this season that the major agricultural activities, such as plowing, sowing and weeding are performed. The dry months are between November and March (locally known as Bega) when less than 6% of the total annual rainfall occurs. The Kiremt season (April – August) is more dependable for farming activities (Engineering, 2015).

28 Figure 3 Average rain fall data for 10 years (2002-2011) wolita sodo station

3.1.3 Temperature

The coldest and warmest months are September and March respectively. The mean annual temperature in Sodo Zuria District is 19.5c°. Based on the records of ten years (2002-2011), meteorological data for the Wolaita Sodo station, the temperature can be characterized as the maximum annual temperatures occur in November and February and ranges from 20.14c° to 26.72c° whereas; minimum annual temperature occur in April and September with a range of 10.66c° to 11.59c° over the 10 years.

Figure 4 Average temperature data for 10 years (2002-2011) wolita sodo station

29 3.1.4 Topography

The landscape of the study area includes plateaus, hills rolling, and rugged mountain systems. The elevation of the study area ranges from 1501 – 2958 m.a.s.l. Among the mountains of the study area mount ‘Damota’ is well known and situated along the Shashemene-Addis Ababa way. The altitude of the mount ‘Damota’ is 2958 m.a.s.l.

Figure 5 Slope map of the study area 3.1.5 Soil Types

According to (Jufare, 2008) the soil types widely covered in the study area are Dystric Nitosols, Pellic Vertisols,Chromic Luvisols and Eutric Cambisols respectively. Dystric Nito sols coveres most parts of the woreda.

30 Figure 6 Soil map of the study area

3.2 Socio economic back ground

3.2.1 Economic activities

Agriculture is the major economic activity of the study area. Potato, sweet potato, cassava, yam, banana, Enset, maize, haricot bean, teff, sorghum, pumpkin, broad bean, peas, kidney bean and chick-pea are main food crops growing in the study area. In addition to crops, livestock production is also the major activity in the study area. The estimated livestock population is 79,600 cattle, 824 goats, 738 sheep’s, 7312 equines, 3084 chickens.

31 3.2.2 Infrastructure

The infrastructures such as road, telecommunication, and social services which are very essential to agricultural activities are adequately available in soddo zuria woreda with compared to other Districts of Wolaita Zone. To enhance the marketing system cooperatives and storage houses are nearly available for the farmers.

3.2.3 Population characteristics

Based on the result of housing and population census of May, 2007, in 2017 the projected population of the woreda is 193,669 people, out of this 95,289 are males and 98,380 are females.

3.3. Research Design

The research method selected for this study was survey research. Since the aim of the study is to describe facts and explaining of the existing conditions of the issue under discussion. The cross sectional/survey design was convenient to the researcher with limited resources, and obtaining a cross-sectional survey is often easier.

3.4 Data Types and Sources

The data used for this study was collected from both primary and secondary sources. Majority of the primary data was collected through structured questionnaires, key informant interview, focus group discussions with the household heads, woreda agriculture and natural resource development office experts and kebele extension agents .In addition, secondary data sources, such as, published and unpublished documents and reports from different offices as well as books, scientific journals were used to validate and explain the findings of study.

32 3.5 Data collection tools

3.5.1 Primary Data sources

The primary data sources were generated by the researcher and the data’s would collected through field observation, household survey, key informant interview and focus group discussion.

3.5.1.1 Household survey

The Structured survey questionnaire was collected to obtain information from selected sample households of the District. The survey questionnaire was conducted to get first-hand information and related issues of soil and water conservation practices of the study area. In this survey, household’s demographic characteristics, household socio-economic characteristics and related issues would be obtained. To get first hand information from the house hold heads, the questioner changed in to local language woliteghna.

3.5.1.2 Key Informant Interview

Key informants were selected purposively. The District and kebele extension agents with farmers who lived long time in the study area and had detail information about the past and present conditions of their environment especially soil and water conservation practices. Purposive questions asked to get relevant information about soil and water conservation methods and its challenges in the study area. Eight key informants were selected for interview. Out of the eight key informants, two extension agents from Soddo Zuria District agriculture and natural resource development office, four old aged farmers from each kebeles and the rest two key informants were extension agents of the two kebeles.

3.5.1.3 Focus Group Discussion (FGD)

Focus group discussion was conducted with kebele extension agents with selected farmers. The data collected from FGD reflects the types, challenges and current measures of soil and water conservation practices. Six representatives were selected to focus group discussion. Out of the six persons, two extension agents from each local kebele administrations and the remaining four persons were farmers who applying swc measures by good manner in their farm.

33 3.5.1.4 Field Observations

In order to supplement realized and insure the responses was gained from the respondents using questionnaires and interview. Field observation is an important method of collecting primary data. In this study, it carried out through systematic observation and recording of different data. Personal observations, together with photographs, were also employed in order to fully understand the realities on the ground, particularly the nature of soil and water conservation practices. It helps to generate ideas helpful to modify survey questionnaire, focus group discussion and key informant and also to acquire information about the physical setting of the area and conditions of soil and water conservation practices of the area.

3.6 Sampling technique and sample size

3.6.1 Sampling technique

There are 12 woredas in wolaita zone, out of those, Sodo Zuria woreda was purposively selected as study area .The reason for the purposive selection of this District is, the District is different from the another District of Wolita Zone by topography and severity of soil erosion. For this reason, the researcher purposively selected Sodo Zuria District as study area. Stratified random sampling technique was used to select sample kebeles from which the sample respondents. The Woreda has 31 rural Kebele administratives. The kebeles were stratified in to two groups based on their agro ecology. Out of these strata two kebeles were selected by simple random sampling i.e. Kutto Sorppella from Woina Dega and Damot Wajja from Dega Kebeles. Finally, household heads were selected by simple random sampling technique from selected kebeles.

3.6.2 Sample size

In order to take representative samples, first the list of all adequate household head respondents resided in the two sample Kebeles were selected. The total household heads resided in the study kebeles are 1710. Out of the sampled household heads, the researcher selected 324 house hold heads by using the following formula (Yemane, 1967). It is used to calculate the sample size with 95% confidence level and 0.05% level of precision.

34 n=N/1+N (e) ²

Where, n= desired sample size

N=sample frame of the study (total number of the households i.e. 1710

e= level of precision (0.05).

n=1710/1+1710(0.05)²= 324.

Table 1 Sample size determination

Name of Kebeles Total number %share of Total number of of house holds households from sample house total population. holds

Kutto Sorpella 1003 58.6% 190

Damot Wajja 707 41.4% 134

Total 1710 100% 324

Source: - field survey 2018

3.7. Method of data Analysis

The methods of data presentation and analysis typically involved the transformation of all information to analysis and interpretation. Because of the nature of the issue under investigation, the researcher used qualitative and quantitative descriptions to present and interpret the data gathered from different sources. Descriptive statistics was used for presenting quantitative description in the manageable form. In addition to these, relationship between some variables and soil conservation practices was analyzed by using of statistical package for social science (SPSS) of version 20 window.

35 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 methods of Soil and water conservation practices

The data obtained from soddo zuria woreda agriculture and natural resource development office report of 2017 the varieties of methods practiced for soil and water conservation management methods are canals, soil bund, stone bund, bench terracing, hill side terracing, support soil bund by stone, maintenance of terraces, planting trees on terrace, flood diversion and water way ditch, deep trench dig, micro trench dig, trench dig in coffee farm, half moon or semi circular bund dig, silt filtration pond, protecting degraded land from animal or human intervention, make over grazing free water shed, Planting different types of tree seedlings and indigenous trees in degraded communal lands and protecting them, and also prepare improved plantation hole to plant trees are the methods to conserve soil and water resources of the study area. In the study area physical, biological and agronomic soil and water conservation methods used.

Table 2 Respondents response on Vegetative type of SWC measures

Vegetative type Frequency Percentage soil water conservation practices

Grass strip 83 25.6

Planting trees 136 42.0

Area closure 57 17.6 agro forestry 48 14.8

Total 324 100

Source: - field observation 2018.

36 In the above table 2, vegetative measures taken to conserve soil in the study area were described. Planting tree (42.0%), grass strip (25.6%), area closure (17.6%) and agro forestry (14.8%) activities. The most of the respondents were planting trees in their field or communal lands. Windbreaks and tree plantings slow the wind and provide shelter and food for wildlife. According to (Bibi et al., 2017) conducted in wolita zone explained Farmstead, field windbreaks and tree plantings are key mechanism of a conservation system. Trees are particularly valuable as windbreaks and are commonly used to control erosion and recover badly degraded land. It is also a valuable traditional practice which plays a significant role in maintaining ecological stability.

Next to tree plantation grass strip is also the commonly used soil conservation method in the study area. Grass strips can be planted along ditches to stabilize them, or on the rises of bench terraces to stop erosion. According to (Masresha, 2014) conducted in north western highlands of Ethiopia explained the cut grass can be used as livestock fodder or as mulching purpose. A variety of practical methods of SWC measures are used and they are broadly grouped into physical (mechanical or technical), biological (vegetative) and agronomic measures (so called best management practices.

According to (Ashoori et al., 2016) conducted in koga watershed, highlands of Ethiopia indicated that Ethiopian farmers used both traditional and improved practices for soil and water conservation. These technologies included: physical measures such as stone bunds, contour farming and drainage, biological measures such as planting trees; and agronomic measures such as spreading manure, leaving crop residues in the field and allowing land to remain fallow. The soil and water conservation methods applied in the study area were included biological, physical and agronomic.

37 Figure 7 Tid/junipers tree planted in kutto sorppela kebele by community participation

The above figure 7 showed that tree planted by communal degraded land in kutto sorpella kebele administration. Before 4 or 5 years ago this area is highly vulnerable to soil erosion and also at the time of dry season wind carried out fertile top soil. Now a day this area changed green by the participation of community of the kebele and also it serves as home for some bird species and wild animals as well as it is source of fresh oxygen to community.

Figure 8 Elephant grass planted in both Damot Wajja and Kutto sorpela kebele to stabilize the structural swc works

38 4.2 Currently used soil and water conservation practices

Table 3 Currently Used SWC measures

Currently used soil Frequency Percent water and conservation measures

Contour plough 106 32.7

Mulching 92 28.4

Soil bund 86 26.5

Terracing 40 12.3

Total 324 100

Source: - field survey 2018.

In the above table 3 showed that the currently applied soil and water conservation measures were mentioned. (32.7%) of the respondents currently applied contour plough in their farm land to decrease soil erosion in the sloppy land. While the remaining (28.4%) respondents applied mulching, (26.5%) used soil bund, and (12.3%) terracing reported as most frequently applied methods to protect soil from erosion. Contour farming is a familiar traditional practice exercised by most of the respondents of the study area. Contour plough, soil bund and terracing were the most frequently used in degga kebele of the study area and mulching was used in woina degga kebele of the study area.

According to (Baatuuwie et al., 2011)study which taken in northern Ghana explained that every furrow acts as a small dam, catching water as it runs down the hill and encouraging it to soak into the soil. This simple conservation measure may be enough by itself to prevent the runoff of water and erosion where slopes are gentle and the rainfall intensities are low.

39 Followed by contour farming, mulching is also applied by the farmers of the study area and it helps covering the soil between crop rows or around trees or vegetables with cut grass, crop residues, straw or other plant material. According to (Ashoori et al., 2016) study conducted in Iran described mulching helps to retain soil moisture by limiting evaporation prevents weed growth and enhances soil structure

A) Soil bund B) Bench terrace

Figure 9 Soil bund and Bench terrace in Damot Wajja kebele Source: - field observation 2018.

The above figure 9 shows bench terracing in the Damot Wajja kebele administration. Steepness is high and farmers found in these areas affected by soil erosion during the rainy season. Currently this area cultivated well and the constructed terrace slows down the flow speed of flood water. According to key informant’s interview, the terrace is constructed by the participation of Damot Wajja Kebele community and the safety net users of the kebele. Bench terracing and soil bund are most popular soil and water conservation method in the Damot Wajja kebele administration.

40 Figure 10 Community pond in Kutto Sorpella kebele

The above figure 10 showed that community level pond in kutto sorfella kebele and dug by both safety net program users and the community participation. And also, the pond contains 500m³ of water and it uses as to drink their livestock at the time of dry seasons which seasonal rivers dried up and some farmers used it to grow home gardens.

41 4.3 Water harvesting methods on Farm land

Table 4 Water catching methods on farm land

Water conservation Frequency Percentage methods in their farm land

Digging small trenches in 133 41.0 farm land Divert flood to farm land 68 21.0 crop cover 73 22.5 Dig family level pond near 50 15.4 to farm land Total 324 100

Source: - field observation 2018. According to the above table 4, (41.0%) of the respondents of the study area were dig small trenches in their farm land to stay the water from flood at the time of rainy seasons. While the remaining (22.5%) respondents used covering crop on their farm land, (21.0%) divert flood to farm land and (15.4%) of the respondents were dig family level ponds near to their field. Most of these methods applied in Kutto Sorpela Kebele i.e. the farmers applied these water capturing methods to stay water at the time of rainy seasons in their field and keep moisture.

42 4.4 Challenges of soil water conservation practices

Table 5 Challenges on SWC practices

Challenges of soil water Frequency Percentage conservation works

Lack of knowledge to 63 19.4 apply it.

Land size makes them 106 32.7 do not use structural works.

Structural SWC works 155 47.8 Contains crop destroy pests.

Total 324 100

Source:- field survey 2018

In the above table 5, the challenges of soil and water conservation practices were described. In the table (47.8%) were mentioned the structural soil and water conservation works cause crop destroy pests in their farm. And also (32.7%) of the respondents answered that the small size of farm land makes not use structural soil and water conservation methods in their farm land and the remain (19.4%) of the respondents answered that they have no deep knowledge to construct structural soil and water conservation works in their farm land.

As expressed from focus group discussion held with agricultural expert, most of the famers who requested soil and water conservation practices show unwillingness to participate it by without food aid. On the other hand also the farmers have no deep knowledge for the importance of soil

43 and water conservation practices. At the time of community level pond digging most of the farmers show un willingness to dig the pond, because it narrows the grazing land of the community and also the time of heavy rain the pond broken and it causes flooding and soil erosion in their locality. The technical challenges which related to the implementation of conservation measures were the farmers in most cases do not accept the horizontal distance of contour suggested by the extension agents because that the recommended distance is too narrow to allow oxen turn while plowing and conservation structures consume and fragment their farm land.

In some kebeles, at the time of soil and water conservation works there is wastage of human labor, as well as not putting top soil on top, problems in the selection of proper technology and design works, the distance between terraces are not match the steepness of the area, the problems in the embankments of terraces are common problems in the study area.

Figure 11 Community pond which broken by flooding in Kutto Sorpella

The above figure shows that the pond filled by flood water and broken. These pond dug by participation of community and the safety net users of the kutto sorpela kebele.As expressed by focus group discusion, most of the community level pond founds in kutto sorpela kebele causes flooding in farm lands that nearest to the pond and soil erosion at the time of heavy rain. Other problem related with the community pond, there is poor or no stabilizer which planted to prevent

44 erosion. Some areas of the kebele, farmers destroyed the stabilizers of the pond and use it as firewood wood.

4.5 Sources of Extension services

Table 6 Source of information about SWC Practices

Source of extension Frequency Percent education

Peer group farmers 48 14.8

Kebele extension 114 35.2 agents

Development agents 78 24.1

Electronic media 84 25.9

Total 324 100

Source: - field observation 2018.

As shown in the above table 6, the majority of the respondents (35.2%) were get extension education from kebele extension agents. While, the remaining (25.9%), (24.1%) and (14.8%) of the respondents were takes extension education from electronic media, development agents and peer group farmers respectively.

The message that farmer gain from extension agents help them to initiate to use the newly introduced soil and water conservation practices on their farm to protect their land from erosion and improve its fertility. According to (Asnake & Elias, 2017) study conducted in Bokole and Toni sub-watersheds in southern Ethiopia indicated that, contact between a farmer and development agent and information gained help accelerating the attitude of farmers towards

45 sustainable land management practices positively, and the decision of farmers to invest on sustainable land management practices on his/her land.

According to Sodo Zuria District agriculture and natural development office, the lessons given to the farmers by public meetings, at the time of winter (Bega) that means, December, January and February. In these seasons that how the farmers keep moisture of their farm land by applying different types of tillage’s and covering the farm land by crop residues. In summer (Keremit) which means June, July and August seasons the lessons given to how they prevent their farm land from erosion followed by heavy rain fall and re-maintain the structural swc works in their community and their field.

For each kebles of District have one extension agent who trained by natural resource and environment conservation field and he supports the community in different types works related with natural resource conservation. The sources of information about SWC are public meetings, development agents, peer group farmers and community radio (FM 99.9 wolita soddo) and this community media gives natural resource conservation lessons two times per a week, Wednesday and Saturday two hour air time for each day and the program transmitted afternoon 6:30-7:30Am and again night 3:00-4:00pm by local language (woliteghna) by the aid of wolita development association.

46 Table7 Description of Continuous Variables which influences the adoption of SWC practices

soil and N Mean Std. t Variables water Deviation Sig. conservation practices Age non user 120 51.68 14.369 User 204 52.27 13.435 0.286 -.375 Education level non user 120 1.11 .868 User 204 1.03 .775 0.027 .847 Income non user 120 547.34 162.650 User 204 577.72 249.770 0.000 -1.192 Farm size non user 120 1.15 .524 User 204 1.25 .592 0.014 -1.631 Family size non user 120 4.83 1.799 User 204 5.00 1.750 0.454 -.860

Source: survey result, 2018

The survey result showed that the mean age of the total respondents of the non user and user of soil and water conservation practices was 51.68 and 52.27.The t-test indicates that there is no significant relationship between participation in soil and water conservation practices and age of the respondents by t-value -.375 and significant value 0.286.

As depicted in the above table 7, the average family size of the house hold heads in the study area was 5.00. And the value of t-test is -.860 and sig.0.454 there is no significant relationship between family size and the adoption of soil and water conservation practices. In contrast, (Bakhsh et al. 2012) stated that family size has significant negative effect on adoption of water

47 conservation practices; they assumed that the increase in family size decreased the probability of adoption of soil and water conservation technologies.

Most of the researchers who conducted scientific studies in technology adoption found that education is one of essential variable, which increases farmer’s knowledge to obtain knowledge and information to use SWC technologies. As the result of survey showed that the value of t-test shows that there was significant relationship between soil and water conservation practices with education level of the respondents at less than 5% significant level. Education level increased farmer’s awareness of the benefits of SWC practices. Farmers with higher education should be a focus of the promotion of SWC practices because they are more likely adopts SWC measures and farmers with higher education levels were more aware of the benefits of SWC measures. (Aneley et al., 2007).

In the above table 7, also indicates that the mean monthly income of users and non users of SWC practices was 577.72 and 547.34. And also the monthly income of SWC users was greater than non users of SWC. This indicates the better house hold heads income, the more likely participate soil and water conservation works and vice versa. The t –value is also significant at less than 1% confidence level and very strong relationship with SWC. This supports the results found by (Lapar and Pandey, 1999) who reported that income had a significant positive effect on adoption of SWC measures as they have more financial resources to invest in using these measures.

Availability of appropriate land size is highly important when a farmer use to adopt new technology. Land size has positive effect on the use of soil and water conservation practices. The t-value is significant at less than 5%. And also farmers who have large land size might more likely involve in soil and water conservation practices (Deressa, et al., 2009).

48 Table 8 Description of discrete Variables which influences the adoption of SWC practices

Non SWC Chi - Sample HH SWC users users squar (N=324) (N= 204) Description of (N=120) e Variables discrete variables

Freq. % Freq % Freq %

Male 244 63.3 168 82.4 76 63.3

Sex 0.00 Female 80 36.7 36 17.6 44 36.7

Total 324 100 204 100 120 100

Married 279 85.0 177 86.1 102 37.0 Marital – Un married 45 15.0 27 13.9 18 63.0 0.387 status Total 324 100 204 100 120 100

yes 144 22.5 117 57.4 27 44.4

no 180 77.5 87 42.6 93 55.5 Extensio 0.00 n- Total 324 100 204 100 120 100 contact

49 Source: survey result, 2018

In the above table 8, the survey indicated that sex and the adoption of soil and water conservation practices was statistically significant at less than 1% significant level. In the sampled household heads, Male sex distribution is the dominant. From this, one can propose in the imbalance of sex distribution can affect the decision to participate in soil and water conservation practices. Male headed households have more chance to adopt soil and water conservation technology than female headed households (Amsalu, A., & De Graff, J. 2007).

In the above table 8, analysis also showed association between contacts with an extension agent and the adoption of SWC practice. The relationship between agricultural information and adoption of SWC was significant at less than 1%. The result is consistent with a prior expectation, positive in that the frequency access of extension service is a potential force which accelerates the effective using for agricultural information on to farmers and the study supports the findings of (Aker, J. C. 2011) that farmers with higher extension contact are more likely to adopt SWC practices.

In the table 8, shows that the marital status of the respondents and the adoption soil and water conservation practices. The result indicates that the marital status of the respondent and adoption of soil and water conservation has no significant effect at 0.387 significant levels. According to (Brown & Venkatesh, 2005) the marital status of house hold heads has no significant effect on the adoption technology.

50 5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 CONCLUSION

Soil erosion has been observed as the most serious and wide-spread forms of land degradation, and itself a cause of fertility decline, through removal of organic matter and nutrients.

In the study area physical, biological and agronomic types of swc practices used. Planting different types of trees, grasses, and area closure and agro forestry were most of them taken by the study area. The currently implemented SWC works in the study area were soil bund, contour plough, mulching and terracing. Additionally in the study area, the respondents used different water staying methods in their field.dig small trenches, cover crops in their farm to keep moisture, divert flood to farm land and dig family level ponds were some of them. In study area, there are different challenges which make the respondents not use swc measures well. Lack of knowledge, small farm size, structural swc works contains crop destroy pests, technical problem in SWC works, wastage of labor, awareness problems to adopt newly implemented swc measures were mentioned as the challenges. The farmers get extension services from, development agents, extension agents of the Kebele, community radio and public meeting. According to the t-test and chi-square- test result, the sex, education level, farm size and extension contact of the house hold heads was significantly affects the adoption of swc technologies at less than 1% significant level. Age, family size and marital status of the house hold heads were no significant effect in the adoption of soil and water conservation technology at 0.286, 0.545 and0.387 significant levels. Complement structural works with biological and agronomic was essential for the best SWC works.

51 5.2 RECCOMENDATION

For achievement of soil and water conservation activities in the study area, the following recommendations should be considered as best alternative in the study area. Use agronomic conservation measures: farmers should use agronomic conservation practices to improve soil fertility, conserve soil moisture and then to reduce run off in the Dega kebele. Contour cultivation, strip cropping, tree planting, manure, mulching, and choice of suitable cropping systems like intercropping and crop rotation are the major ones. These measures should be applied either alone or as complementary together with physical soil and water conservation measures based on slope profile and farming practices of the area.

The constructed soil and water conservation structures such as contour, soil and stone bund, bench terracing, fanyajju terracing in most of Dega kebele causes crop destroy pests and poorly constructed terraces broken at the time of heavy flooding. So, the local kebele administration and the District Natural resource management office make follow up and select the technologies which suitable to area. In Woina Dega kebele most of community level ponds dug by without structures plant. At rainy seasons the pond fill by flood water and causes erosion in the study area.So, the extension agents of the kebele and the District natural resource management office look this problem and give possible solution to it. Some farmers blames that the grass which given from the extension agents to plant for fodder and to stabilize the structural SWC works causes soil fertility decline. So, make regular follow up if it cause soil fertility decline and change the grass specie by another indigenous or newly introduced one.

Complement SWC measures with agricultural inputs: during implementing integrated soil and water conservation practices, inputs like improved seed, animal breed, fertilizer, fruit seedlings should be given to participants either on cash or credit basis. And finally make regular follow up to know the community acceptance of newly implemented SWC technologies and give regular lessons to the community.

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59 Appendices

Annex1. Soil and water conservation practices in Soddo Zuria District

By kilo By hectare(ha) By meter By number Types of soil 3 water meter(km) cube(m ) conservation works

Different types ------215 of canal

Soil bund 35 ------

Funyajju 57 ------terrace

Stone bund 12 ------

Bench terrace 61 ------

Hill side 48 ------terracing

Support soil 2.5 ------bund by stone

Terrace 135 ------maintenance

Planting tree on 236 ------terraces

Flood diversion ------45 ------ditch

Water way ditch ------45 ------work

Protecting ----- 18 ------degraded land

I from human or animal intervention

Deep trench dig ------2010

Micro trench dig ------224

Trench dig in ------52 coffee farm

Half- moon or ------697 semi circular bund dig

Silt filtration ------19 pond dig dug improved ------9720 hole for plantation

Restoration of ---- 11 ------degraded land restore ----- 4 ------degraded farm land

Protect and ------6830 conserve planted seedlings

Make over ------8 grazing free water shed

II Annex 2. Water conservation practices in soddo zuria woreda

N0 Water conservation By number By hectare methods 1 Community level 10 pond 2 Small pond dig 14 near to farm land 3 500m3 pond dig 13 4 Geo membrane 19 distribution 5 Deep water hole dig 27 by hand 6 Traditional river 3 diversion 7 Stream 3 enhancement and maintenance 8 Divert flood to farm 150 ha land

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III DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES

ASSESSMENT OF SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION

PRACTICES IN WOLITA ZONE: A CASE OF SODO ZURIA WOREDA, SNNPR

By: Tekalegn Balcha

ADVISOR: BEHAILU TADDESSE (PhD) CO: ADVISOR: MULATU TILAHUN (MA)

September, 2018

IV Annex 3. Questionnaires filled by farmer household heads

Dear respondents! This questionnaire prepared for the partial fulfillment of the degree of Master of Arts in the Department of Geography and Environmental studies in University of Gondar the title which entitled on assessment of soil and water conservation practices in Wolita Zone, Soddo Zuria District, and SNNPR. Your genuine cooperation is very important to the effectiveness of this investigation. I hope that the research out comes will Contribute to the improvement of training programmers’ in natural resource management practices.

N.B: No need of writing your name on the questionnaire.

Thank You!!

Part 1.Personal Background information of the respondents

Instruction: - write your answer by circling the letter of choices for close ended questions and write your answers for open ended questions.

1. Name of Kebele A. kutto sorppela B. Damot wajja

2. Sex A. Male B. Female

3. Household size;

4. Educational background of the household head

A. Illiterate B. 1-4 C. 5-8 D. 9-12

5. Age of the household head of

6. Marital status of the respondent

A. Married B, Unmarried

7. Family size:

V 8. Occupation

9. Monthly income:

Part 2.Questions related with soil and water conservation practices

1. Do you have own land? A. Yes B. No

2 How much land do you have ?

3. The land size makes you not to use swc practices in your farm land? A. Yes B. No

4. If your answer for question number 3 yes? How it influences you not to use swc practices

5. Do you participate in soil and water conservation practices?

A. If yes, how?

B. If No, why?

6 Which Vegetative SWC Measures you use in your farm land?

A. Grass strip B. planting trees C. Area closure D. Agro forestry E. if Others specify

7 Currently what type of measures and practices you apply to conserve soil and water in your farm land?

A. contour ploughing

B.Stone bund

C.Terraces

D,.Mulching

E,If other specify

VI 8. What are the water conservation methods you apply in your farm?

A. Dig small trenches in farm

B.Divert flood water to farm land

C.Dig family level pond near to farm land

D.If other…………

Part 3.Questions related with challenges of SWC practices

1. What are the challenges which you don’t use swc works in your field?

A. land size

B.lack of knowledge to apply it

C.It contains crop destroy pests

D.If other specify

Part 4.Questions related with Extension Services

1. Do you get extension services on swc practices?

A. Yes B. No

2. If you answer for question number 1 is yes, who provides you the extension service?

A. Development Agents (DAs)

B. Agricultural Experts

C. Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs) VII D. Others

3. If your answer to question number 1 is no, why?

4. If your answer for question number 4 is no, what do you think the reason to be?

5. If your answer for question number 4 yes, how often have you obtained advice on SWC practices?

A. Once every two weeks B Once every three weeks C. Once per month

6. What are your sources of information regarding SWC practices?

A. DAs B. Model farmers C. Public meeting D. Radio E. Friends

Part 5.Field Observation checklist

Name of Kebele Date

N0 Observation of the researcher checklist

1 Training of farmers on SWC practices

2 The types of swc practices in the area

3 The current conservation measures taken by the community

4 The challenges of SWC practices in the area

VIII Part 6. Questions for focus group discussion

1. What types of soil and water conservation practices are used in your kebele level?

2. What are the current measures which used to conserve soil and water resources of your Kebele?

3. What is the problem which makes farmers do not use swc practices in their farm land?

4. As an extension agent; what are the experiences or lessons you give to your community to conserve soil and water resources?

5. What are the current measures you implement to tackle the problems related to soil and water resources in your District or Kebele level?

6. How you apply soil and water conservation works in your farm land?

7. Is there any challenge that makes you do not use soil and water conservation works in your field?

8. Do you participate regularly the lessons of soil and water conservation measures in your kebele?

Part 7.Interview guides for key informants

1. What types of SWC practices are being carried out in your area?

2. What are the currently introduced SWC practices in your area and which one is accepted well in the community?

3. What are the main challenges that you work with community to implement the swc practices in your district?

IX 4. What are the challenges you faced in your farm land to implement swc practices?

5. Have you participate in trainings, community forums, discussions with related to SWC practices?

6. As an extension agent, how you give lessons for soil and water conservation to the community? 7. Do you apply soil and water conservation works in your field regularly?

X