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Notes

Introduction

1. See, for instance, Peter Widdowson, ‘Hardy and Critical Theory’, in Dale Kramer, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Thomas Hardy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp. 73–92; Norman Page, ed., Oxford Reader’s Companion to Hardy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), pp. 75–89; Geoffrey Harvey, The Complete Critical Guide to Thomas Hardy (Farnham: Ashgate Publishing, 2010); Phillip Mallett, ed., Thomas Hardy in Context (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013). 2. Narratology may be defined as a discipline which incorporates both theory and method, and deals with narrative representation of all kinds. Monika Fludernik, An Introduction to Narratology, trans. Patricia Häusler-Greenfield and Monika Fludernik (London and New York: Routledge, 2010), p. 9, argues that the preci- sion of terminology helps towards clearer interpretations of texts, while its most prominent feature is its implicit universal validity. For critical history and discussion, see James Phelan and Peter J. Rabinowitz, eds., A Companion to Narrative Theory (Malden, MA and Oxford: Blackwell, 2005); Peter Hühn et al., Handbook of Narratology (Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter, 2009); Greta Olson, ed., Current Trends in Narratology (Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter, 2011). 3. Michael Riffaterre, ‘Describing Poetic Structures: Two Approaches to Baudelaire’s “Les Chats”’, Yale French Studies 36.7 (1966), 200–42. Reprinted in Jacques Ehrmann, ed., Structuralism (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1970), pp. 188–230. 4. Michael Toolan, Narrative Progression in the Short Story: A Corpus Stylistic Approach (Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2009), p. 22. 5. Toolan, p. 23. 6. Dale Kramer, Thomas Hardy: The Forms of Tragedy (London: Macmillan, 1975), p. 91. 7. Meir Sternberg, Expositional Modes and Temporal Ordering in Fiction (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978), p. 17. 8. F. K. Stanzel, A Theory of Narrative, trans. Charlotte Goedsche with Preface by Paul Hernadi (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), pp. 63–78 (pp. 65–9). 9. Michael J. Colacurcio, ‘Introduction: The Spirit and the Sign’, in Colacurcio, ed., New Essays on ‘The Scarlet Letter’ (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), p. 15. 10. Inderjeet Mani, The Imagined Moment: Time, Narrative, and Computation (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2010), advocates computational models, involving a database of timelines, to promote an empirical discipline of literary studies of time. 11. Martin Humpál, The Roots of Modernist Narrative: Knut Hamsun’s Novels ‘Hunger’, ‘Mysteries’, and ‘Pan’ (Oslo: Solum Forlag, 1998), p. 11. 12. Joseph Warren Beach, The Technique of Thomas Hardy (New York: Russell & Russell, 1962 [1922]), p. viii.

218 Notes 219

13. Kramer, p. 9. 14. Kramer, p. 10, quoting Florence Emily Hardy, The Life of Thomas Hardy, 1840–1928 (London: Macmillan, 1962), p. 363. Henceforth Life. 15. Thomas Hardy, Preface to The Dynasts (London: Macmillan, 1965), p. xxv. 16. Life, p. 291. 17. Life, p. 95. 18. See Joseph Warren Beach, The Technique of Thomas Hardy (New York: Russell & Russell, 1962); J. Hillis Miller, Thomas Hardy: Distance and Desire (Cambridge, MA: Belknap, 1970); Jean Brooks, Thomas Hardy: The Poetic Structure (London: Elek, 1971); Ian Gregor, The Great Web: The Form of Hardy’s Major Fiction (London: Faber, 1974); Dale Kramer, Thomas Hardy: The Forms of Tragedy (London: Macmillan, 1975); Jeannette King, Tragedy in the Victorian Novel: Theory and Practice in the Novels of George Eliot, Thomas Hardy and Henry James (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978); Peter J. Casagrande, Unity in Hardy’s Novels: ‘Repetitive Symmetries’ (Lawrence: Regents Press of Kansas, 1982); Penny Boumelha, Thomas Hardy and Women: Sexual Ideology and Narrative Form (Brighton: Harvester Press, 1982); Kristin Brady, The Short Stories of Thomas Hardy: Tales of Past and Present (London: Macmillan, 1982); J. Hillis Miller, Fiction and Repetition: Seven English Novels (Oxford: Blackwell, 1982); Irving Howe, Thomas Hardy (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1985); Peter J. Casagrande, Hardy’s Influence on the Modern Novel (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1987); Simon Gatrell, Hardy the Creator: A Textual Biography (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988); Sheila Berger, Thomas Hardy and Visual Structures: Framing, Disruption, Process (New York: New York University Press, 1990); Rosemary Sumner, A Route to Modernism: Hardy, Lawrence, Woolf (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 2000); Sophie Gilmartin and Rod Mengham, Thomas Hardy’s Shorter Fiction: A Critical Study (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007); Julian Wolfreys, Thomas Hardy (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009). 19. These would include Gérard Genette, Narrative Discourse: An Essay in Method, trans. Jane E. Lewin (Oxford: Blackwell, 1980) [Proust]; Torsten Pettersson, Consciousness and Time: A Study in the Philosophy and Narrative Technique of Joseph Conrad, Acta Academiae Aboensis, Ser. A, Humaniora; vol. 61, no. 1 (Åbo: Åbo akademi, 1982); Jakob Lothe, Conrad’s Narrative Method (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989); Ansgar Nünning, Grundzüge eines kommunikationstheoretischen Modells der erzählerischen Vermittlung: die Funktionen der Erzählinstanz in den Romanen George Eliots (Trier: Wissenschaftlicher Verlag, 1989); Michael J. Toolan, The Stylistics of Fiction: A Literary-Linguistic Approach (London: Routledge, 1990) [Faulkner]; J. Hillis Miller, Literature as Conduct: Speech Acts in Henry James (New York: Fordham University Press, 2005); Sara Håkansson, Narratorial Commentary in the Novels of George Eliot, Lund Studies in English 114 (Lund: Lund University, 2009).

1 Trainspotting in Wessex: Temporal Transparency in Desperate Remedies

1. Thomas Hardy, Desperate Remedies, edited with Introduction and Notes by Patricia Ingham, Oxford World’s Classics (Oxford: Oxford University 220 Notes

Press, 2009), p. 161; 2.2.1. Henceforth DR. References, such as 3.2.4, denote Volume 3, chapter 2, subsection 4. 2. George Bradshaw, Bradshaw’s Monthly General Railway and Steam Navigation Guide for Great Britain and Ireland (Manchester and London: Bradshaw, 1864), p. 21. 3. See Gérard Genette, Paratexts: Thresholds of Interpretation, trans. Jane E. Lewin (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), p. 315 [1987]. 4. See Pamela Dalziel, ‘Exploiting The Poor Man: The Genesis of Hardy’s Desperate Remedies’, JEGP 94.2 (1995), 220–32. 5. This represents the first instance of the important role of architecture in Hardy’s novels. Mrs Jedway, mother of Elfride’s ex-lover, is killed by a falling church tower in the later A Pair of Blue Eyes. 6. As in the vignette of the Higgins’ poverty-stricken rooms in Hoxton (3.3.4). 7. A terminal point, prescribed time-limit or deadline which heightens narrative tension. See D. L. Higdon, Time and English Fiction (London: Macmillan, 1977), pp. 74–105. 8. See also Wolfgang Schivelbusch, The Railway Journey: The Industrialization and Perception of Time and Space in the 19th Century (Leamington Spa: Berg Publishers, 1986); Nicholas Daly, Literature, Technology, and Modernity, 1860–2000 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004); Trish Ferguson, ‘Hardy’s Wessex and the Birth of Industrial Subjectivity’, in Ferguson, ed., Victorian Time: Technologies, Standardizations, Catastrophes (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), pp. 57–76. 9. See J. B. Bullen, The Expressive Eye: Fiction and Perception in the Work of Thomas Hardy (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986), pp. 193–5, 197–9, 257–8; Annie Escuret, ‘Thomas Hardy and J. M. W. Turner’, in Lance St John Butler, ed., Alternative Hardy (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1989), pp. 205–25. 10. Peter Ackroyd, Dickens (London: Sinclair-Stevenson, 1990), p. 959. 11. Wilkie Collins, No Name, edited with Introduction by Virginia Blain, Oxford World’s Classics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), p. 1 [1862]. In a Letter of Dedication to his Basil; A Story of Modern Life, edited with Introduction and Notes by Dorothy Goldman, Oxford World’s Classics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), pp. 3–6 [1862], Collins distin- guishes between ‘the Actual’ and ‘the Ideal’, stressing the need for a balance between quotidian verisimilitude and melodramatic flights, a blending of the kind likely to appeal to Hardy in DR. 12. Anon. rev. of DR, in R. G. Cox, Thomas Hardy: The Critical Heritage (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1978), pp. 1–2 [1871]. 13. Sir George Douglas, in F. B. Pinion, Thomas Hardy, Art and Thought (London: Macmillan, 1978), p. 1. 14. Albert Guerard, Thomas Hardy: The Novels and Stories (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1949), p. 12. 15. K. Z. Moore, ‘The Poet Within the Architect’s Ring: Desperate Remedies, Hardy’s Hybrid Detective–Gothic Narrative’, Studies in the Novel 14.1 (1982), 31–42. 16. Joseph Warren Beach, The Technique of Thomas Hardy (New York: Russell and Russell, 1962), p. 18. 17. Peter Widdowson, Hardy in History: A Study in Literary Sociology (London: Routledge, 1989), p. 219. Notes 221

18. Mary Rimmer, ed., Desperate Remedies (London: Penguin Books, 1998), p. xx. Her argument may be substantiated by the marked decline of the Sensation Novel after its peak during the 1860s, and Hardy’s own shift towards pastoral and autobiographical material in Under the Greenwood Tree (1872) and A Pair of Blue Eyes (1873), though he does not relinquish ‘Gothic’ themes and motifs. 19. Julian Wolfreys, Dickens to Hardy 1837–1884: The Novel, the Past and Cultural Memory in the Nineteenth Century (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), p. 244. 20. S. Onega and J. A. G. Landa, eds., Narratology: An Introduction (London and New York: Longman, 1996), pp. 129–42. 21. Günther Müller, ‘Goethes Morphologie in ihrer Bedeutung für die Dichtungskunde’, Morphologische Poetik: Gesammelte Aufsätze (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1968), pp. 287–98 [1951]. 22. Müller, ‘Über das Zeitgerüst des Erzählens’, pp. 388–418 (pp. 394–408) [1950]. 23. Müller, ‘Le Père Goriot und Silas Marner’, pp. 534–55 [1953]. 24. Müller, ‘Über das Zeitgerüst des Erzählens’, pp. 388–418 (p. 415). 25. Müller, ‘Le Père Goriot und Silas Marner’, pp. 534–55. 26. Wolfreys, p. 245. 27. See Ken Ireland, The Sequential Dynamics of Narrative: Energies at the Margins of Fiction (Cranbury, NJ and London: Associated University Presses, 2001), pp. 80–7. 28. Ireland, pp. 87–9. 29. See Gérard Genette, Narrative Discourse: An Essay in Method, trans. Jane. E. Lewin (Oxford: Blackwell, 1980), p. 52. The outcome of Mrs Manston’s fate in the fire at the inn is suspended for nearly one hundred pages (p. 171; 2.2.3, to p. 270; 3.1.3). 30. See Ireland, pp. 109–12. 31. See Ireland, pp. 107–9. 32. The notion of surveillance here implies overhearing and voyeurism, rather than Michel Foucault’s model of panopticism, the operation of power and control. Norman Page, ‘Visual Techniques in Hardy’s Desperate Remedies’, Ariel 4.1 ( January 1973), 65–71, while conceding weaknesses in the novel, discusses Hardy’s use of visual devices which appear in the later works, but are already well developed here. Amongst them, are scenes involving surveillance, glimpsed through windows, framed by doors, viewed through peep-holes, or featuring mirror-reflections, chiaroscuro and silhouettes, and usually found at key points: ‘depicting a decisive step in the action, revealing an unsuspected truth, or heightening and prolonging a moment of dramatic suspense’ (p. 70). 33. Patricia Ingham, ed., Desperate Remedies, Oxford World’s Classics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), p. xxiv, points out that Hardy deliberately chooses and draws attention to coincidences, since Cytherea’s apparently chance meeting with another Cytherea (Miss Aldclyffe) has a rational explanation, and a string of linked events argues for an underlying force or cause. 34. Raymond Chapman, ‘The Reader as Listener: Dialect and Relationships in The Mayor of Casterbridge’, in Leo Hickey, ed., The Pragmatics of Style (London: Routledge, 1990), pp. 159–78 (p. 159). 222 Notes

35. Müller, ‘Erzählzeit und erzählte Zeit’, pp. 269–86 (p. 275): ‘das Lesetempo kann nicht mit dem Metronom ein für allemal festgelegt werden’. 36. Genette, Narrative Discourse, p. 87. 37. The figures relate to the proportion of lines of text in which direct speech is represented. 38. The significance of the dating is only apparent later, when confusion about ‘Christmas-day’ and ‘Old Christmas Day’ means that Springrove arrives too late to prevent the wedding. 39. Anon. rev. of DR, in Cox, pp. 1–2.

2 Seasonal and Serial Time: Under the Greenwood Tree and A Pair of Blue Eyes

1. Thomas Hardy, Under the Greenwood Tree, edited with Introduction and Notes by Simon Gatrell, Oxford World’s Classics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 128; 3.3. Henceforth UGT. 2. Thomas Hardy, A Pair of Blue Eyes, edited with Notes by Alan Manford, with Introduction by Tim Dolin, Oxford World’s Classics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 192; ch. 21. Henceforth PBE. 3. See discussion by Alan Manford in ‘Note on the Text’, pp. xxxix–xliii. 4. See Günther Müller’s analyses of temporal handling, measuring amounts of textual space (Erzählzeit) against their coverage of story-time (erzählte Zeit) in his ‘Erzählzeit und erzählte Zeit’, Morphologische Poetik: Gesammelte Aufsätze (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1968), pp. 269–86 [1948]. 5. F. B. Pinion, Hardy the Writer: Surveys and Assessments (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1990), p. 215, refers to Emma Gifford’s playing the harmonium at St Juliot’s as a model for Fancy. In DR (8.4), Aeneas Manston’s organ-playing at the Old House against a dramatic background of thunder and lightning carries an erotic charge which leaves Cytherea Graye thrilled and spellbound. 6. Stephen Regan, ‘The Darkening Pastoral: Under the Greenwood Tree and Far From the Madding Crowd’, in Keith Wilson, ed., A Companion to Thomas Hardy (Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009), pp. 241–53 (p. 245), links this scene with Dutch night-time paintings by Gerard Dou and Godfried Schalcken. The role of Dutch art in UGT is analysed in Ruth Bernard Yeazell, Art of the Everyday: Dutch Painting and the Realist Novel (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008), pp. 125–61, and a contrast is drawn between this relatively static, domestic genre work, and Hardy’s later attraction to late Turner and Impressionism. 7. Beat Riesen, Thomas Hardy’s Minor Novels (Bern: Peter Lang, 1989), p. 64, traces this motif of dance, one of Hardy’s own youthful passions, up to its important role in The Return of the Native and Tess of the d’Urbervilles. 8. As, for example, in the Phrygian Cadence of two chords in lieu of a slow movement between the two quicker movements of Bach’s Brandenburg Concerto No. 3 in G (BWV 1048). Michael Millgate, ‘Elements of Several Literary Modes’, in R. P. Draper, ed., Thomas Hardy: Three Pastoral Novels (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1987), pp. 97–106 (pp. 98–9), recalls that Hardy’s title derives from Amiens’s song in As You Like It (II.5), and underlines the combination of music, song and dance in each work. Notes 223

9. Millgate, in Draper, ed., p. 99, sees the influence of Elizabethan pastoral or the poetry of William Barnes in this procession of seasons, while Peter J. Casagrande, ‘“Man’s Goodnesse”: A Comedy of Forgiveness’, in Draper, ed., pp. 111–15 (p. 115), refers to the coda under the spreading greenwood tree as a communal ritual of harmony and regeneration, even if dark and disorderly elements threaten to break through the surface. 10. The serial divisions are as follows: 1: chs. 1–5; 2: chs. 6–8; 3: chs. 9–11; 4: chs. 12–14; 5: chs. 15–18; 6: chs. 19–21; 7: chs. 22–25; 8: chs. 26–28; 9: chs. 29–31; 10: chs. 32–36; 11: chs. 37–40. 11. Richard H. Taylor, The Neglected Hardy: Thomas Hardy’s Lesser Novels (London: Macmillan, 1982), p. 48, quoting Carl J. Weber, Hardy of Wessex (New York: Columbia University Press, 1965), p. 86. 12. Years are specified in the 1873 and 1877 editions, though not in The New Wessex Edition of the novel. 13. See Ken Ireland, The Sequential Dynamics of Narrative: Energies at the Margins of Fiction (Cranbury, NJ and London: Associated University Presses, 2001), pp. 90–4. 14. Several instances appear in DR, but none in UGT. See Ireland, pp. 109–12. 15. Robert Gittings, Young Thomas Hardy (London: Heinemann, 1975), p. 167, views the nervous ineffective Stephen and the intellectual but emotionally unsure Knight as representing the two sides of Hardy himself. 16. Taylor, p. 34. 17. See Ireland, pp. 123–4. 18. For Gittings, p. 169, the scene serves as the fulcrum of the novel, comparable to the striking natural events of the fire in Desperate Remedies, and the storm in Far from the Madding Crowd. 19. Julian Wolfreys, Thomas Hardy (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), p. 93, refers to the ‘destabilizing anachrony’ of this moment. 20. See Ireland, pp. 112–15. 21. Lance St John Butler, Thomas Hardy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978), p. 26, terms this a ‘self-limiting’ technique: readers are given information only when characters themselves are. 22. See Ireland, pp. 87–9. 23. See Ireland, pp. 80–7. 24. See Norman Page, ‘Hardy’s Dutch Painting’, in Draper, ed., pp. 106–11. 25. The term derives from Eberhard Lämmert, Bauformen des Erzählens (Stuttgart: J. B. Metzlersche Verlag, 1955), p. 171. 26. Anna Henchman, ‘Hardy’s Cliffhanger and Narrative Time’, ELN 46.1 (Spring/Summer 2008), 127–34 (p. 129). 27. See Helmut Bonheim, The Narrative Modes: Techniques of the Short Story (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 1982), pp. 41–6. 28. See Gérard Genette, Narrative Discourse: An Essay in Method, trans. Jane E. Lewin (Oxford: Blackwell, 1980), p. 87. 29. Dialectal content, as here, features in well over half the chapters of UGT, whereas it accounts for only a small number in PBE, and continues to decline in his later novels. 30. In terms of speaking presence, Dick and Fancy clearly appear more frequently than any other characters, whereas in PBE, Stephen and Knight share just over half of the chapters, while Elfride is heard in over 224 Notes

three-quarters, and speechlessly occupies the background of the funeral carriage and hearse at the end. Her courtship by Felix Jedway, prior to the start, and by Lord Luxellian, prior to the close, underlines the notion of silence, of unnarrated, offstage events, which are nonetheless decisive for the narrative economy of PBE. 31. The proportion of dialogue is measured by the representation of direct speech in any line of text. By comparison with Hardy, the relative figures in Jane Austen’s six novels average 44%, with the proportion of dialogue in Emma reaching 53%, but dropping in Persuasion to 35%. 32. See Ireland, pp. 87–9. 33. Hardy’s use of the pastoral mode, contrasting with the melodramatic ten- dencies and emotional fluctuations of DR and PBE, has been traced to the influence of George Eliot; Riesen, p. 65, views UGT as a Wessex Adam Bede or Silas Marner without their tragic or parable structure. The Spectator of January 1874 guessed that UGT might actually be by Eliot, as reported in Florence Emily Hardy, The Life of Thomas Hardy 1840–1928 (London: Macmillan, 1962), p. 98. Henceforth Life. 34. See Günther Müller, ‘Die Bedeutung der Zeit in der Erzählkunst’, Morphologische Poetik: Gesammelte Aufsätze (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1968), pp. 247–68 [1947]. 35. Roland Barthes’s hermeneutic code, the first of his five narrative codes, by which he reassembles Balzac’s Sarrasine in S/Z (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1970), pp. 26–7, offers an analytical approach to identifying a network of enigmatic elements throughout the text. 36. The notion of surveillance here implies overhearing and voyeurism, rather than Michel Foucault’s model of panopticism, the operation of power and control. 37. The episode exemplifies what Linda M. Shires, ‘Narrative, Gender, and Power in Far from the Madding Crowd’, in Margaret R. Higonnet, ed., The Sense of Sex: Feminist Perspectives on Hardy (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1993), pp. 49–65 (p. 54), calls ‘Hardy’s persistent fascination with the play of gazes’. 38. For Dorrit Cohn, The Distinction of Fiction (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999), p. 99, the historical present implies the suspension of normal tensual semantics, though its ‘intermittent effacement of temporal distance is not to be taken … literally’, its highlighting impact being dependent on its intermittence: ‘if it were not embedded in normal tensual surroundings, its tensual deviance would not stand out’. 39. The novelist and poet George Meredith resorts to stichomythia in The Ordeal of Richard Feverel, edited with Introduction by John Halperin, Oxford World’s Classics (London: Oxford University Press, 1984), p. 255 [1859]. Richard Carpenter, Thomas Hardy (London: Macmillan, 1976), p. 48, describes PBE in terms of a generic mix, a tragicomedy or ‘comitragedy’, in its fusion of the plotting of DR and the romance of UGT, but dependent on character for its primary interest. 40. For the anonymous reviewer of PBE in Saturday Review (2 August 1873), in R. G. Cox, ed., Thomas Hardy: The Critical Heritage (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1970), p. 18, these chapters recording the cliff-top scene, are ‘worked out with extraordinary force … recall the intense minuteness and Notes 225

vivid concentration of the most powerful among French writers of fiction’. Whether the veiled allusion is to Flaubert, remains tantalizingly uncertain. 41. Gustave Flaubert, Sentimental Education, trans. Douglas Parmée (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), p. 455 [1869]. 42. See also Jerome Hamilton Buckley, The Triumph of Time: A Study of the Victorian Concepts of Time, History, Progress and Decadence (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1967); Walter Edwards Houghton, The Victorian Frame of Mind: 1830–1870 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1970). 43. See Roy Morrell, Thomas Hardy: The Will and the Way (Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaysia Press, 1965); Bert G. Hornback, The Metaphor of Chance: Vision and Technique in the Works of Thomas Hardy (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1971). For Taylor, p. 38, coincidence in Hardy operates as an instrument of irony; Terry Eagleton, The English Novel (Oxford: Blackwell, 2005), p. 200, refers to the randomness of things, of momentous effects bred by some inconspicuous muta- tion, and the way that ‘apparently unrelated bits of the world are shown to be subtly interconnected’; Lawrence Jay Dessner, ‘Space, Time, and Coincidence in Hardy’, Studies in the Novel 24.2 (Summer 1992), 154–72, notes the positive side of Hardy’s improbable overhearings and coincidences, in that they ‘allow the narrative to be as compact, as purposeful and economical, as narratively spare as in a dream’ (164); Hilary P. Dannenberg, ‘A Poetics of Coincidence in Narrative Fiction’, Poetics Today 25.3 (Fall 2004), 399–436 (405), offers a basic definition of coincidence as ‘a constellation of two or more apparently random events in space and time with an uncanny or striking connection’, and posits kinship reunions and recognitions of identity as key markers of the traditional plot. 44. Patricia Ingham, ed., Desperate Remedies, Oxford World’s Classics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), p. xxiv, points out that Hardy deliberately chooses and draws attention to coincidences, since a string of linked events argues for an underlying force or cause, but the idea of causality remains an enigma with Hardy. 45. Barbara Hardy, Thomas Hardy: Imagining Imagination in Hardy’s Poetry and Fiction (London and New Brunswick, NJ: Athlone Press, 2000), p. 217, cites this large gap in Elfride’s experience (marriage, illness and death), to exem- plify narrative reticence and to produce a melodramatic winding-up to the novel. Her statement that ‘such gaps and absences are very rare in Hardy’s novels’ is belied, however, by the number of instances in later novels.

3 By Sword or by Crook: Cross-Plotting in Far from the Madding Crowd

1. Thomas Hardy, Far from the Madding Crowd, edited with Notes by Suzanne B. Yalck-Yi, and new Introduction by Linda M. Shires, Oxford World’s Classics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), pp. 326–7; chs. 49–50. Henceforth FFMC. 2. Rosemarie Morgan with Scott Rode, ‘The Evolution of Wessex’, in Morgan, ed., The Ashgate Research Companion to Thomas Hardy (Farnham: Ashgate Publishing, 2010), pp. 157–77 (p. 159), points out that the first recorded naming of ‘Wessex’ occurs in the poem, ‘The Bride-Night Fire’ subtitled ‘A Wessex Tradition’, written in 1866 and printed in 1875 under the title of ‘The Fire at Tranter Sweatley’s’. 226 Notes

3. Dale Kramer, Thomas Hardy: The Forms of Tragedy (London: Macmillan, 1975), p. 91, refers to Hardy’s selection of ‘formal techniques that in themselves express the thematic issues’. 4. The term derives from Eberhard Lämmert, Bauformen des Erzählens (Stuttgart: J. B. Metzlersche Verlag, 1955), p. 171. 5. In a recent contribution, Francis O’Gorman, ‘Thomas Hardy and Realism’, in Phillip Mallett, ed., Thomas Hardy in Context (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), pp. 113–21, reminds us of the value of viewing romance as an imaginative counter of realism. Quoting Hardy’s statement, that a ‘work of fiction should be a precise transcript of ordinary life’, O’Gorman stresses Hardy’s awareness that the day-to-day and provincial has to be made engaging by incident, that ‘uncommonness’ must be in events and not characters, and he traces Hardy’s interest in modes of perception and frames of observation to a readiness to expose realism as a representational act based on choice. 6. Michael Millgate, ed., The Life and Work of Thomas Hardy (London: Macmillan, 1984), p. 98, quoting Hardy. 7. Michael Squires, The Pastoral Novel: Studies in George Eliot, Thomas Hardy and D. H. Lawrence (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1974), p. 124. 8. See Douglas Brown, Thomas Hardy (London: Longmans, 1961), p. 49; Jean R. Brooks, Thomas Hardy: The Poetic Structure (London: Elek, 1971), p. 159. 9. The notion of surveillance here implies overhearing and voyeurism, rather than Michel Foucault’s model of panopticism, the operation of power and control. 10. Stephen Regan, ‘The Darkening Pastoral: Under the Greenwood Tree and Far from the Madding Crowd’, in Keith Wilson, ed., A Companion to Thomas Hardy (Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009), pp. 241–53 (p. 252). 11. Sheila Berger, Thomas Hardy and Visual Structures: Framing, Disruption, Process (New York: New York University Press, 1990), pp. 86–7, examines frame- works, triangle and rectangle shapes in the novel. 12. The serial divisions are as follows: 1: chs. 1–5; 2: chs. 6–8; 3: chs. 9–14; 4: chs. 15–20; 5: chs. 21–24; 6: chs. 25–29; 7: chs. 30–33; 8: chs. 34–38; 9: chs. 39–42; 10: chs. 43–47; 11: chs. 48–51; 12: chs. 52–57. 13. Rosemarie Morgan, Cancelled Words: Rediscovering Thomas Hardy (London: Routledge, 1992), traces the detailed revisions of the novel, from holograph MS to the Wessex editions, and notes especially the influence here of the editor, Leslie Stephen. 14. Ronald Blythe, ed., Introduction to Far from the Madding Crowd (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1985), p. 24; Carl J. Weber, ‘Chronology in Hardy’s Novels’, PMLA 53.1 (1938), 314–20 (p. 314). 15. Brooks, 161, also illustrates the extent to which nature is in sympathy with the human actors, by pointing out how Gabriel is rejected in January, the Bathsheba–Troy relationship reaches its peak in high summer, Fanny dies at the onset of winter, Troy at Christmas, and hope returns for Gabriel and Bathsheba in the New Year. 16. Kramer, p. 41, suggests that Fanny Robin functions as a negative index, an opportunity for Hardy to show that ‘tragedy cannot exist without strength in the individual character’. 17. See Richard Little Purdy, with Introduction and Supplement by Charles P. C. Pettit, Thomas Hardy: A Bibliographical Study (New Castle, DE: Oak Knoll Press, and London: British Library, 2002), p. 15. Notes 227

18. See Michael Millgate, Thomas Hardy: His Career as a Novelist (London: Bodley Head, 1971), p. 85. 19. Robert C. Schweik, ‘The Narrative Structure of Far from the Madding Crowd’, in F. B. Pinion, ed., Budmouth Essays on Thomas Hardy (Dorchester: The Thomas Hardy Society, 1976), pp. 21–38 (p. 33), notes, after ch. 25, a marked reduction in the use of authorial generalizations, which invite the reader to take a more detached view of action, and their replacement by strong effects, shock, surprise and melodrama. Schweik also proposes a more mundane explanation for the change: Hardy’s self-imposed deadline to finish the novel before his marriage in September 1874. 20. See Ken Ireland, The Sequential Dynamics of Narrative: Energies at the Margins of Fiction (Cranbury, NJ and London: Associated University Presses, 2001), pp. 80–7. 21. See Ireland, pp. 90–4. 22. For an account of types of order transform, see Ireland, pp. 52–9. 23. See David Herman, ‘Cognition, Emotion, and Consciousness’, in Herman, ed., Cambridge Companion to Narrative (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), pp. 245–59. 24. For Lance St John Butler, Thomas Hardy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978), p. 26, the incident exemplifies Hardy’s technique of ‘self-limiting’, allowing readers information only when the characters themselves gain access. Until Boldwood realizes that Troy and Bathsheba are man and wife, readers are likewise unsuspecting, and Hardy’s method of presentation, whereby each revelation breeds new suspense, is cumulative and highly effective. 25. See Ireland, pp. 110–11. 26. See Ireland, pp. 122–3. 27. Joseph Warren Beach, The Technique of Thomas Hardy (New York: Russell & Russell, 1962), pp. 72–3, finds the hero and heroine of UGT less substantial than the rustics, whereas in FFMC the latter form a chorus and provoke action in the serious main plot. The direct consequence of a minor character’s over-indulgence here leads to a fateful confrontation between Troy and Bathsheba, and the ensuing catastrophe. 28. C. J. P. Beatty, ‘Far from the Madding Crowd: A Reassessment’, in F. B. Pinion, ed., Thomas Hardy and the Modern World (Dorchester: The Thomas Hardy Society, 1974), pp. 14–36 (pp. 31–2), sees the hand of Hardy the architect in his control of tempo, exemplified by the slow-motion evocation of Troy at Fanny’s coffin. Bathsheba’s response marks, of course, a radical acceleration of pace. 29. See Ireland, pp. 55–6. 30. See Ireland, pp. 123–4. 31. See Ireland, ‘“Sudden Holes in Space and Time”: Conrad’s Contribution to Sequential Dynamics in Narrative’, in Gail Fincham and Attie de Lange with Wieslaw Krajka, eds., Conrad at the Millennium: Modernism, Postmodernism, Postcolonialism (Boulder, Lublin and New York: Marie-Curie-Sklodowska University and Columbia University Press, 2001), pp. 21–51. 32. See Ireland, Sequential Dynamics, pp. 101–3. 33. In ch. 14 of Dickens’s incomplete The Mystery of Edwin Drood (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1974 [1870]), a simplified model of Hardy’s ch. 52 may be glimpsed, in a three-part division of the material, signalled by typographical gaps, between the separate activities of Neville Landless, Edwin Drood and 228 Notes

John Jasper. The scene likewise occurs on another climactic Christmas Eve, this time in Cloisterham, each section being ‘signed off’ with the identical refrain: ‘And so he goes up the postern stair’ (pp. 175, 179, 182). 34. For Simon Gatrell, ‘Reading Hardy through Dress: The Case of Far from the Madding Crowd’, in Keith Wilson, ed., A Companion to Thomas Hardy (Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009), pp. 178–93 (p. 182), the chapter represents ‘a montage of three intercut narratives of dressing’. 35. John Bayley, An Essay on Hardy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), p. 145. 36. Kramer, p. 45. Another reason proposed (p. 40), is that the aesthetic method of the novel is too rigorously antithetical, preventing the ambiguity and terror raised in the reader by unforeseen alternatives. 37. See Millgate, Thomas Hardy, p. 82. 38. See Herman, pp. 245–59 (p. 252). 39. See Gérard Genette, Narrative Discourse, trans. Jane E. Lewin (Oxford: Blackwell, 1980), p. 87. 40. For Robert Langbaum, Thomas Hardy in Our Time (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1997), p. 85, the episode marks the ‘birth of erotic feeling’ between Gabriel and Bathsheba, triggering a ‘remarkable series of lookings and peepings’. 41. Linda M. Shires, ‘Narrative, Gender, and Power in Far from the Madding Crowd’, in Margaret R. Higonnet, ed., The Sense of Sex: Feminist Perspectives on Hardy (Urbana & Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1993), pp. 49–65 (p. 54), relates the play of gazes to power-play and gender blurring in the novel, and investigates narcissistic gazes into mirrors, scopophilic objectification and fetishization. 42. See Ireland, pp. 87–9. 43. Norman Page, Oxford Reader’s Companion to Hardy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), p. 135, reminds us that Bathsheba, true to her biblical name, which recalls the story of King David secretly observing the woman bathing, is very much visually conceived. 44. See Butler, p. 26.

4 Comic Rhythms and Narrative Tangents in The Hand of Ethelberta

1. Thomas Hardy, The Hand of Ethelberta: A Comedy in Chapters, edited with an Introduction and Notes by Tim Dolin (Harmondsworth: Penguin Classics, 1996), p. 11; ch. 1. Henceforth HE. 2. In the 1896 and subsequent editions of the novel, Hardy replaces ‘a respect- able butler’s daughter’ with ‘the daughter of a gentleman who lived in a large house not his own’. The new formulation, by its deliberate and mischievous indirection, veils the true situation and introduces an early enigmatic strand to the plot. 3. See Alan Palmer, ‘The Lydgate Storyworld’, in Jan Christoph Meister, ed., Narratology beyond Literary Criticism (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2005), pp. 151–72 (p. 153). 4. See Gérard Genette, Narrative Discourse: An Essay in Method, trans. Jane E. Lewin (Oxford: Blackwell, 1980), p. 245. Notes 229

5. Narrator absent from story s/he tells; third-person outside narrator telling story; narrator present as participating character. See Genette, pp. 245; 228–31. 6. Peter Widdowson, Hardy in History: A Study in Literary Sociology (London: Routledge, 1989), p. 157. 7. See André Gide, Journal I (1889–1912) (Rio de Janeiro: Americ-Edit, 1943), pp. 44–5 [1893]. Unlike the locus classicus of the dumb show in Hamlet, or the inset romance in Poe’s The Fall of the House of Usher, Ethelberta’s account is both oral and spontaneous. For Widdowson, p. 159, it affords one instance as to why HE can be seen as Hardy’s only novel with a ‘substantial and explicit address to questions of fiction writing’. 8. Michael Millgate, Thomas Hardy: His Career as a Novelist (London: Macmillan, 1994), p. 112, calls this perspective ‘fundamental to the whole book’. 9. For Millgate, p. 111, the scene anticipates Ethelberta’s final triumph as a victim-class survivor. 10. The subtitle does not appear in the serialized version of the novel. 11. As, for instance, ch. 4: ‘Sandbourne Pier – Road to Wyndway – Ball-room in Wyndway House’, or ch. 45: ‘The Railway – The Sea – The Shore Beyond’. 12. See Ken Ireland, The Sequential Dynamics of Narrative: Energies at the Margins of Fiction (Cranbury, NJ and London: Associated University Presses, 2001), pp. 80–7. 13. Serial instalments marked in the Penguin Classics edition, based on the 1876 text, are as follows: 1: chs. 1–4; 2: 5–9; 3: 10–15; 4: 16–21; 5: 22–26; 6: 27–30; 7: 31–34; 8: 35–38; 9: 39–42; 10: 43–46; 11: 47–Sequel [50]. 14. Ethelberta, ‘in wishing her fiction to appear like a real narrative of personal adventure, did wisely to make Defoe her model. His is a style even better adapted for speaking than for writing, and the peculiarities of diction which he adopts to give verisimilitude to his narratives acquired enormous additional force when exhibited as vivâ-voce mannerisms’ (p. 119; ch. 18). 15. Successive epistolary inserts in chs. 35–36, exemplifying the adjacency principle, which reinforces the impact of devices occurring in close textual proximity, are capped by the flurry of notes exchanged by Ethelberta and Montclere in their nearby Melchester hotels in ch. 41. For Widdowson, p. 181, this scene flouts probability, and prompts him to list implausible episodes in the novel as a whole (pp. 182–3). 16. See Millgate, p. 108. 17. See Widdowson, p. 194. 18. Clarice Short, ‘In Defense of Ethelberta’, Nineteenth-Century Fiction 13 (1958), 48–57 (57). 19. Richard H. Taylor, The Neglected Hardy: Thomas Hardy’s Lesser Novels (London: Macmillan, 1982), pp. 57, 66. 20. D. H. Lawrence, Study of Thomas Hardy and other Essays (London: Grafton Books, 1986), p. 19. 21. See Millgate, p. 106. 22. David Ball, ‘Hardy’s Experimental Fiction’, English: Journal of the English Association 35 (1986), 27–36 (p. 27). 23. See Widdowson, p. 164. 24. Florence Emily Hardy, The Life of Thomas Hardy 1840–1928 (London: Macmillan, 1962), p. 239. Henceforth Life. 230 Notes

25. See David Leon Higdon, Time and English Fiction (London: Macmillan, 1977), pp. 74–105. 26. Ralph W. V. Elliott, Thomas Hardy’s English (Oxford: Blackwell, 1984), p. 235. 27. See Ireland, pp. 90–4. 28. See Ireland, pp. 107–9. 29. See Ireland, pp. 87–9. 30. See Ireland, pp. 123–4. 31. See Ball, p. 33. 32. See Widdowson, p. 181. 33. See Ball, p. 31. 34. See Life, pp. 101, 103. For possible links with Flaubert, whose home was at Rouen, see Ken Ireland, ‘Flaubert, Hardy and the Kiss of Death’, in Eduardo F. Coutinho, ed., Beyond Binarisms I: Discontinuities and Displacements, Studies in Comparative Literature (Rio de Janeiro: Aeroplano Editora 2009), pp. 220–9. 35. Gustave Flaubert, Madame Bovary, trans. Alan Russell (Harmondsworth: Penguin Classics, 1965), pp. 161–2 [1857]. 36. Thus: analeptic overlap (chs. 42, 49); nocturnal tie (ch. 43); simultaneous phase (ch. 45), where the beginning coincides with the end of a previous sequence, but features different or heterodiegetic characters (see Ireland, Sequential Dynamics, pp. 112–15); proximate tie (chs. 46, 48), a gap from several minutes to several hours (see Ireland, pp. 87–9); and immediate tie (ch. 47). 37. Günther Müller’s concepts of erzählte Zeit/Erzählzeit (story-time/discourse- time) might be suitably employed here. See his ‘Über das Zeitgerüst des Erzählens’, Morphologische Poetik: Gesammelte Aufsätze (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1968), pp. 388–418 [1950]. 38. The notion of surveillance here implies overhearing and voyeurism, rather than Michel Foucault’s model of panopticism, the operation of power and control. 39. Julian’s keyboard touch and repertoire, we assume, differs as much from Manston’s erotically charged attack (DR), as from Fancy Day’s more decorous performance on the cabinet-organ at Mellstock Church (UGT), not to men- tion the promiscuous soliloquist of Hardy’s poem, ‘The Chapel-Organist’ (Late Lyrics and Earlier), in Samuel Hynes, ed., The Complete Poetical Works of Thomas Hardy (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984), II, pp. 406–12. 40. The theme is familiar in eighteenth-century drama and comic opera, from Marivaux, to Beaumarchais and Mozart. 41. Clearly a more ambitious project than Elfride Swancourt’s book, The Court of Kellyon Castle. A Romance of the Middle Ages, in PBE. John Bayley, An Essay on Hardy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), p. 156, like other critics, notes parallels between Ethelberta and Hardy himself, and in styling the novel as ‘a Bayswater Dynasts’, he underlines these links.

5 From Jewels to Furze: Transience and Permanence in The Return of the Native

1. Thomas Hardy, The Return of the Native, ed. Simon Gatrell with Notes by Nancy Barrineau and Introduction by Margaret Higonnet, Oxford World’s Classics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), p. 11; vol. 1, ch. 1. Henceforth RN. Notes 231

2. In music, its sombre, brooding atmosphere is well captured in Gustav Holst’s Egdon Heath (Homage to Hardy), Op. 47, of 1927. More generally, its function resembles that of an operatic overture, orchestral prelude or tone-poem. 3. Jakob Lothe, ‘Variations on Genre: The Return of the Native, The Mayor of Casterbridge, The Hand of Ethelberta’, in Dale Kramer, ed., Cambridge Companion to Thomas Hardy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp. 112–29 (pp. 116–17), notes how unusual it is in the genre of the novel to devote an initial chapter exclusively to a description of place, and draws a comparison with Virginia Woolf’s presentation of human absence in Part Two of To the Lighthouse. 4. Michael Millgate, Thomas Hardy: His Career as a Novelist (London: Bodley Head, 1971), p. 142, links the allusions to Classical Greece with Eustacia’s half-Greek descent, and contrasts these with the biblical imagery of the novel. He associates Clym with Matthew Arnold’s opposing ‘Hebraic’ concept, embodied in references to Clym as a Christ figure, delivering his Sermons on the Mount at the end of the novel. 5. Lance St John Butler, Thomas Hardy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978), p. 32. 6. Joseph Warren Beach, The Technique of Thomas Hardy (New York: Russell & Russell, 1962), p. 105, refers to Hardy’s exhibiting the ‘long-range contriv- ance of an architect concerned to have every part in place in an edifice that shall stand well based and well proportioned, with meaning in every line’. 7. Meir Sternberg, Expositional Modes and Temporal Ordering in Fiction (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978), p. 17. 8. See Ken Ireland, The Sequential Dynamics of Narrative: Energies at the Margins of Fiction (Cranbury, NJ and London: Associated University Presses, 2001), pp. 90–4. 9. See Ireland, pp. 80–7. 10. Lothe, p. 119, points out that the interplay of past and present, though it heightens the sense of tragedy, is less crucial than in The Mayor of Casterbridge. Another pre-narrative event, Thomasin’s rejection of Diggory Venn, two years previously, also has its consequences for the plot, while the pre-narrative experiences of Clym in Paris, and Eustacia in Budmouth, likewise influence the course of developments. 11. See Mikhail Bakhtin, ‘Forms of Time and of the Chronotope in the Novel: Notes towards a Historical Poetics’, in The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays, ed. Michael Holquist, trans. C. Emerson and Michael Holquist (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1998), pp. 84–258. 12. See references to the ‘Gothic art-principle’ in Florence Emily Hardy, The Life of Thomas Hardy 1840–1928 (London: Macmillan, 1962), p. 301. Henceforth Life. 13. RN, p. 415; Carl J. Weber, ‘Chronology in Hardy’s Novels’, PMLA 53.1 (1938), 314–20 (314); F. B. Pinion, A Hardy Companion (London: Macmillan, 1968), p. 31. John P. Emery, commenting on Weber’s article, PMLA 54.1 (1939), 618–19, finds calendrical inaccuracies by Hardy, especially with regard to phases of the moon, which some readers may have missed. 14. RN, p. 415. 15. See Dale Kramer, Thomas Hardy: The Forms of Tragedy (London: Macmillan, 1975), p. 49. 232 Notes

16. See Pinion, p. 34. 17. See Sheila Berger, Thomas Hardy and Visual Structures: Framing, Disruption, Process (New York: New York University Press, 1990), p. 114. 18. RN, p. 440. 19. John Paterson, The Making of ‘The Return of the Native’ (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1978), pp. 164–7. Should the half-Greek background of Eustacia signal Hardy’s limited aspiration towards Greek tragedy? 20. D. H. Lawrence, Study of Thomas Hardy and other Essays, ed. Bruce Steele (London: Grafton Books, 1986), p. 46. 21. Jeannette King, Tragedy in the Victorian Novel: Theory and Practice in the Novels of George Eliot, Thomas Hardy and Henry James (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978), p. 107. 22. See Kramer, p. 68. 23. See King, p. 107. 24. Lothe, p. 118, contrasts the Bakhtinian ‘dialogic tension’ of Books 1–5, with the ‘monologic’ pattern of Book Sixth, in which narrative statement replaces the presentation of characters in action. 25. A single telling of a single event, often by a ‘one day’ or ‘one morning’ marker initiating a new episode. See Gérard Genette, Narrative Discourse: An Essay in Method, trans. Jane E. Lewin (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1980), pp. 114–15. 26. The marriage of ‘hero’ and ‘heroine’ in the centre, and her death before the end of the novel, displace conventional practice, as Margaret R. Higonnet, introd. The Return of the Native, Oxford World’s Classics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), p. xxiii, notes. 27. The novel appeared in Belgravia, in twelve instalments (January–December 1878): 1: 1.1–4; 2: 1.5–7; 3: 1.8–11; 4: 2.1–5; 5: 2.6–8; 6: 3.1–4; 7: 3.5–8; 8: 4.1–4; 9: 4.5–8; 10: 5.1–4; 11: 5.5–8; 12: 5.9–6.4. 28. Eberhard Lämmert, Bauformen des Erzählens (Stuttgart: J. B. Metzlersche Verlag, 1955), p. 171. See also 6.2–3, where direct succession is replaced by a prefigured gap of two months, when the frequent meetings between Venn and Thomasin (6.2) anticipate her announcement to Clym of her intention to marry Venn (6.3). 29. See Ireland, pp. 88–9. 30. See Ireland, pp. 109–12. 31. See Ronald W. Langacker, Foundations of Cognitive Grammar (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1987), pp. 116–37. The term relates to ways in which processes of conceptualization are affected by spatiotemporal perspectives on events. 32. See Ireland, pp. 115–24. 33. See David Herman, ‘Cognition, Emotion, and Consciousness’, in Herman, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Narrative (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), pp. 245–59 (p. 253). 34. Richard Little Purdy and Michael Millgate, eds., The Collected Letters of Thomas Hardy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978–88), I, 53 (Letter of 8 February 1878). Hardy writes to his illustrator, Arthur Hopkins: ‘Thomasin, as you have divined, is the good heroine, & she ultimately marries the reddleman, & lives happily. Eustacia is the wayward & erring heroine – she marries Yeobright … is unhappy, & dies. The order of importance of the characters Notes 233

is as follows. 1 Clym 2 Eustacia 3 Thomasin and the reddleman 4 Wildeve 5 Mrs Yeobright’. Patricia Ingham, Thomas Hardy, Authors in Context (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), p. 218, points out that a film adaptation of the novel by Jack Gold (1994) visually emphasizes Eustacia in the shape of Katherine Zeta Jones. 35. Eustacia has twenty-five, Clym has twenty-one speaking appearances in the forty-eight chapters of RN; Eustacia leaves the novel early, Clym arrives late, but survives into the four chapters of Book Sixth. The comparative figures for Venn are seventeen, Thomasin sixteen, Wildeve fifteen, Mrs Yeobright fourteen. 36. Kramer, p. 62, refers to the ‘unsatisfactory truncated characterization’ of Clym’s early actions, and it is clear that the stages of his growing love for Eustacia, and the effect of her sensual attraction, are too scantily traced out. 37. The interplay between past and present operates essentially intradiegetically, that is, within the framework of the narrative itself. Since Book First, the restriction of events to a single fictional year lends the novel some of the attributes of compression associated with stage drama. 38. See Ireland, pp. 112–15. 39. See Ireland, pp. 122–3. 40. King, p. 98, notes that the weir is both the meeting-place for intended elope- ment, and the site of death. Bakhtin’s concept of chronotope might also be applied here. 41. See Ireland, pp. 87–8. 42. Jean R. Brooks, Thomas Hardy: The Poetic Structure (London: Elek, 1971), p. 183, suggests links with May Day folk cults and seasonal rites of fertility and regeneration. 43. This example of teichoscope, the report of an offstage action by an onstage figure, emphasizes Hardy’s use of a cross-generic device, drawn, in this instance, from Greek classical drama. 44. The structural division of this final chapter into subsections projects a movement from the ‘rustic chorus’, to the wedded couple, to the solitary figure of Clym, as well as shifts in time and space. 45. In Life, p. 358, Hardy himself in 1912 refers to Clym as ‘the nicest of all my heroes and not a bit like me’. 46. The notion of surveillance here implies overhearing and voyeurism, rather than Michel Foucault’s model of panopticism, the operation of power and control. 47. R. W. Stallman, ‘Hardy’s Hour-Glass Novel’, Sewanee Review 55.2 (Spring 1947), 283–96, detects seven ‘hour-glass’ plots in the novel, whereby fate reverses events and characters. 48. Raymond Chapman, ‘The Reader as Listener: Dialect and Relationships in The Mayor of Casterbridge’, in Leo Hickey, ed., The Pragmatics of Style (London: Routledge, 1989), pp. 159–78 (p. 162). 49. See Herman, p. 252. 50. John L. Locke, Eavesdropping: An Intimate History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), p. 196. Ann Gaylin, Eavesdropping in the Novel from Austen to Proust (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), offers a more sophis- ticated discussion, employing the concept of liminality to designate the transgression of spatial boundaries. Julie Grossman, ‘Thomas Hardy and 234 Notes

the Role of Observer’, ELH 56.3 (Fall 1989), 619–38, identifies four types of observer role, and claims that Hardy’s interest in observation makes him ‘a vanguard figure in the development of the modern novel’ (636). 51. For Perry Meisel, Thomas Hardy: The Return of the Repressed: A Study of the Major Fiction (New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 1972), p. 76, Egdon serves as a metaphor for the human mind; for Bert G. Hornback, The Metaphor of Chance: Vision and Technique in the Works of Thomas Hardy (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1971), p. 17, as a ‘microcosm, both in space and time, of the total history of the world’.

6 Martial Music: Time-Signatures in The Trumpet-Major

1. Thomas Hardy, The Trumpet-Major, edited with Introduction and Notes by Linda M. Shires (Harmondsworth: Penguin Classics, 1997), p. 40; ch. 5. Henceforth TM. 2. Scottish Presbyterianism perhaps informs the request by Rev. Donald Macleod, D. D., editor of Good Words, that Hardy change a lover’s meeting from Sunday afternoon to Saturday, and avoid the use of swear-words in the serial version. The magazine’s printers were Virtue and Company. Serial- divisions are as follows: 1: chs. 1–4; 2: chs. 5–7; 3: chs. 8–10; 4: chs. 11–14; 5: chs. 15–17; 6: chs. 18–21; 7: chs. 22–24; 8: chs. 25–27; 9: chs. 28–30; 10: chs. 31–34; 11: chs. 35–37; 12: chs. 38–41. 3. R. J. White, Thomas Hardy and History (London & Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1974), p. 62, examines Hardy’s sources in detail. George H. Thomson, ‘The Trumpet-Major Chronicle’, Nineteenth-Century Fiction 17 (1962–3), 45–56 (48–9), adopts Hardy’s term ‘chronicle’, since more suited to what he sees less as a character or dramatic novel, than as a sequence of dramatic actions combined and contained within a time perspective, stretching far into the past and into the future. 4. For Roger Ebbatson, ed., Thomas Hardy, The Trumpet-Major & Robert his Brother (Harmondsworth: Penguin Classics, 1987), p. 16, it is the very absence of the pressures and contradictions of contemporary rural society, the energizing source of Hardy’s ‘polyphonic richness’ in his most potent texts, which sets the novel apart. 5. Mieke Bal, Narratology: Introduction to the Theory of Narrative (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1985), p. 66, employs the term ‘anticipation-within-retroversion’. 6. T. R. Wright, Hardy and his Readers (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), pp. 122–3. 7. Florence Emily Hardy, The Life of Thomas Hardy 1840–1928 (London: Macmillan & Co., 1962), p. 172. Henceforth Life. 8. Peter Widdowson, Thomas Hardy (Plymouth: Northcote House/British Council, 1996), p. 42. 9. Avrom Fleishman, The English Historical Novel: Walter Scott to Virginia Woolf (Baltimore & London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1971), p. 3. Fleishman, p. 186, also contends that TM is a historical novel by virtue of its contribution to Kulturgeschichte, recreating the life of a period, though it makes no attempt to fit history into any grander narrative. Notes 235

10. Michael Millgate, Thomas Hardy: His Career as a Novelist (London: Bodley Head, 1971), pp. 162–3. 11. John Goode, Thomas Hardy and the Offensive Truth (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988), p. 66. 12. Irving Howe, Thomas Hardy (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1968), pp. 42 and 44. 13. Life, pp. 120–1. 14. White, p. 66, comments on the ontological status of this episode: ‘In a historical novel, or in history, people don’t do this kind of thing. The reader is immersed in history from beginning to end and the history is no backcloth. If the reader gets out onto the bank and gazes at the stream he begins to gasp like a fish, the illusion is destroyed …’ 15. Leslie Stephen, Hardy’s early editor, influential critic, and father of Virginia Woolf, opposed the mingling of actual and fictional: ‘a historical character in a novel is almost always a nuisance’. Quoted by Wright, p. 116. 16. See Linda Hutcheon, A Poetics of Postmodernism: History, Theory, Fiction (London: Routledge, 1988), pp. 105–23. 17. Arnold Bennett still finds the action ‘excessively slow’. Quoted by White, p. 65. 18. Günther Müller’s concept of page/time ratios, ‘Über das Zeitgerüst des Erzählens’, Morphologische Poetik, Gesammelte Aufsätze (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1968), 299–311, may be applied here to gauge shifts of temporal rhythms. 19. See Eberhard Lämmert, Bauformen des Erzählens (Stuttgart: J. B. Metzlersche Verlag, 1955), p. 171. 20. See Ken Ireland, The Sequential Dynamics of Narrative: Energies at the Margins of Fiction (Cranbury, NJ and London: Associated University Presses, 2001), pp. 90–4. 21. Defined by Katie Wales, A Dictionary of Stylistics (London and New York: Longman, 2011), p. 105, as ‘those features of language which orientate or “anchor” our utterances in the context of the proximity of space (here v. there, this v. that), and of time (now v. then), relative to the speaker’s viewpoint’. 22. See Ireland, pp. 80–7. 23. See Ireland, pp. 109–12. 24. See Ireland, pp. 87–9. 25. Thematically, the first half of the novel witnesses the arrivals of Bob, the King and Matilda, while the second half is characterized by departures of all kinds. 26. Both Hardy and Darwin, as Gillian Beer, Darwin’s Plots: Evolutionary Narrative in Darwin, George Eliot and Nineteenth-Century Fiction (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1983), p. 230, indicates, relativize points of view: ‘observer, trav- eller, a conditional presence capable of seeing things from multiple distances and diverse perspectives almost in the same moment’. 27. See Ireland, pp. 112–15. 28. Cf. chs. 1–8 covering only three days; chs.12–15 covering a single day. 29. White, p. 62, discusses the charges of plagiarism with regard to this episode. 30. See Ireland, pp. 87–9. 31. Richard H. Taylor, The Neglected Hardy: Thomas Hardy’s Lesser Novels (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1982), p. 87, relates the loose overall episodic sequences in TM to those in UGT. 32. See Taylor, p. 81. 236 Notes

33. Julian Wolfreys, Thomas Hardy (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), p. 140. 34. Norman Page, Thomas Hardy (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1977), p. 103. 35. Millgate, pp. 145–93. J. W. Beach, The Technique of Thomas Hardy (New York: Russell & Russell, 1962), pp. 109–33, groups it more widely with HE, AL, TT and WB as Hardy’s period of ‘Relapse’. 36. Thomson, p. 49. 37. Taylor, p. 94. 38. Fleishman, p. 15, uses the term to describe the historical novelist, rooted in the history of his own time, yet able to conceive another.

7 Ancient and Modern Revised? Conflicting Values in A Laodicean

1. Thomas Hardy, A Laodicean, edited with an Introduction by Jane Gatewood, Oxford World’s Classics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), p. 25; 1.3. Henceforth AL. 2. See Michael Millgate, Thomas Hardy: His Career as a Novelist (London: Bodley Head, 1971), pp. 145–93. 3. The serial divisions are as follows: 1: 1.1–4; 2: 1.5–8; 3: 1.9–13; 4: 1.14–2.2; 5: 2.3–7; 6: 3.1–3; 7: 3.4–7; 8: 3.8–11; 9: 4.1–5; 10: 5.1–5; 11: 5.6–10; 12: 5.11–14; 13: 6.1–5. 4. See Richard Little Purdy, with Introduction and Supplement by Charles P. C. Pettit, Thomas Hardy: A Bibliographical Study (New Castle, DE: Oak Knoll Press and London: The British Library, 2002), pp. 37, 40. 5. Thomas Hardy, A Laodicean: A Story of To-day, introduced by Barbara Hardy, The New Wessex Edition (London: Macmillan, 1975), p. 425. 6. For the twenty-first century reader, emails, texts and tweets might be substituted. 7. Millgate, p. 170, views Stancy Castle as a physical and symbolic setting, and architecture as a source of moral and social criteria; J. B. Bullen, The Expressive Eye: Fiction and Perception in the Work of Thomas Hardy (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986), p. 120, refers to Hardy’s personal interest in the ‘expressive potential’ of architectural form. 8. Norman Page, Thomas Hardy (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1977), p. 107, notes that Gothic and Greek serve as metaphors for two sets of values and attitudes towards the past; Bullen, p. 136, observes that the full implications of this stylistic clash, by reason of Hardy’s illness, are never worked out. 9. See Gérard Genette, Paratexts: Thresholds of Interpretation, trans. Jane E. Lewin (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997). 10. In TDU, the ‘Phases’ feature both characters and events; in WB, the three titled Parts all refer, at different stages, to the same character. 11. Situating Hardy in his Darwinist, evolutionary context, Terry Eagleton, The English Novel (Oxford: Blackwell, 2005), pp. 199–201, underlines the interest in perspective or point of view, such that Hardy’s narrative mobility suggests that ‘there is no single perspective from which things can be seen to add up’, and that a plurality of centres offers a more sanguine approach. 12. See Ken Ireland, The Sequential Dynamics of Narrative Energies at the Margins of Fiction (Cranbury, NJ and London: Associated University Presses, 2001), pp. 90–4. Notes 237

13. See Eberhard Lämmert, Bauformen des Erzählens (Stuttgart: J. B. Metzlersche Verlag, 1955), p. 171. 14. See Ireland, pp. 80–7. 15. Gérard Genette, Narrative Discourse: An Essay in Method, trans. Jane E. Lewin (Oxford: Blackwell, 1980), p. 87, refers to dialogue as an ideal pace constant. 16. The term ‘retardierendes Moment’, used by German critics to designate the fourth Act of classical drama, would be applicable here. 17. See Ireland, pp. 109–12. 18. See Richard H. Taylor, The Neglected Hardy: Thomas Hardy’s Lesser Novels (London: Macmillan, 1982), p. 112. 19. DR, it will be recalled, offers an instance of triple surveillance: Aeneas Manston’s midnight burial of his wife is observed by another man and an unknown woman, the whole scene being focalized through Anne Seaway (3.6.5–3.6.6). The notion of surveillance here implies overhearing and voyeurism, rather than Michel Foucault’s model of panopticism, the operation of power and control. 20. See Ireland, pp. 87–9. 21. See Ireland, pp. 87–9 22. See Ireland, pp.107–9. 23. David Leon Higdon, Time and English Fiction (London: Macmillan, 1977), pp. 74–105. 24. Geoffrey Harvey, Thomas Hardy (Abingdon: Routledge, 2003), p. 105, points out the ironic intertextual references of De Stancy playing the role of a king who has renounced the company of women. 25. Raymond Chapman, The Language of Thomas Hardy (Basingstoke: Macmillan Education, 1990), p. 133, points out that ‘free indirect style’, placing speech into the reported form but keeping the syntax of direct speech and some of the character’s idiolect, though popular with Jane Austen and Dickens, is not often used by Hardy. For Katie Wales, A Dictionary of Stylistics, 3rd edn. (Harlow: Pearson Education, 2011), pp. 175–7, free indirect speech and style (FIS) occurs where ‘the speech of a character and the words of the narrator are blended, but with no reporting clause indicated (hence “free”)’. By analogy, free indirect thought (FIT) ‘has no reporting clause and a prevailing indirect mode of representation (the present tense of the direct speech mode shifted to past; third person pronouns replacing first and second person), but with a direct or “present” deictic orientation rather than an indirect or distant one’. 26. These technical and structural features would serve to bolster criticism of Hardy’s handling of thematic issues after Book the First. 27. Günther Müller’s concept of page/time ratios, ‘Über das Zeitgerüst des Erzählens’, Morphologische Poetik, Gesammelte Aufsätze (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1968), 299–311, would be relevant here. 28. A typical critical reaction is to find the account, based partially on Hardy’s own record of a Continental trip, a mere ‘extended Baedeker’ (Richard Carpenter, Thomas Hardy (London: Macmillan, 1976), p. 63), while even the generally positive Peter Widdowson, ‘Hardy’s “Quite Worthless” Novel: A Laodicean’, On Thomas Hardy: Late Essays and Earlier (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1998), pp. 93–114 (p. 94), admits it is ‘long-winded and slackly composed’. 238 Notes

For Albert Guerard, Thomas Hardy: The Novels & Stories (London: Oxford University Press, 1949), p. 54, it is ‘surely the dullest European journey in all fiction’. 29. Harvey, pp. 106–7, traces Paula’s lukewarmness to her inability to commit herself to fixed ideologies, Somerset’s to a flexible and undogmatic viewpoint; Bullen, pp. 121–2, relates the implications of the title to intellectual doubt, religious and ideological uncertainty, and astutely proposes an early nineteenth-century link between stylistic eclecticism and philosophical relativism. 30. One compromise suggestion, explored at Windsor Castle, Belvoir Castle, Lancaster House, and Waddesdon Manor, among more prominent instances, is for the couple to adopt the Rococo Revival style. See Ken Ireland, Cythera Regained? The Rococo Revival in European Literature and the Arts, 1830–1910 (Madison: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2006). 31. David Cecil, Hardy the Novelist: An Essay in Criticism (London: Constable & Co., 1969), p. 142, calls it Hardy’s ‘worst work’; Albert Baugh, ed., A Literary History of England (London: Rouledge & Kegan Paul, 1967), p. 1466, conceding that it was composed during a period of convalescence, still dismisses it as ‘quite worthless’; for Carpenter, p. 62, AL is a ‘potboiler of the worst sort’; and Guerard, p. 52, finds it the ‘dreariest of Hardy’s novels’. 32. Widdowson, pp. 93–114. 33. Millgate, pp. 172–3. 34. Roy Morrell, Thomas Hardy: The Will and the Way (Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaya Press, 1965), p. 178; Page, Thomas Hardy, p. 110. 35. Taylor, p. 119. 36. T. R. Wright, Hardy and his Readers (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), p. 131.

8 The Better Heaven Beneath: Revenges of Time in Two on a Tower

1. Thomas Hardy, Two on a Tower: A Romance, edited with Introduction and Notes by Sally Shuttleworth (Harmondsworth: Penguin Classics, 1999), pp. 4–5; 1.1. Henceforth TT. 2. Andrew Radford, Thomas Hardy and the Survivals of Time (Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing, 2003), p. 113, refers appositely to a vertical time-scheme, embracing palaeolithic burials at the base, to modern scientific instruments on the top of the tower. 3. A villager outside the tower, unaware that Swithin is listening inside, speaks of ‘such waste of a Christian carcase. I say she’s rather meaning to commit flat matrimony with somebody or other, and one young gentleman in particular’ (p. 80; 1.13). 4. With the exceptions of UGT and WB, TT is also the shortest of Hardy’s fourteen novels. Michael Millgate, Thomas Hardy: His Career as a Novelist (London: Bodley Head, 1971), pp. 145–93, assigns the novels to Hardy’s period of ‘Recession’; Simon Gatrell, ‘Middling Hardy’, Thomas Hardy Annual No. 4 (London: Macmillan, 1986), pp. 70–90, categorizes TT, together with UGT, TM and FFMC, as ‘middling’ in achievement. Notes 239

5. The small scale of the novel is further emphasized by division into the fewest number of serial instalments in the twelve novels employing them (DR and UGT are not serialized). Serial divisions are as follows: 1: 1.1–4; 2: 1.5–9; 3: 1.10–2.1; 4: 2.2–7; 5: 2.8–13; 6: 2.14–3.3; 7: 3.4–8; 8: 3.9–12. 6. Richard H. Taylor, The Neglected Hardy: Thomas Hardy’s Lesser Novels (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1982), includes TT in his ‘lesser’ novels. 7. Richard Little Purdy and Michael Millgate, eds., The Collected Letters of Thomas Hardy 1840–1892 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978), I, p. 114 [Letter to Edmund Gosse, 21 January 1883]. 8. In the first book edition (1882), TT is divided into three volumes, of 14, 15 and 12 chapters, respectively. 9. See Gérard Genette, Paratexts: Thresholds of Interpretation, trans. Jane E. Lewin (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997). 10. See Ken Ireland, The Sequential Dynamics of Narrative: Energies at the Margins of Fiction (Cranbury, NJ and London: Associated University Presses, 2001), pp. 80–7. 11. See Ireland, p. 121. 12. Julian Wolfreys, Thomas Hardy (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), p. 118, notes more than twenty forms of written or printed dispatches in the novel, contributing to its ‘postal economy’. 13. See Norman Page, Thomas Hardy (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1977), p. 112. 14. Simon Gatrell, Thomas Hardy and the Proper Study of Mankind (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1993), p. 57. 15. John Goode, Thomas Hardy: The Offensive Truth (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988), p. 74. 16. Joseph Warren Beach, The Technique of Thomas Hardy (New York: Russell & Russell, 1962), p. 14. 17. F. B. Pinion, Hardy the Writer: Surveys and Assessments (London: Macmillan, 1990), p. 48. 18. The topos of conditions attached to a legacy or will has a long literary ancestry, being particularly associated with the genre of comedy. David Leon Higdon’s concept of ‘barrier time’, a prescribed time-limit for completion of actions, Time and English Fiction (London: Macmillan, 1977), pp. 74–105, is also relevant here. 19. Purdy and Millgate, I, p. 110 [Letter to Edmund Gosse, 4 December 1882]. 20. Edmund Blunden, Thomas Hardy (London: Macmillan, 1958), p. 206. 21. Taylor, pp. 130, 137. 22. See Anna Henchman, ‘Hardy’s Stargazers and the Astronomy of Other Minds’, Victorian Studies 51.1 (Autumn 2008), 37–64 (37). 23. Pamela Gossin, Thomas Hardy’s Novel Universe: Astronomy, Cosmology, and Gender in the Post-Darwinian World (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2007), p. 175. 24. In his letter proposing marriage, the Bishop gives his age as forty-five (p. 188; 3.2), which in the 1912 Wessex Edition has increased to fifty-one. 25. Lance St John Butler, Thomas Hardy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978), p. 26, refers to Hardy’s technique of ‘self-limiting’, allowing readers information only when the characters themselves gain access, thereby generating similar reactions of surprise and shock within and without the fiction. 240 Notes

26. Shakespeare, Twelfth Night, 5.1.386: ‘And thus the whirligig of time brings in his revenges’. 27. Beach, p. 14, detects an incremental sense of unreality: he describes Sir Blount’s death as a ‘malign arrangement of fate’, Viviette’s too-late discovery of her pregnancy as an ‘arrangement of the author’s’, and her death from euphoria as ‘nothing short of persecution’. In Kate Chopin’s short story, ‘The Story of an Hour’, Kate Chopin: Complete Novels and Stories, ed. Sandra M. Gilbert (New York: The Library of America, 2002), pp. 756–8, the sequence is reversed: a young wife, joyfully believing that her husband has been killed, and that she is now free, dies at the end from the shock and despair at his sudden return. Martin Seymour-Smith, Hardy (London: Bloomsbury, 1994), p. 291, notes that the ending reverses that of Henry Mackenzie’s The Man of Feeling (1771), where the hero Harley falls dead when he learns that his love is returned. 28. T. R. Wright, Hardy and his Readers (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), pp. 142–3, rightly comments that the final line cannot be taken at face value, in view of the vengeful, hypocritical and destructive way both Bishop and Church have been represented throughout, and only a malevolent religion could regard the heroine’s death as a form of divine punishment. 29. Carl J. Weber, Hardy of Wessex: His Life and Literary Career (New York: Columbia University Press, 1965), p. 136, would add rustic Dorset characters to the deficiencies of the novel. Though local villagers do appear, their presence is less significant than in earlier novels. Gatrell, p. 56, finds that the novel could have been located anywhere, and that the precise topography ‘remains uncertain’. 30. Sally Shuttleworth, Introduction, xxiv, for example, points to Viviette’s initial visit to the tower in February, when the sun re-emerges, Swithin’s near-fatal illness starting on Ash Wednesday, underlining motifs of death and renewal, and the vengeful [sic] October hurricane, destroying the tower’s dome and Swithin’s home. 31. The novel’s overall time-cover of five years has been linked to the period 1858–63, with allusions to government in Cape Town, Heinrich Heine’s death (1856) and Encke’s comet in October 1858. 32. See Ireland, pp. 90–4. 33. See Ireland, pp. 221–2. 34. See Ireland, pp. 87–9. 35. See Ireland, pp. 87–9. 36. Cf. Viviette’s confession to her brother: ‘“I would marry a tinker for that matter”’ (p. 236; 3.9). 37. Mieke Bal, Narratology: Introduction to the Theory of Narrative (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1985), p. 67, employs the term ‘retroversion-within-anticipation’. 38. Rosemary Sumner, A Route to Modernism: Hardy, Lawrence, Woolf (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 2000), p. 33, discussing the novel in terms of an interesting but not wholly successful experiment with the ‘Absurd’, finds that Hardy’s imaginative perceptions are swamped by excessive plotting, as her allitera- tive flurry suggests: ‘brother, Bishop, bequest, bracelets diminish the stark image of the little, struggling valiant figures set against the “stupendous background”’ [my underlinings]. Notes 241

9 Legacy Issues: The Power of Temporal Ellipsis in The Mayor of Casterbridge

1. Thomas Hardy, The Mayor of Casterbridge, edited with notes by Dale Kramer, and new introduction by Pamela Dalziel, Oxford World’s Classics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), p. 5. Henceforth MC. 2. See Gérard Genette, Narrative Discourse: An Essay in Method, trans. Jane E. Lewin (Oxford: Blackwell, 1980), pp. 48–67. In film adaptations of the novel, both the BBC version (1978; dir. David Giles) and the ITV version (2001; dir. David Thacker) present the scene at Weydon-Priors in an analeptic series, rather than follow Hardy’s linear sequencing. 3. See Elaine Showalter, ‘The Unmanning of the Mayor of Casterbridge’, in R. P. Draper, ed., Hardy: The Tragic Novels: A Casebook (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1991), pp. 144–57 (p. 145). 4. Mikhail Bakhtin, Rabelais and his World, trans. Helene Iswolsky (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1968). See Simon Avery, Thomas Hardy: The Mayor of Casterbridge and Jude the Obscure (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), p. 69. Michael Millgate, Thomas Hardy: His Career as a Novelist (London: Bodley Head, 1971), p. 226, recalls the traditional associations in literature and fable of the fair as a site of human vanity and folly. 5. See David Leon Higdon, Time and English Fiction (London: Macmillan, 1977), pp. 74–105. 6. Albert J. Guerard, Thomas Hardy: The Novels and Stories (London: Oxford University Press, 1949), p. 146, sees Henchard as Hardy’s Lord Jim: ‘his only tragic hero and one of the greatest tragic heroes in all fiction. He takes his place at once with certain towering and possessed figures of Melville, Hawthorne, and Dostoevsky’. 7. Michael Valdez Moses, The Novel and the Globalization of Culture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 43. 8. F. N. Robinson, ed., The Prologue of ‘The Monk’s Tale’, The Works of Geoffrey Chaucer 2nd edn. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977), p. 189 (ll. 1975–7). 9. Geoffrey Thurley, The Psychology of Hardy’s Novels: The Nervous and The Statuesque (St Lucia: University of Queensland Press, 1975), p. 132. 10. T. R. Wright, Hardy and his Readers (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), p. 159. 11. Roger Ebbatson, Thomas Hardy: The Mayor of Casterbridge, Penguin Critical Studies (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1994), p. 17. 12. Avery, p. 65, quoting D. A. Dike, ‘A Modern Oedipus: The Mayor of Casterbridge’, Essays in Criticism 2 (1952), 169–79. 13. Peter Szondi, Theory of the Modern Drama, ed. and trans. Michael Hays (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1987), p. 16. 14. Jakob Lothe, ‘Variants on Genre: The Return of the Native, The Mayor of Casterbridge, The Hand of Ethelberta’, in Dale Kramer, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Thomas Hardy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp. 112–29 (p. 112). 15. George Steiner, The Death of Tragedy (New York: Hill & Wang, 1966), pp. 296–7. 16. Order transform implies a rearrangement of events in an order different from that of their supposed occurrence. See Ken Ireland, The Sequential Dynamics 242 Notes

of Narrative: Energies at the Margins of Fiction (Cranbury, NJ and London: Associated University Presses, 2001), p. 53. 17. H. M. Daleski, Thomas Hardy and Paradoxes of Love (Columbia and London: University of Missouri Press, 1997), p. 106, interprets Susan’s enquiry to the furmity-woman as to whether she recalls a wife-sale eighteen years ago, as a narratorial ploy to deceive the reader, in order to hide the truth about Elizabeth-Jane’s paternity, since her mother must know she is already eighteen, and nineteen years is cited elsewhere. 18. Roland Barthes, S/Z (Paris: Seuil, 1970), p. 26. 19. Millgate, p. 223. 20. Lance St John Butler, Thomas Hardy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978), p. 26, refers to the narrative technique of ‘self-limiting’: allowing readers information only when characters themselves have access, thereby generating similar reactions of surprise and shock within and without the fiction. 21. See Peter J. Casagrande, Unity in Hardy’s Novels: ‘Repetitive Symmetries’ (Lawrence: Regents Press of Kansas, 1982). 22. For Norman Page, Thomas Hardy: The Novels (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001), p. 10, the image of the Ring at Casterbridge, ‘suggests symbolically that despite all [Henchard’s] strenuous efforts to move forward and put the past behind him, that past will persist and his experience will turn out to be circular rather than linear, a regression rather than a progression’; Millgate, p. 232, refers to the controlling image of Fortune’s Wheel, with its hint of a ‘morality’ structure inspired by Bunyan. 23. See Arlene M. Jackson, Illustration and the Novels of Thomas Hardy (London and Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1981), p. 96. 24. Millgate, p. 228. 25. Michael Millgate, ed., The Life and Work of Thomas Hardy by Thomas Hardy (London: Macmillan, 1984), pp. 185–6. 26. Irving Howe, Thomas Hardy (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1968), p. 85. 27. Bert G. Hornback, The Metaphor of Chance: Vision and Technique in the Works of Thomas Hardy (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1971), pp. 103, 106. 28. Laurence Lerner, Thomas Hardy’s ‘The Mayor of Casterbridge’: Tragedy or Social History? (London: Sussex University Press, 1975), pp. 17–18. 29. TDU is later to appear in twenty-six, and WB in twelve weekly instalments. 30. See Richard Little Purdy, with introduction and supplement by Charles P. C. Pettit, Thomas Hardy: A Bibliographical Study (New Castle, DE: Oak Knoll Press and London: British Library, 2002), p. 52; Lerner, p. 56. 31. Its serial instalments are as follows: 1: chs. 1–2; 2: 3–5; 3: 6–7; 4: 8–9; 5: 10–12; 6: 13–15; 7: 16–17; 8: 18–19; 9: 20–1; 10: 22–3; 11: 24–5; 12: 26–7; 13: 28–9; 14: 30–2; 15: 33–4; 16: 35–6; 17: 37–8; 18: 39–41; 19: 42–3; 20: 44–5. 32. Carl J. Weber, ‘Chronology in Hardy’s Novels’, PMLA 53.1 (1938), 314–20 (318). 33. Roger Ebbatson, Thomas Hardy: The Mayor of Casterbridge, Penguin Critical Studies (London: Penguin, 1994), p. 4. 34. Ebbatson, p. 4; Patricia Ingham, Thomas Hardy, Authors in Context (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), p. 106, points out that MC is supposed to predate the repeal of the Corn Laws, when the price of bread was kept artifi- cially high: ‘Dates are in effect dictated by the needs of narrative, not by an anxiety to chronicle events precisely.’ Notes 243

35. See Lerner, p. 75. 36. Pointed out by Anne Furlong (private communication). 37. Günther Müller, ‘Über das Zeitgerüst des Erzählens’, Morphologische Poetik: Gesammelte Aufsätze (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1968), pp. 388–418 [1950], highlights alternating narrative rhythms, articulated by the different spatial coverage of identical periods of time. 38. Marjorie Garson, Hardy’s Fables of Integrity: Women, Body, Text (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991), p. 99. 39. See Ireland, pp. 80–7. 40. See Ireland, pp. 109–12. 41. See Ireland, pp. 87–9. 42. See Ireland, pp. 90–4. 43. See Ireland, pp. 87–9. 44. Showalter, p. 144, for instance, deems MC ‘the fullest nineteenth-century portrait of a man’s inner life’. 45. For application of the term to an earlier German novel, and to JO, see Peter Arnds, ‘The Boy with the Old Face: Thomas Hardy’s Antibildungsroman Jude the Obscure and Wilhelm Raabe’s Bildungsroman Prinzessin Fisch’, German Studies Review 21.2 (May 1998), 221–40. 46. See Ireland, pp. 94–8. 47. John Fowles, The French Lieutenant’s Woman (New York: The New American Library, 1969), p. 200; ch. 31. 48. See Ireland, pp. 112–15. 49. See Butler, p. 26. 50. See Ireland, pp. 123–4. 51. See Eberhard Lämmert, Bauformen des Erzählens (Stuttgart: J. B. Metzlersche Verlag, 1955), p. 171. 52. Michael Millgate, ed., The Life and Work of Thomas Hardy by Thomas Hardy (London: Macmillan, 1984), pp. 185–6. 53. See Butler, p. 46. 54. Dale Kramer, Thomas Hardy: The Forms of Tragedy (London: Macmillan, 1975), pp. 81 and 88. 55. See Ireland, pp. 122–3. 56. John Goode, Thomas Hardy: The Offensive Truth (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988), p. 79. 57. The time-lapse here is a good deal less dramatic than the mere five minutes, separating the signing of the marriage-register between Lord Mountclere and Ethelberta, and the arrival of the pursuing parties, in HE (ch. 47). In MC, cases of ironic non-concurrence which extend the plot, include Elizabeth- Jane’s failure to observe the visitor to Lucetta’s house (p. 132; ch. 21), and Henchard’s oversight in not glancing outside Lucetta’s room, to learn the reason for her inaccessibility (p. 166; ch. 25). 58. George Levine, The Realistic Imagination: English Fiction from Frankenstein to Lady Chatterley (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1981), p. 249, comments that ‘Even the putting of his name in upper-case letters becomes an important part of the effect. For Henchard’s last written words are the name he is asking to obliterate – and boldly imprinted. The annihilation he asks is in excess of the possible, and so by a wonderful and moving irony, Henchard effects in death what he always fell short of in life – the dominance of his name.’ 244 Notes

10 Sylvan Time and Natural Semiotics in The Woodlanders

1. Thomas Hardy, The Woodlanders, edited with Introduction and Notes by Patricia Ingham (Harmondsworth: Penguin Classics, 1998), pp. 330–1; 3.11. Henceforth WL. 2. The device of anaphora (repetition of a word or phrase at the start of successive clauses) stylistically underlines their mutual affinity: ‘They had been possessed … had been able to read … They had planted together … together they had …’ 3. See ‘The Time-scheme in The Woodlanders’, The Woodlanders, introduced by David Lodge, The New Wessex Edition (London: Macmillan, 1975), pp. 390–2, and the essay’s conclusion: ‘Time seems elastic, capable of stretching and con- tracting in accordance with the emotional rhythms of the story’ (p. 392). For Carl Weber, Hardy of Wessex: His Life and Literary Career (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1965), p. 156, the novel’s internal calendar appears inconsist- ent, and the time-period of 1876–9 is not conclusive. It may be argued that it is not absolutely essential, either, in a novel tending towards relative timelessness. 4. Florence Emily Hardy, The Life of Thomas Hardy 1840–1928 (London: Macmillan, 1962), p. 220. Henceforth Life. In a film adaptation of the novel (The Woodlanders 1997, dir. Phil Agland), the final scene shows the couple separating, thus eschewing any reunion, or any closing image of Marty’s graveside vigil. 5. For a record of textual changes, see Dale Kramer, ed., Thomas Hardy, The Woodlanders (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981); for a history of text revisions, Philip Gaskell, From Writer to Reader: Studies in Editorial Method (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978), pp. 196–212. The serial instalments are as follows: 1: 1.1–4; 2: 1.5–8; 3: 1.9–13; 4: 1.14–2.2; 5: 2.3–6; 6: 2.7–9; 7: 2.10–13; 8: 2.14–17; 9: 3.1–4; 10: 3.5–7; 11: 3.8–10; 12: 3.11–15. 6. Thomas Hardy, The Mayor of Casterbridge, edited with Notes by Dale Kramer, and new Introduction by Pamela Dalziel, Oxford World’s Classics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), p. 310; ch. 45. 7. See Penny Boumelha, Thomas Hardy and Women: Sexual Ideology and Narrative Form (Brighton: Harvester Press, 1982), pp. 99–104; Robert Langbaum, Thomas Hardy in our Time (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1997), pp. 111, 118; Peter Widdowson, Thomas Hardy, Writers and their Work (Plymouth: Northcote House/British Council, 1996), pp. 56–60. 8. See Peter Rabinowitz, ‘Reading Beginnings and Endings’, in Brian Richardson, ed., Narrative Dynamics: Essays on Time, Plot, Closure and Frames (Columbus: Ohio University Press, 2002), pp. 300–13, for discussion of novel titles and placement of images and aphorisms. 9. Quoted in Carl J. Weber, Hardy and the Lady from Madison Square (Port Washington, NY and London: Kennikat Press, 1973), p. 89. 10. See Gérard Genette, Paratexts: Thresholds of Interpretation, trans. Jane E. Lewin (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997). 11. Joseph Warren Beach, The Technique of Thomas Hardy (New York: Russell & Russell, 1962), pp. 166–7. 12. Boumelha, p. 111. 13. Defined by David Herman, in a thoroughgoing analysis of the concept, Story Logic: Problems and Possibilities of Narrative (Lincoln & London: University of Notes 245

Nebraska Press, 2002), pp. 301–30 (p. 303), as ‘the use of hypotheses, framed by the narrator or a character, about what might be or might have been seen or perceived – if only there were someone who could have adopted the requisite perspective on the situations and events at issue’. 14. See Robert Kiely, ‘The Menace of Solitude: The Politics and Aesthetics of Exclusion in The Woodlanders’, in Margaret R. Higonnet, ed., The Sense of Sex: Feminist Perspectives on Hardy (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1993), pp. 188–202 (p. 188). 15. For an account of Hardy’s contacts with Impressionism, see J. B. Bullen, The Expressive Eye: Fiction and Perception in the Work of Thomas Hardy (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986), pp. 181–2. 16. The notion of surveillance here implies overhearing and voyeurism, rather than Michel Foucault’s model of panopticism, the operation of power and control. 17. For Jean R. Brooks, Thomas Hardy: The Poetic Structure (London: Elek, 1971), p. 221, Marty’s hair serves as ‘fertility talisman’, while Mary Jacobus, ‘Tree and Machine: The Woodlanders’, in Dale Kramer, ed., Critical Approaches to the Fiction of Thomas Hardy (London and Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1979), pp. 116–34 (p. 123), notes how it operates as a triggering device between the major sections of the novel. 18. See Ken Ireland, The Sequential Dynamics of Narrative: Energies at the Margins of Fiction (Cranbury, NJ and London: Associated University Presses, 2001), pp. 80–7; 87–9; 90–4; 109–12; 87–9. 19. See Ireland, pp. 112–15. 20. The death of Charles Bovary’s first wife is dispatched with similar bathos and unemotional matter-of-factness: ‘She was dead! It was incredible! When all was over at the cemetery, Charles returned home’ (Gustave Flaubert, Madame Bovary, trans. Alan Russell (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1965), p. 32; ch. I. 2). 21. The film adaptation (The Woodlanders 1997, dir. Phil Agland) does present the ceremony. 22. See Eberhard Lämmert, Bauformen des Erzählens (Stuttgart: J. B. Metzlersche Verlag, 1955), p. 171. 23. Felice Charmond’s departure occurs at precisely the same point in the second half of the novel (3.4, end of the ninth instalment), as her departure for Italy in the first half (1.13, end of the third instalment): further testimony to Hardy’s sense of narrative architectonics. 24. The single telling of a single event, often introduced by ‘one day’ or ‘one morning’, and initiating a specific episode. See Gérard Genette, Narrative Discourse: An Essay in Method, trans. Jane E. Lewin (Oxford: Blackwell, 1980), pp. 145–6 [1972]. 25. For Ian Gregor, The Great Web: The Form of Hardy’s Major Fiction (London: Faber and Faber, 1974), pp. 156, 161, this combination in Grace of modern and primitive anticipates Sue Bridehead, and in her sense of divided self, she also prefigures Tess. 26. The intensity of surveillance has been thankfully reduced from the threefold observation of Manston’s midnight burial of his wife, as witnessed in DR (chs. 19.5–6), but the sense of simultaneous actions remains. 27. Bullen, p. 174, refers to Herbert Spencer’s concept of ‘social dissolution’, illustrated here by the centrifugal movement of the Fitzpiers and the Tangs 246 Notes

at the close; Boumelha, p. 113, detects three alternative endings, shifting between three different genres: Marty’s elegy is pastoral, Grace’s reunion with Fitzpiers is realist, while the death of Felice and the motif of the man-trap are melodramatic. 28. Rabinowitz, p. 303, refers to the notion of ‘privileged positions’: ‘Last sentences, of course, cannot serve to focus a reading experience (at least, not an initial reading experience). But they do often serve to scaffold our retrospective interpretation of the book.’

11 Phases of Life and Cycles of Time in Tess of the d’Urbervilles

1. Thomas Hardy, Tess of the d’Urbervilles: A Pure Woman, Faithfully Presented by Thomas Hardy, ed. Juliet Grindle and Simon Gatrell, Introduction by Penny Boumelha, Notes by Nancy Barrineau, Oxford World’s Classics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), p. 82; ch. 11 (Phase the First) [1891]. Henceforth TDU. 2. For brevity and convenience, the term ‘rape’ will be employed, given the essential ambivalence of the scene in The Chase, and the lack of critical agreement reported in, for example, the 1996 e-mail debate on VICTORIA LIST, cited by Linda M. Shires, ‘The Radical Aesthetic of Tess of the d’Urbervilles’, in Dale Kramer, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Thomas Hardy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp. 145–63 (p. 153). 3. See David Herman, ‘Cognition, Emotion, and Consciousness’, in Herman, ed., Cambridge Companion to Narrative (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), pp. 245–59 (p. 252). 4. Irving Howe, Thomas Hardy (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1985), p. 117. 5. Peter J. Casagrande, Hardy’s Influence on the Modern Novel (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1987), pp. 1–23. 6. George Moore, Esther Waters, ed. David Skilton, Oxford World’s Classics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983), p. 73; ch. 11 [1894]. 7. See Shires, p. 149. 8. Marjorie Garson, Hardy’s Fables of Identity: Woman, Body, Text (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991), p. 131. 9. John Bayley, An Essay on Hardy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978), pp. 179–80, suggests that Moore determines to show a ‘truer pathos, a more comprehensive reality’ than Hardy. Esther Waters seems to insist, under the influence of French realists, that a tale of this type ‘requires not only prosaic plausibility but a fidelity to the wear and tear of time’, and like Henry James, Moore was irritated by what he considered to be Hardy’s attempt to combine melodrama with naturalism. 10. See Shires, p. 150. 11. Tony Tanner, ‘Colour and Movement in Hardy’s Tess of the d’Urbervilles’, in R. P. Draper, ed., Hardy: The Tragic Novels: The Return of the Native, Tess of the d’Urbervilles, Jude the Obscure: A Casebook (London: Macmillan, 1975), pp. 182–208 (p.184). 12. Jean Brooks, Thomas Hardy: The Poetic Structure (London: Elek, 1971), p. 234. 13. Penny Boumelha, ‘Tess of the d’Urbervilles: Sexual Ideology and Narrative Form’, in Peter Widdowson, ed., New Casebooks: Tess of the d’Urbervilles Notes 247

(Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1993), pp. 44–62 (pp. 52–3). Bayley, p. 189, refers to the form of Tess of the d’Urbervilles as ‘Tessa’s own discontinuity’. 14. David Leon Higdon, Time and English Fiction (London: Macmillan, 1977), p. 6. 15. Albert J. LaValley, ed., Twentieth-Century Interpretations of ‘Tess of the d’Urbervilles’: A Collection of Critical Essays (Eaglewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1969), Introduction, p. 7. 16. See Brooks, p. 236. 17. Geoffrey Harvey, The Complete Critical Guide to Thomas Hardy (London: Routledge, 2003), p. 84; Tanner, p. 221; Howe, p. 113; Andrew Radford, Thomas Hardy and the Survivals of Time (Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing, 2003), p. 167; Joe Fisher, The Hidden Hardy (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1992), p. 157, citing Friedrich Max Müller’s anthropological work of the 1870s. 18. J. Hillis Miller, Fiction and Repetition: Seven English Novels (Oxford: Blackwell, 1982), pp. 140–1. 19. Norman Page, ed., Oxford Reader’s Companion to Hardy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), p. 416. For the line of transmission and detailed evolution of the novel in its varied printed forms, see J. T. Laird, The Shaping of ‘Tess of the d’Urbervilles’ (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975). 20. Ian Gregor, ‘The Novel as Social Protest: Tess of the d’Urbervilles’, in LaValley, pp. 30–47 (pp. 34–5). For analysis of the division of the text into serial instalments, see Richard Little Purdy, with an Introduction and Supplement by Charles P. C. Pettit, Thomas Hardy: A Bibliographical Study (New Castle, DE: Oak Knoll Press and London: The British Library, 2002), pp. 67–70. 21. Joseph Warren Beach, The Technique of Thomas Hardy (New York: Russell and Russell, 1962), p. 16. 22. Michael Millgate, Thomas Hardy: His Career as a Novelist (London: Bodley Head, 1971), p. 272. 23. Florence Emily Hardy, The Life of Thomas Hardy 1840–1928 (London: Macmillan, 1962), p. 228. Henceforth Life. 24. Life, p. 229. 25. Life, p. 301. 26. Penelope Vigar, The Novels of Thomas Hardy: Illusion and Reality (London: Athlone Press, 1974), p. 44, quoting Life, pp. 76 and 235. 27. See Howe, p. 113. 28. Dale Kramer, Thomas Hardy: The Forms of Tragedy (London: Macmillan, 1975), p. 91. 29. See Laura Claridge, ‘Tess: A Less than Pure Woman Ambivalently Presented’, in Peter Widdowson, ed., New Casebooks: Tess of the d’Urbervilles (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1993), pp. 63–79 (pp. 65–6); Kaja Silverman, ‘History, Figuration and Female Subjectivity’, in Widdowson, ed., pp. 129–46 (p. 137); Ellen Moers, ‘Tess as Cultural Stereotype’, in LaValley, pp. 98–101 (p. 100). 30. See John Goode, ‘The Offensive Truth: Tess of the d’Urbervilles’, in Widdowson, ed., pp. 184–200 (p. 184); Simon Gatrell, ‘Creating Tess, 1892’, in Widdowson, ed., pp. 172–83 (p. 173). 31. Hardy, ‘The Ruined Maid’, Poems of the Past and the Present, in Samuel Hynes, ed., The Complete Poetical Works of Thomas Hardy (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984), I, 197–8. 32. See, for instance, Harvey, p. 84; Tanner, p. 183; Brooks, p. 234. 248 Notes

33. Robyn Warhol, ‘Neonarrative, or How to Render the Unnarratable in Realist Fiction and Contemporary Film’, in James Phelan and Peter J. Rabinowitz, eds., A Companion to Narrative Theory (Oxford: Blackwell, 2005), pp. 220–31 (p. 221), defines the term as ‘those passages that explicitly do not tell what is supposed to have happened, foregrounding the narrator’s refusal to narrate’. The term is differentiated from its close relations: ‘disnarrated’, ‘subnarratable’, ‘supranarratable’, ‘antinarratable’ and ‘paranarratable’ (p. 222). 34. For Charlotte Thompson, ‘Language and the Shape of Reality in Tess of the d’Urbervilles’, in Widdowson, ed., pp. 109–28 (p. 119), the objects become animated as energies are drawn from humans. 35. See Moore, p. 190; ch. 23. 36. See Garson, p. 144. 37. Laird, p. 99, quoting Raymond Blathwayt, ‘A Chat with the Author of Tess’, Black and White (27 August 1892). 38. Franz Stanzel, ‘Thomas Hardy: Tess of the d’Urbervilles’, in Horst Oppel, ed., Der moderne englische Roman: Interpretationen (Berlin: Erich Schmidt Verlag, 1965), pp. 34–48 (pp. 38–40). 39. Richard H. Taylor, The Neglected Hardy: Thomas Hardy’s Lesser Novels (London and Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1982), p. 123, proposes a correlation between the speed of composition and the eventual critical estimation of Hardy’s novels, with all the major works taking more than a year. Thus, TDU occupied him over twenty-five months; JO, twenty months; TM, seventeen months; WL, fifteen months; FFMC, fourteen months; MC and RN, thirteen months; AL and HE, eleven months; TT and PBE, nine months; DR, eight months; WB, six months; UGT, three months. 40. Carl J. Weber, ‘Chronology in Hardy’s Novels’, PMLA 53.1 (1938), p. 316, suggests a time-chart in which the main action covers 1884–9. 41. The terms are taken from Günther Müller, ‘Über das Zeitgerüst des Erzählens’, Morphologische Poetik (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1968), pp. 388–418 (p. 415) [1950]. 42. Arnold Kettle, ‘Introduction to Tess of the d’Urbervilles’, in Albert J. LaValley, ed., Twentieth-Century Interpretations of ‘Tess of the d’Urbervilles’ (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1969), pp. 14–29. 43. Jeannette King, Tragedy in the Victorian Novel: Theory and Practice in the Novels of George Eliot, Thomas Hardy and Henry James (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978), p. 120. 44. King, p. 120; Boumelha, p. 50. 45. See Millgate, p. 279. 46. See Ken Ireland, The Sequential Dynamics of Narrative: Energies at the Margins of Fiction (Cranbury, NJ and London: Associated University Presses, 2001), pp. 80–7. 47. See Ireland, pp. 109–12. 48. Manfred Jahn’s term, Narratology: A Guide to the Theory of Narrative (2005) (www.uni–koeln.de/~ame02/ppn.htm), N2.4.1 [accessed 16 Nov. 2012]; Shlomith Rimmon-Kenan, Narrative Fiction: Contemporary Poetics (London and New York: Methuen, 1983), p. 91, refers to ‘second degree narrative’. 49. See Millgate, p. 272. 50. See Ireland, pp. 122–3. 51. Barbara Hardy, Feeling in Victorian Fiction (London: Peter Owen, 1985), p. 163. Notes 249

52. Peter Widdowson, ‘Introduction: Tess of the d’Urbervilles Faithfully Presented By’, in Lance St John Butler, ed., Thomas Hardy after Fifty Years (London and Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1977), pp. 1–23 (p. 3), points out how a novel that has fetishized Tess’s visual presence throughout, now signals its absence by her displacement into a black flag. 53. Herman, pp. 245–59 (p. 252). 54. Defined by Katie Wales, A Dictionary of Stylistics (Harlow: Pearson Longman, 2011), p. 105, as ‘those features of language which orientate or “anchor” our utterances in the context of the proximity of space (here v. there, this v. that), and of time (now v. then), relative to the speaker’s viewpoint’. 55. Shires, pp. 158, 161. For J. Hillis Miller, Thomas Hardy: Distance and Desire (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970), p. 104, the last chapter reinforces the theme of repetition in TDU; its references to Giotto and Aeschylus suggest that ‘Tess’s execution is a re-enactment of the crucifixion or of the death of a Greek tragic hero’. 56. Judith Mitchell, ‘Hardy’s Female Reader’, in Margaret R. Higonnet, ed., The Sense of Sex: Feminist Perspectives on Hardy (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993), pp. 172–87 (p. 174). 57. Judith Bryant Wittenberg, ‘Early Hardy Novels and the Fictional Eye’, Novel 16.2 (1983), 151–64 (152). 58. Within a few lines, Hardy alternates between the microcosm of a tear on Angel’s cheek: ‘it magnified the pores of the skin over which it rolled, like the object-lens of a microscope’, to the reflection of stars in minute pools of water: ‘the vastest things of the universe imaged in objects so mean’ (p. 250; ch. 35). 59. See David Lodge, ‘Thomas Hardy as a Cinematic Novelist’, in Lance St John Butler, ed., Thomas Hardy after Fifty Years (London and Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1977), pp. 78–89. Among studies of film adaptations, see Dianne Fallon Sadoff, ‘Looking at Tess: The Female Figure in Two Narrative Media’, in Higonnet, ed., pp. 149–71; Paul J. Niemeyer, Seeing Hardy: Film and Television Adaptations of the Fiction of Thomas Hardy (Jefferson, NC and London: McFarland & Co., 2003); T. R. Wright, ed., Thomas Hardy on Screen (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005). 60. Widdowson, ed., New Casebooks, p. 1.

12 Temporal Janus: Retrospects and Prospects in Jude the Obscure

1. Thomas Hardy, Jude the Obscure, edited with an Introduction and Notes by Patricia Ingham, Oxford World’s Classics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), pp. 378–80; Part Sixth, chs. 8–9. Henceforth JO. 2. The fusion of temporal and spatial indices into a single concrete whole. See Michael Holquist, ed., ‘Forms of Time and of the Chronotope in the Novel: Notes toward a Historical Poetics’, The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays by M. M. Bakhtin (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1998), pp. 84–258. 3. Its graphological mark is reproduced on p. 68; 1.11, at the end of Part First. 4. See Ken Ireland, The Sequential Dynamics of Narrative: Energies at the Margins of Fiction (Cranbury, NJ and London: Associated University Presses, 2001), pp. 80–7. 250 Notes

5. See Peter J. Casagrande, Unity in Hardy’s Novels: ‘Repetitive Symmetries’ (Lawrence: The Regents Press of Kansas, 1982); J. Hillis Miller, Fiction and Repetition: Seven English Novels (Oxford: Blackwell, 1982). 6. His age at death invites parallels with Christ, a linkage reinforced by the number of biblical references throughout the text. 7. The title takes up a reference to Sue Bridehead by her aunt, in 3.9, and is echoed in the narrator’s allusion to Jude as a ‘child’, in 3.10. 8. The serial divisions are as follows: 1: 1.1–6; 2: 1.7–11; 3: 2.1–5; 4: 2.6–3.3; 5: 3.4–7; 6: 3.8–4.2; 7: 4.3–5; 8: 4.6–5.3; 9: 5.4–7; 10: 5.8–6.3; 11: 6.4–7; 12: 6.8–11. 9. Casagrande, pp. 202–3, contrasts a linear, phasal and developmental pattern in TDU, with a spatial, cyclical pattern in JO; a movement towards fulfilment through adversity, with a downward spiral of decline. 10. In a letter to Edmund Gosse of 20 Nov. 1895, in Florence Emily Hardy, The Life of Thomas Hardy 1840–1928 (London: Macmillan, 1962), pp. 272–3, Hardy himself insists that ‘the book is all contrasts – or was meant to be in its original conception. Alas, what a miserable accomplishment it is, when I compare it with what I meant to make it! – e.g. Sue and her heathen gods set against Jude’s reading the Greek testament; Christminster academical, Christminster in the slums; Jude the saint, Jude the sinner; Sue the Pagan, Sue the saint; marriage, no marriage; etc, etc.’ 11. Michael Millgate, Thomas Hardy: His Career as a Novelist (London: Bodley Head, 1971), p. 333, points out that the featureless character of the town names in North Wessex (Aldbrickham, Stoke-Barehills) echoes the rootless nomadic life forced on Jude and Sue. 12. Dennis Taylor, edited with Introduction and Notes, Jude the Obscure (London: Penguin Classics, 1998), pp. 474–6, provides a chronology of events in the novel. 13. A lack of synchrony is apparent in the relationship between serial instalments and volume divisions; their beginnings rarely coincide in JO. 14. See Ian Gregor, ‘A Series of Seemings’, in R. P. Draper, ed., Hardy: The Tragic Novels: The Return of the Native, Tess of the d’Urbervilles, Jude the Obscure: A Casebook (London and Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1975), pp. 227–47 (pp. 229–30). 15. See Simon Gatrell, Thomas Hardy and the Proper Study of Mankind (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1993), pp. 158–9. 16. See Ireland, pp. 90–4. 17. In a poignant prefiguration, the pedestrian turns out to be the itinerant quack-doctor Vilbert, whose false promises of acquiring books for Jude are later aggravated by his provision of a ‘love-philtre’ for, and his flirtation with Arabella while Jude lies on his deathbed. 18. Günther Müller’s spatiotemporal correlation of Erzählzeit/erzählte Zeit, discourse-time measured in spatial units, and story-time, measured in temporal units, is illuminating here. See his essay, ‘Über das Zeitgerüst des Erzählens’, Morphologische Poetik: Gesammelte Aufsätze (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1968), pp. 388–418 [1950]. 19. Peter Widdowson, Stylistics and the Teaching of Literature (London: Longman, 1975), p. 118, terms this a ‘thematic position’. 20. See Ireland, pp. 109–12. 21. See Ireland, pp. 123–4. Notes 251

22. Peter Widdowson, On Thomas Hardy: Late Essays and Earlier (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1998), p. 179, contends that Jude’s ambitions are over by this point, the remaining two-thirds of the novel being largely concerned with relations between Sue, Arabella and Jude. Even if Jude still harbours ideas of continuing his studies, it may be argued, burning his theological and ethical works in 4.3 certainly ends a phase in his career. 23. The figure relates to the proportion of lines of text in which direct speech is represented. 24. Exceeded only by Part the Third, the brief courtship section between Dick Dewy and Fancy Day in UGT (62%). 25. When J. B. Bullen, The Expressive Eye: Fiction and Perception in the Work of Thomas Hardy (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986), p. 237, refers to JO as ‘hav- ing the highest proportion of dialogue of any of his novels’, and Christine Brooke-Rose repeats the claim, ‘“Ill Wit and Sick Tragedy”: Jude the Obscure’, in Lance St John Butler, ed., Alternative Hardy (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1989), pp. 26–48 (p. 35), the sharp contrast indicated above between the two halves of the novel needs to be considered. Jean R. Brooks, Thomas Hardy: The Poetic Structure (London: Elek, 1971), p. 255, also highlights in JO not the role of action as in earlier novels, but ‘the flow of perceptions, feelings and thoughts’, making up ‘an Ibsenite discussion drama of the inner life’, such that dialogue, ‘in a novel that embodies so much of the advanced argument of the day, takes on symbolic and cumulative importance’. 26. The overall number of typographical gaps, with their tendency to project a sense of discontinuity and fragmentation, increases further in Hardy’s last-completed novel, The Well-Beloved. 27. Similar examples of medial reverse transforms (A-C-B) occur in scenes between Bathsheba and Troy in FFMC, chs. 28 and 30. For taxonomies of order transforms, see Ireland, pp. 52–9. 28. See Ireland, pp. 87–9. 29. See Eberhard Lämmert, Bauformen des Erzählens (Stuttgart: J. B. Metzlersche Verlag, 1955), p. 171. 30. See Ireland, pp. 112–15. 31. See Ireland, ‘Temporal Traps: Simultaneous Phase and Narrative Transitions in Conrad’, Language and Literature 11.3 (August 2002), 231–42. 32. Defined by Katie Wales, A Dictionary of Stylistics (Harlow: Pearson Longman, 2011), p. 105, as ‘those features of language which orientate or “anchor” our utterances in the context of the proximity of space (here v. there, this v. that), and of time (now v. then), relative to the speaker’s viewpoint’. 33. Millgate, p. 324, points out that Arabella’s final line has resonances of tragedy, in its echo of the conclusion to Sophocles’s Oedipus Tyrannus in the translation used by Hardy. 34. Robert Schweik, ‘The “Modernity” of Hardy’s Jude the Obscure’, in Phillip V. Mallett and Ronald P. Draper, eds., A Spacious Vision: Essays on Hardy (Newmill: The Patten Press, 1994), pp. 49–63 (p. 53), discusses the increasing use of ‘open’ unresolved endings in the history of the novel after the publication of JO. 35. Quoted by Holquist, p. 84. 36. Irving Howe, Thomas Hardy (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1968), p. 145, refers to the novel’s ‘concentrated vignettes’ rather than worked-up dramatic scenes, while contemporary images by William Hatherell, in Arlene M. Jackson, 252 Notes

Illustration and the Works of Thomas Hardy (London and Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1981), focus on Sue and Jude as individuals, the scope for illustrations being restricted by a text that allows few moments of pleasure or high drama. 37. Letter of 8 Nov. 1895 to Edmund Gosse, quoted in Richard Little Purdy and Michael Millgate, The Collected Letters of Thomas Hardy, 7 vols. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978–88), II, p. 93. Henceforth Letters. 38. Letter of 4 Jan. 1896 to Edmund Gosse, Letters, II, p. 105. 39. See David Lodge, ‘Jude the Obscure: Pessimism and Fictional Form’, in Dale Kramer, ed., Critical Approaches to the Fiction of Thomas Hardy (London and Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1979), pp. 193–201 (p. 196). 40. Marcel Proust, Remembrance of Things Past, trans. C. K. Scott Moncrieff and Terence Kilmartin (London: Chatto & Windus, 1981), III, p. 382. For further discussion of Proust’s interest in Hardy, see ch. 13, on The Well-Beloved. 41. Letter of 4 Jan. 1896 to Edmund Gosse, Letters, II, p. 93. 42. Letters, II, p. 93. Hardy himself refers to Arabella’s throwing of the pizzle, ‘at the supreme moment of his young dream’, as initiating the contrast between Jude’s ideal and actual life, but the author feels that he has not succeeded in conveying this idea clearly enough, and that it is not self-evident. 43. H. M. Daleski, Thomas Hardy and Paradoxes of Love (Columbia and London: University of Missouri Press, 1997), p. 183. 44. Deborah L. Collins, Thomas Hardy and His God: A Liturgy of Unbelief (Basingstoke and London: Macmillan, 1990), p. 139. 45. See Peter Arnds, ‘The Boy with the Old Face: Thomas Hardy’s Antibildungsroman Jude the Obscure and Wilhelm Raabe’s Bildungsroman Prinzessin Fisch’, German Studies Review 21.2 (May 1998), 221–40. 46. See Arnds, p. 237.

13 Triple Time: Avices and Devices in The Well-Beloved

1. Thomas Hardy, The Well-Beloved, edited with Introduction and Notes by Tom Hetherington, Oxford World’s Classics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 70; 2.3 [Part Second, ch. 3]. Henceforth WB. 2. See Stefan Sharff, The Elements of Cinema (New York: Columbia University Press, 1982), p. 183. Entry under ‘Transitions’. 3. Rosemary Sumner, A Route to Modernism: Hardy, Lawrence, Woolf (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 2000), p. 85, describes the scene as a rudimentary instance of stream-of-consciousness. Part One of Thomas Mann’s Buddenbrooks (1901), featuring the family’s housewarming in Lübeck, offers, by contrast, a vividly realistic evocation of a near-contemporary social occasion. 4. See Ken Ireland, The Sequential Dynamics of Narrative: Energies at the Margins of Fiction (Cranbury, NJ and London: Associated University Presses, 2001), pp. 80–7. 5. Manfred Jahn, Narratology: A Guide to the Theory of Narrative (2005) (www. uni–koeln.de/~ame02/pppn.htm), N3.1.4 [accessed 16 Nov. 2012]. 6. Richard Little Purdy, with an Introduction and Supplement by Charles P. C. Pettit, Thomas Hardy: A Bibliographical Study, rev. edn. (New Castle, DE: Oak Knoll Press and London: The British Library, 2002), pp. 92–3, tabulates the divisions of the 1897 novel and their serial equivalents. The changes between serial and volume versions are reproduced in the Appendix of WB, pp. 207–56. Notes 253

7. Tess, for instance, features in only fifty-one of the fifty-nine chapters of TDU, though ‘Too Late Beloved’ is the suggestive title of an early draft. Commenting on the controlled use of a single point of view in WB, never before applied to this extent in Hardy’s novels, Robert Langbaum, Thomas Hardy in Our Time (Basingstoke and London: Macmillan, 1997), p. 151, refers to Robert Browning’s dramatic monologues, and Henry James’s development of the device, which projects an ambiguous objectivity, whereby the reader both sympathizes with the viewpoint and judges it sceptically. 8. A term introduced by Gérard Genette in his Paratexts: Thresholds of Interpretation, trans. Jane E. Lewin (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), embracing all of a book’s liminal devices and conventions, from titles to epilogues. 9. Quoted by Norman Page, ed., Oxford Reader’s Companion to Hardy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), p. 456. 10. Hardy, Preface (August 1912), WB, p. 4. 11. Purdy and Pettit, p. 94. Simon Gatrell, Hardy the Creator: A Textual Biography (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988), pp. 141–57, also gives a detailed analysis of the changes. 12. Anon. rev. of The Well-Beloved, 10 April 1897, in R. G. Cox, ed., Thomas Hardy: The Critical Heritage (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1978), pp. 316–18 (p. 318). 13. Anon. rev. of The Well-Beloved, 24 March 1897, quoted in Geoffrey Harvey, Thomas Hardy (London and New York: Routledge, 2003), p. 40. 14. D. H. Lawrence, Study of Thomas Hardy and Other Essays, ed. Bruce Steele (London: Grafton Books, 1986), p. 89. 15. Richard Carpenter, Thomas Hardy (London and Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1976), p. 39. 16. Douglas Brown, Thomas Hardy (London: Longmans, 1961), p. 19. 17. Lance St John Butler, Thomas Hardy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978), p. 157. 18. Martin Seymour-Smith, Hardy (London: Bloomsbury, 1994), p. 594. 19. Albert J. Guerard, Thomas Hardy: The Novels and Stories (London: Geoffrey Cumberlege and Oxford University Press, 1949), p. 68. 20. J. Hillis Miller, Thomas Hardy: Distance and Desire (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970); Fiction and Repetition: Seven English Novels (Oxford: Blackwell, 1982). 21. Rosemary Sumner, Thomas Hardy: Psychological Novelist (London and Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1981), p. 32, makes a strong case for WB as a vehicle for theory, in its virtual foreshadowing of Carl Jung’s concept of anima. 22. The main difference is that Hardy has moved away from a concern with ‘events’ over a short two-and-a-half-year period, to a focus on the selfsame ‘temperament’ across a forty-year span. 23. Prefiguring WB, Hardy notes in a diary entry of 1888–9, in Florence Emily Hardy, The Life of Thomas Hardy 1840–1928 (London: Macmillan, 1962), p. 217 (henceforth Life), an idea for a future story: ‘a face which goes through three generations or more, would make a fine novel or poem of the passage of time. The differences in personality to be ignored.’ 24. This initial movement back contrasts with the initial movement away from home in JO, his previous novel. 254 Notes

25. Michael Ryan, ‘One Name of Many Shapes: The Well–Beloved’, in Dale Kramer, ed., Critical Approaches to the Fiction of Thomas Hardy (London and Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1979), pp. 172–92 (pp. 173, 187–8), also points to Walter Pater’s Marius the Epicurean (1885), and the work of Dante Gabriel Rossetti, as other aesthetic targets. 26. For Katie Wales, A Dictionary of Stylistics, 3rd edn. (Harlow: Pearson Education, 2011), pp. 175–7, free indirect speech and style (FIS) occurs where ‘the speech of a character and the words of the narrator are blended, but with no reporting clause indicated (hence “free”)’. By analogy, free indirect thought (FIT) ‘has no reporting clause and a prevailing indirect mode of representation (the present tense of the direct speech mode shifted to past; third person pronouns replacing first and second person), but with a direct or “present” deictic orientation rather than an indirect or distant one’. Raymond Chapman, The Language of Thomas Hardy (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1990), p. 133, concludes that this narrative technique is not often used by Hardy, though popular with Dickens and Jane Austen. Monika Fludernik, Towards a ‘Natural’ Narratology (London: Routledge, 1996), p. 155, traces its usage in English, for the representation of consciousness, as far back as Aphra Behn. 27. See Ireland, pp. 90–4. 28. See Ireland, pp. 87–9. 29. See Jahn, N5.2.3 [accessed 16 Nov. 2012]. 30. Three times the average for WB, leaving his confessional to Avice II (58%; 2.12) far behind. In HE, ch. 14, and UGT, ch. 2.5, its nearest competitors, the comparative figures are, respectively, 97% and 98% for a single chapter. 31. A topos which, as plot device, serves to retard or sever relationships, frustrate reader expectations, and move the narrative into new directions. Elsewhere, Viviette goes alone to Pumpminster (TT) for a licence, while Bob Loveday’s (TM) is nullified. 32. David Herman, Story Logic: Problems and Possibilities of Narrative (Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 2002), p. 212, uses the term ‘fuzzy temporality’ to describe the non-fixable positioning of narrated events along a timeline in the storyworld. 33. The phrase is also used as the novel’s title-page epigraph. 34. The notion of surveillance here implies overhearing and voyeurism, rather than Michel Foucault’s model of panopticism, the operation of power and control. 35. See Ireland, pp. 87–9. 36. Joan Grundy, Hardy and the Sister Arts (London and Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1979), p. 131. 37. See Jahn, N3.1.4 [accessed 16 Nov. 2012]. 38. See Gérard Genette, Narrative Discourse, trans. Jane E. Lewin (Oxford: Blackwell, 1980), pp. 48–67. 39. J. Hillis Miller, Introduction to Thomas Hardy, The Well-Beloved: A Sketch of a Temperament, The New Wessex Edition (London: Macmillan, 1976), pp. 12, 19. Following Miller, Patricia Ingham, ‘Provisional Narratives: Hardy’s Final Trilogy’, in Lance St John Butler, Alternative Hardy (Basingstoke and London: Macmillan, 1989), pp. 49–73, claims the serial version as a separate novel, which, with the book version and JO, forms a final trilogy Notes 255

concerned with the relations between the sexes. Addressing the theoretical issue of defining a line beyond which alteration to a text constitutes pro- duction of a new work, Simon Gatrell, Hardy the Creator: A Textual Biography (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988), p. 141, argues that any decision ‘would probably depend ultimately upon subjective judgements’, and that a study would be needed of ‘a very wide range of altered texts’. In practice, however, few readers are likely to read the serial version separately from the 1897 volume, and Hardy himself (WB, p. 4) in his 1912 Preface, downplays the changes: ‘A few chapters of that experimental issue were rewritten for the present and final form of the narrative.’ 40. See Norman Page, Thomas Hardy (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1977), p. 119. 41. Like some other critics, Ralph W. V. Elliott, ‘The Infatuated Artist: Thomas Hardy and The Well-Beloved’, The Thomas Hardy Journal 3.2 (May 1987), 20–33, sees Jocelyn’s infatuation – his ideal of perfect form in a living woman and sculpted stone – as an autobiographical projection of Hardy’s own search for emotional satisfaction. 42. Philip Kolb, ed., Cahiers Marcel Proust: Nouvelle série 8: le carnet de 1908 (Paris: Gallimard, 1976), p. 114. 43. Marcel Proust, Remembrance of Things Past, trans. C. K. Scott Moncrieff and Terence Kilmartin, 3 vols. (London: Chatto & Windus, 1981), III, pp. 382–3. 44. Peter J. Casagrande, Hardy’s Influence on the Modern Novel (Basingstoke and London: Macmillan, 1987), p. 118. 45. Casagrande, p. 112. Proust’s letter of March 1910, to his friend Robert de Billy, appears in Philip Kolb, Marcel Proust: Correspondance, 21 vols. 1970–93 (Paris: Plon, 1983), X [1910–11], p. 54. 46. George D. Painter, Marcel Proust: A Biography, 2 vols. (London: Chatto & Windus, 1969), II, 154–5. 47. Life, p. 432.

Conclusion

1. Hilary P. Dannenberg, ‘Ontological Plotting: Narrative as a Multiplicity of Temporal Dimensions’, in John Pier, ed., The Dynamics of Narrative Form: Studies in Anglo-American Narratology (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2004), pp. 159–89 (p. 182 f. 69), contrasts conventional realist narrative, definitively instating one version as actual, with the open alternatives of Modernist narrative, as in James’s The Turn of the Screw (1898). 2. Thomas Hardy, The Well-Beloved, edited with Introduction and Notes by Tom Hetherington, Oxford World’s Classics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), Preface (August 1912), p. 4. 3. J. W. Beach, The Technique of Thomas Hardy (New York: Russell & Russell, 1962), p. 132, refers to the characters of WB as ‘all phantoms, mere figures in the algebra of the theme’. 4. Rosemary Sumner, A Route to Modernism: Hardy, Lawrence, Woolf (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 2000), pp. 82–92. 5. Jean R. Brooks, Thomas Hardy: The Poetic Structure (London: Elek, 1971), p. 254. 256 Notes

6. Lance St John Butler, Thomas Hardy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978), p. 140. 7. R. P. Draper, ed., Hardy: The Tragic Novels: The Return of the Native, Tess of the d’Urbervilles, Jude the Obscure: A Casebook (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1991), p. 25. 8. Andrew D. Radford, Thomas Hardy and the Survivals of Time (Aldershot and Burlington VT: Ashgate, 2003), p. 201. 9. David Lodge, ‘Jude the Obscure: Pessimism and Fictional Form’, in Dale Kramer, ed., Critical Approaches to the Fiction of Thomas Hardy (London & Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1979), pp. 193–201 (p. 196). 10. See Lodge, p. 195. 11. Christine Brooke–Rose, ‘“Ill Wit and Sick Tragedy”: Jude the Obscure’, in Lance St John Butler, ed., Alternative Hardy (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1989), pp. 26–48 (p. 44). 12. John Bayley, An Essay on Hardy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), p. 13. 13. Jakob Lothe, ‘Space, Time, Narrative: From Thomas Hardy to Franz Kafka and J. M. Coetzee’, in Attie de Lange, Gail Fincham, Jeremy Hawthorn and Jakob Lothe, eds., Literary Landscapes: From Modernism to Postmodernism (New York and Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), pp. 1–18 (p. 4). 14. Annie Escuret, ‘Thomas Hardy: une écriture paradoxale entre génération et dégradation entropique’, Actes du colloque ‘Thomas Hardy: Écriture et Modernité’ (Toulouse 2006), Cahiers Victoriens et Édouardiens 65 (avril 2007), 37–54 (41). 15. Deborah L. Collins, Thomas Hardy and His God: A Liturgy of Unbelief (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1990), p. 14. 16. Julian Wolfreys, Thomas Hardy (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), p. 12. 17. See Sumner, pp. 61; 4. 18. Barbara Hardy, Thomas Hardy: Imagining Imagination in Hardy’s Poetry and Fiction (London and New Brunswick, NJ: Athlone Press, 2000), p. 217. 19. Sheila Berger, Thomas Hardy and Visual Structures: Framing, Disruption, Process (New York: New York University Press, 1990), p. 8. 20. Richard Nemesvari, ‘Hardy and his Readers’, in Phillip Mallett, ed., Palgrave Advances in Thomas Hardy Studies (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), pp. 38–74 (p. 70), referring to John Goode, Thomas Hardy: The Offensive Truth (Oxford: Blackwell, 1988), and Roger Ebbatson, Hardy: Margin of the Unexpressed (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1993). 21. Norman D. Prentiss, ‘The Poetics of Interruption in Hardy’s Poetry and Short Stories’, Victorian Poetry 31.1 (1993), 41–60 (p. 42). 22. Thomas Hardy, ‘The Profitable Reading of Fiction’ [1888], in Harold Orel, ed., Thomas Hardy’s Personal Writings (Basingstoke and London: Macmillan, 1990), pp. 110–25 (p. 112). 23. Virginia Woolf, ‘The Novels of Thomas Hardy’, Collected Essays (London: Hogarth Press, 1966), vol. 1, pp. 256–66 (p. 258). 24. Ian Gregor, The Great Web: The Form of Hardy’s Major Fiction (London: Faber and Faber, 1974), pp. 26–40. 25. Dale Kramer, Thomas Hardy: The Forms of Tragedy (London: Macmillan, 1975), pp. 61–2. Notes 257

26. See Bayley, pp. 33–4. 27. See Sumner, p. 56; Berger, p. 29. 28. Franz Stanzel, A Theory of Narrative, trans. Charlotte Goedsche with Preface by Paul Hernadi (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), p. 69. 29. See Collins, p. 11. 30. Terry Eagleton, The English Novel (Oxford: Blackwell, 2005), pp. 199, 201. 31. Samuel Hynes, ed., The Complete Poetical Works of Thomas Hardy (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982), vol. 1, p. 113. 32. Terry Eagleton, Walter Benjamin, or, Towards a Revolutionary Criticism (London: NLB, 1981), p. 126. 33. J. Hillis Miller, Fiction and Repetition: Seven English Novels (Oxford: Blackwell, 1982), pp. 140–1. 34. The notion of surveillance here implies overhearing and voyeurism, rather than Michel Foucault’s model of panopticism, the operation of power and control. 35. Julie Grossman, ‘Thomas Hardy and the Role of Observer’, ELH 56.3 (Fall 1989), 619–38 (p. 636). 36. See David Herman, ‘Cognition, Emotion, and Consciousness’, in Herman, ed., Cambridge Companion to Narrative (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), pp. 245–59 (p. 252). 37. See J. Hillis Miller, Thomas Hardy: Distance and Desire (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970), pp. 119–28. He notes, p. 128n, that the observed sleeper, present in scenes between Viviette and Swithin (TT), Wildeve, Eustacia and Clym (RN), Grace and Fitzpiers (WL), Jude and Sue (JO) anticipates Proust’s application of the topic. 38. See Charles Lock, ‘Hardy and the Critics’, in Phillip Mallett, ed., Palgrave Advances in Thomas Hardy Studies (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), pp. 14–37 (pp. 25–7). 39. See Berger, p. 17. 40. Florence Emily Hardy, The Life of Thomas Hardy 1840–1928 (London: Macmillan, 1962), pp. 120–1. Henceforth Life. 41. See Berger, p. 11; Miller, Thomas Hardy, p. 210. 42. Bert G. Hornback, The Metaphor of Chance: Vision and Technique in the Works of Thomas Hardy (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1971), pp. 4–6; Terry Eagleton, The English Novel (Oxford: Blackwell, 2005), p. 200. 43. Patricia Ingham, ed., Desperate Remedies, Oxford World’s Classics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), p. xxiv, presents the same argument with regard to DR. 44. Arnold Kettle, ‘Hardy the Novelist: A Reconsideration’, in Kettle, ed., The Nineteenth-Century Novel: Critical Essays and Documents (London: Heinemann Educational Books in association with the Open University Press, 1972), pp. 262–73 (p. 272). 45. ‘The Science of Fiction’, in Harold Orel, ed., Thomas Hardy’s Personal Writings (Basingstoke and London: Macmillan, 1990), pp. 134–8. 46. Life, pp. 228–9. 47. Vere H. Collins, Talks with Thomas Hardy at Max Gate 1920–1922 (London: Duckworth, 1978), p. 8. 48. Virginia Woolf, A Writer’s Diary (London: Triad/Granada, 1981), p. 97 [entry for Sunday, 25 July 1926]. 258 Notes

49. See Berger, p. 114. 50. Linda K. Hughes and Michael Lund, ‘Linear Stories and Circular Visions: The Decline of the Victorian Serial’, in N. Katherine Hayles, ed., Chaos and Order: Complex Dynamics in Literature and Science (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1991), pp. 167–94 (pp. 171–3). 51. Miller, Introduction to The Well-Beloved, The New Wessex Edition (London: Macmillan, 1976), p. 19. 52. ‘Candour in English Fiction’ [1890], in Orel, ed., pp. 125–33 (p. 129). 53. Terry Eagleton, Editor’s Preface to John Goode, Thomas Hardy: The Offensive Truth (Oxford: Blackwell, 1988), p. vii. 54. Life, p. 228. Glossary

adjacency principle: the close textual appearance of technical effects resulting in their greater intensity and impact upon the reader alternate phase: resumes events from the last-but-one, or occasionally the third previous chapter analepsis/analeptic phase: evokes events retrospectively (flashback), antedating the start of a previous sequence analeptic overlap: a leapfrogging advance after initial reversion to a chapter antedating the previous chapter analeptic prolepsis: reference backward to future events anaphora/anaphoric: repetition of a word or phrase at the start of successive clauses, or word referring to or replacing one used earlier in sentence asynchronic: not simultaneous or occurring at the same point in time authorial narration: narrator’s external perspective, able to access in omniscient manner the thoughts of characters in storyworld autodiegetic narrator (Genette): narrator present as hero/heroine of his/her own narrative barrier time (Higdon): a terminal point, prescribed time-limit or deadline within which to carry out a given mission or task; heightens narrative tension bifurcation or dual continuity: division into two branches or segments Bildungsroman: a novel of spiritual growth and inner development; predominantly teutophone tradition stemming from Wieland and Goethe chronotope (Bakhtin): the fusion of temporal and spatial indices into a single concrete whole cognitive frame: thematic or situational context or frame of reference for interpreting events continuity span: a tight spatial grouping of chapters separated temporally by no longer than a day deictic/deixis: features of language which orientate utterances in space (here/ there, this/that) and time (now/then), relative to the speaker’s viewpoint discourse-time: temporal duration of the narrative representation, significant for an account of narrative tempo (see also story-time of represented events) distal/proximal viewpoint: perceptual terms for far/near, remote/close-up dual continuity or bifurcation: division into two branches or segments

259 260 Glossary ellipsis: gap in the record of narrative events, either within or between chapters, explicit or implicit, completed or uncompleted epiphany: sudden spiritual manifestation or illumination erzählte Zeit/Erzählzeit (Müller): relationship between story-time (period covered by narrated events) and discourse-time (time taken by representation expressed in lines and pages of text), crucial to an account of narrative tempo extradiegetic (Genette): third-person outside narrator producing diegesis or first-degree narrative false continuity: intentional mismatch, either temporal, characterological or locational, between expected resumption of events at chapter-start, and actual frustration of continuity focalization/focalize: viewing events through the perspective of a given character cf. hypothetical focalization free indirect discourse (speech/style/thought): blend of narrator’s voice and character’s idiolect, third-person reference and past tense, with reporting verbs deleted front-loading: strong emphasis on specific elements, often in terms of length, at start of narrative

Hakenstil (Lämmert): interlocking of a chapter-end anticipation of the course of an action, venue and topic, and a chapter-start retrospective, effecting a smooth transition rather than a chapter break hermeneutic code (Barthes): a network of enigmatic elements which operates by stalling tactics withholding information or misleading readers, and working against the narrative flow heterodiegetic (Genette): narrator absent from story s/he tells historiographic: implying its historical context homodiegetic (Genette): narrator present as participating character hyponarrative (Jahn): embedded, framed or nested narrative, one unit enclosed in a larger unit, a story within a story hypothetical focalization: viewing events as they might have been perceived by a hypothetical or virtual observer immediate tie: a reduction close to zero in the temporal gap between chapters in medias res: into the middle of things, without preamble intertextual: setting up one text in dialogue with another isochronous: match between story-time and discourse-time, represented events and representation

Künstlerroman: fictional or historical artist as protagonist of novel Glossary 261 medial viewpoint: perceptual term for middle-distance perspective metafiction: fiction self-consciously referring to its own fictionality and artificiality metalepsis: a transgressive shift of hierarchically ordered narrative levels mise en abyme (Gide): internal mirror or condensed duplication of events of larger narrative narrative-Now: narrator’s writing-time expressed in the present verb-tense narrative profile (Stanzel): ratio of narrative to non-narrative (dialogue) passages narrative rhythm (Stanzel): succession of narrative parts (report, commentary, description, scenic presentation) and relation to narrative profile narratological/narratology: discipline incorporating theory and method of narrative representation; anglicization of term ‘narratologie’ coined by Tzvetan Todorov, Grammaire du Décaméron (1969) nocturnal tie: temporal gap of up to twenty-four hours order transform: a rearrangement of actions or events in an order different to that of their supposed occurrence paralipsis (Genette): information deliberately omitted at crucial junctures and retrospectively filled in by the narrator parallel overlap: ‘catching up’ with earlier co-occurring events, then temporally exceeding the limit of the most recent of them, to establish a new and more advanced date in time parallel phase: sequence co-occurring with a previous sequence despite post-position in the text paratextual (Genette): mater ial elements of the physical text such as titles, prefaces, dedications, notes, epigraphs, illustrations, tables pre-emptive start: an episode that commences at the end of a chapter, rather than, conventionally, at the beginning of a new chapter, tightening emotional rhythm, and challenging the self-contained boundaries of the chapter unit prolepsis/proleptic phase: alludes to future events either within or beyond the text, especially important at chapter end, designated Hakenstil when combined with chapter-start retrospective proximal/distal viewpoint: perceptual terms for near/far, close-up/remote perspective proximate tie: temporal gap extending from several minutes to several hours quantitative indicator (Sternberg): correlation between textual extent and degree of semantic or aesthetic importance 262 Glossary rhythm: dense and compressed (Müller’s Raffung) vs. loose and expansive representation (Müller’s breite Darstellung) self-limiting technique (St John Butler): readers are given information only when the characters themselves are simultaneous phase: binds together different (heterogeneous) characters and events in the same time-frame, often coinciding with the end of a previous chapter singulative (Genette): single telling of single event, often a ‘one day’ or ‘one morning’ marker initiating an episode spatiotemporal ratio: relationship between the amount of fictional time covered and the textual space occupied cf. Müller’s erzählte Zeit/Erzählzeit distinctions speaking presence: actual utterances of characters reproduced rather than their names simply being listed as present in a given scene stichomythia: rapid exchange of speech in the form of single-line utterances between two interlocutors, common in Greek drama story-time: the duration of events in the represented story, significant for an account of narrative tempo (see also discourse-time of representation) surveillance: overhearing of speech usually at close range (proximal), voyeurism often at a remove (distal); acts of listening/observing may be accidental or deliberate, but foreground agent and background object co-exist in the same time-frame, and episodes fuse temporal and perceptual; distinct from Michel Foucault’s model of panopticism, the operation of power and control teichoscope: report of an offstage action by an onstage figure, common in Greek classical drama tempo: pace, relative speed or rate of activity or movement; dialogue as near-isochronous discourse trans-temporal (Fleishman): rooted in one historical period but conceiving of another Bibliography

Primary texts

(a) Works by Hardy The Complete Poetical Works of Thomas Hardy. Edited by Samuel Hynes. 5 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982–95. Hardy, Florence Emily. The Life of Thomas Hardy, 1840–1928. London: Macmillan, 1962. Hardy, Thomas. ‘Candour in English Fiction’ [1890]. In Thomas Hardy’s Personal Writings. Edited by Harold Orel, pp. 125–33. Basingstoke and London: Macmillan, 1990. —— Desperate Remedies. Edited with Introduction and Notes by Patricia Ingham. Oxford World’s Classics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009. —— Desperate Remedies. Edited with Introduction and Notes by Mary Rimmer. London: Penguin Classics, 1998. —— The Dynasts. London: Macmillan, 1965. —— Far from the Madding Crowd. Edited with Notes by Suzanne B. Yalck-Yi and new Introduction by Linda M. Shires. Oxford World’s Classics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008. —— Far from the Madding Crowd. Edited with Introduction by Ronald Blythe. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1985. —— The Hand of Ethelberta: A Comedy in Chapters. Edited with Introduction and Notes by Tim Dolin. Harmondsworth: Penguin Classics, 1996. —— Jude the Obscure. Edited with Introduction and Notes by Patricia Ingham. Oxford World’s Classics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. —— Jude the Obscure. Edited with Introduction and Notes by Dennis Taylor. London: Penguin Classics, 1998. —— A Laodicean. Edited with Introduction by Jane Gatewood. Oxford World’s Classics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991. —— A Laodicean: A Story of To-day. Introduced by Barbara Hardy. The New Wessex Edition. London: Macmillan, 1975. —— The Mayor of Casterbridge. Edited with Notes by Dale Kramer, and new Introduction by Pamela Dalziel. Oxford World’s Classics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008. —— A Pair of Blue Eyes. Edited with Notes by Alan Manford, and Introduction by Tim Dolin. Oxford World’s Classics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009. —— ‘The Profitable Reading of Fiction’ [1888]. In Thomas Hardy’s Personal Writings. Edited by Harold Orel, pp. 110–25. Basingstoke and London: Macmillan, 1990. —— The Return of the Native. Edited by Simon Gatrell with Notes by Nancy Barrineau and Introduction by Margaret Higonnet. Oxford World’s Classics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008. —— ‘The Science of Fiction’ [1891]. In Thomas Hardy’s Personal Writings. Edited by Harold Orel, pp. 134–8. Basingstoke and London: Macmillan, 1990.

263 264 Bibliography

—— Tess of the d’Urbervilles: A Pure Woman, Faithfully Presented by Thomas Hardy. Edited by Juliet Grindle and Simon Gatrell, with Introduction by Penny Boumelha, and Notes by Nancy Barrineau. Oxford World’s Classics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008. —— The Trumpet-Major. Edited with Introduction and Notes by Linda M. Shires. Harmondsworth: Penguin Classics, 1997. —— The Trumpet-Major & Robert his Brother. Edited by Roger Ebbatson. Harmondsworth: Penguin Classics, 1987. —— Two on a Tower: A Romance. Edited with Introduction and Notes by Sally Shuttleworth. Harmondsworth: Penguin Classics, 1999. —— Under the Greenwood Tree. Edited with Introduction and Notes by Simon Gatrell. Oxford World’s Classics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009. —— The Well-Beloved. Edited with Introduction and Notes by Tom Hetherington. Oxford World’s Classics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998. —— The Well-Beloved: A Sketch of a Temperament. Introduction by J. Hillis Miller and Notes by Edward Mendelson. New Wessex Edition. London: Macmillan, 1976. —— The Woodlanders. Edited with Introduction and Notes by Patricia Ingham. Harmondsworth: Penguin Classics, 1998. —— The Woodlanders. Introduced by David Lodge. The New Wessex Edition. London: Macmillan, 1975.

(b) Other Cahiers Marcel Proust: Nouvelle série 8: le carnet de 1908. Edited by Philip Kolb. Paris: Gallimard, 1976. Chopin, Kate, ‘The Story of an Hour’. In Kate Chopin: Complete Novels and Stories. Edited by Sandra M. Gilbert, pp. 756–8. New York: The Library of America, 2002. Collins, Wilkie. Basil: A Story of Modern Life [1852]. Edited with Introduction and Notes by Dorothy Goldman. Oxford World’s Classics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008. —— No Name [1862]. Edited with Introduction by Virginia Blain. Oxford World’s Classics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990. Dickens, Charles. The Mystery of Edwin Drood [1870]. Edited by Arthur J. Cox with Introduction by Angus Wilson. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1974. Flaubert, Gustave. Madame Bovary [1857]. Translated by Alan Russell. Harmondsworth: Penguin Classics, 1965. —— Sentimental Education [1869]. Translated by Douglas Parmée. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989. Fowles, John. The French Lieutenant’s Woman. New York: The New American Library, 1969. Marcel Proust: Correspondance. Edited by Philip Kolb. 21 vols. Paris: Plon, 1970–93. Meredith, George. The Ordeal of Richard Feverel [1859]. Edited with Introduction by John Halperin. Oxford World’s Classics. London: Oxford University Press, 1984. Moore, George. Esther Waters [1894]. Edited by David Skilton. Oxford World’s Classics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983. Proust, Marcel. Remembrance of Things Past. Translated by C. K. Scott Moncrieff and Terence Kilmartin. 3 vols. London: Chatto & Windus, 1981. The Works of Geoffrey Chaucer. Edited by F. N. Robinson. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977. Bibliography 265

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Page references in bold italics indicate substantial discussions of topics. Works are indexed under their authors, and technical terms are defined in the Glossary above.

Ackroyd, Peter, 220 art adjacency, principle of, see narrative definition of, 167, 214–15 structures profession of, 197 Aeschylus, 131, 249 astronomy, 116, 122 aesthetic factors, 90, 167, 196, 202, asynchronicity, see time 203, 213, 254 atemporal/timeless aspects, see time Agamemnon, 132 Athenaeum, The, 108, 194 Agland, Phil, 244, 245 Atlantic Monthly, 117 ‘agon’ (contest), see tragedy Austen, Jane, 18, 62, 85, 254 allegory, see literary forms Emma, 224 alternate phases, see narrative Persuasion, 224 transitions Pride and Prejudice, 196 ‘anagnorisis’ (recognition), see tragedy autobiographical projections, 22, 63, analeptic overlaps, see narrative 64, 203, 222, 223, 230, 233, transitions 237, 255 analeptic phases, see narrative Avery, Simon, 241 transitions analeptic prolepsis, see narrative Bach, Johann Sebastian, 222 transitions Bakhtin, Mikhail, 72, 130, 179, 188, anaphora, see style 211, 212, 231, 232, 233, 241, 249 archaeological time, see time Bal, Mieke, 234, 240 architectonic features/sense, 11, 19, Ball, David, 229, 230 48, 61, 72, 118, 136, 164, 166, ballad forms, see literary forms 171, 189, 190, 203, 245 Balzac, Honoré de, 71, 85 architectural styles Le Père Goriot, 12 Classical, 57, 104, 115, 121 La recherche de l’absolu, 133 Gothic, 57, 72, 104, 168, 176, 231, Sarrasine, 224 236 Barnes, Robert, 134 neo-Greek, 105 Barnes, William, 223 Norman, 105 ‘barrier time’, see time Perpendicular, 105 Barthes, Roland, 132, 224, 242 revival styles, 104 Baudelaire, Charles, 90 Rococo Revival, 238 ‘Les Chats’, 2 architecture, 57, 61, 101, 102, 104, Baugh, Albert, 238 114, 115, 121, 136, 168, 220, Bayley, John, 49, 209, 211, 228, 246, 227, 231, 236, 238 247, 256, 257 Aristotle, 131, 215 Beach, Joseph Warren, 3–4, 11, 150, Arnds, Peter, 243, 252 218, 219, 220, 227, 231, 236, Arnold, Matthew, 180, 209, 231 239, 240, 244, 247

276 Index 277

Beatty, C. J. P., 227 Carpenter, Richard, 194, 224, 237, Beaumarchais, Pierre-Augustin Caron 238, 253 de, 230 Casagrande, Peter J., 164, 219, 223, Beckett, Samuel 242, 246, 250, 255 The Unnamable, 205 Cecil, David, 238 Beer, Gillian, 235 Chapman, Raymond, 17–18, 85, 221, Behn, Aphra, 254 233, 237, 254 Belgravia, 232 Chatterton, Thomas, 155 Belvoir Castle, 238 Chaucer, Geoffrey, 131, 241 Bennett, Arnold, 235 Chopin, Kate, 240 Berger, Sheila, 213, 219, 226, 232, chronotope, see time 256, 257, 258 Church of England, 117, 240 biblical allusions, see literary devices circularity/cyclical forms, see narrative bifurcations, see narrative transitions structures Bildungsroman (novel of inner Claridge, Laura, 247 development), see literary Classical style, see architectural styles forms cliff-hangers, see time Billy, Robert de, 255 clock-time, see time Blathwayt, Raymond, 248 Clough, Arthur Blunden, Edmund, 122, 239 Amours de Voyage, 110 Blythe, Ronald, 226 cognitive frames, 55, 186 Boldini, Giovanni, 213 cognitive narratology, 50, 76, 163, Bonheim, Helmut, 223 176, 212 Boumelha, Penny, 166, 219, 244, 246, Cohn, Dorrit, 224 248 coincidences/co-occurrences, see time Braddon, Mary Elizabeth, 9 Colacurcio, Michael J., 3, 218 Bradshaw, George, 7–8, 9, 220 Collins, Deborah L., 209–10, 252, Brady, Kristin, 219 256, 257 breite Darstellung (expansive Collins, Vere H., 257 presentation), see narrative Collins, Wilkie, 9 tempo Basil: A Story of Modern Life, 220 ‘broken method’, see narrative No Name, 10, 220 structures comedy/comic modes, 57, 59, 60, 65, Brontë, Charlotte, 211 67, 68, 74, 77, 89, 94, 96, 99, Jane Eyre, 138 128, 132, 157, 167, 174, 189, Brooke-Rose, Christine, 206, 251, 256 216, 239 Brooks, Jean R., 166, 205, 219, 226, comic opera, 68, 116, 128, 230 233, 245, 246, 247, 251, 255 farce, 62, 64, 95, 98, 189 Brown, Douglas, 194, 226, 253 Restoration comedy, 58 Browning, Robert, 180, 209, 253 ‘conative solicitude’, see readers Buckley, Jerome Hamilton, 225 Conrad, Joseph, 47, 184, 205, 209, Bullen, J. B., 220, 236, 238, 245, 251 216, 217 Bunyan, John, 166, 242 Lord Jim, 241 Butler, Lance St John, 194, 206, 220, continuity spans, see narrative 223, 227, 228, 231, 239, 242, transitions 243, 249, 251, 253, 254, 256 conventions, see narrative structures: reversals calendar dates/facts, see time Cornhill Magazine, 40, 58 carnival trope/carnivalesque, 130, 212 corpus linguistics, 2 278 Index

Coutinho, Eduardo F., 230 Adam Bede, 170, 224 Country Time, see time Middlemarch, 12–13 Cox, R. G., 220, 224, 253 Silas Marner, 12, 224 Crashaw, Richard, 195 Eliot, T. S., 56 cross-cutting, see film effects Elliott, Ralph W. V., 61, 230, 255 Cubism, 205 ellipsis, see narrative transitions: temporal/time gaps Daleski, H. M., 242, 252 embedded narratives, see narrative Daly, Nicholas, 220 levels Dalziel, Pamela, 220 Emery, John P., 231 Dannenberg, Hilary P., 225, 255 endings, see narrative structures Darwin, Charles, 211–12, 235, 236 epigraphs, see style Defoe, Daniel, 58, 131, 229 epiphany, see time deictic elements/deixis, see style epistolary format/insertions, see depth of field, see film effects style Dessner, Lawrence Jay, 225 Erzählzeit/erzählte Zeit, see time: dialogue, see speech discourse-time/story-time Dickens, Charles, 11, 85, 93, 131, 209, Escuret, Annie, 209, 220, 256 254 establishing shots, see film effects Dombey and Son, 10 Expressionism, 60, 167, 206 Great Expectations, 138 ‘Mugby Junction’, 33 fairytale topos, see literary forms The Mystery of Edwin Drood, 227–8 false continuity, see narrative Pickwick Papers, 10 transitions Dike, D. A., 241 farce, see comedy discourse-time, see time Ferguson, Trish, 220 dissolves, see film effects feudal period, see medieval period documentary insertions, see style Fielding, Henry, 119, 168 Dostoevsky, Fyodor, 241 Tom Jones, 19 Dou, Gerard, 222 film adaptations, 233, 241, 244, 245, Douglas, Sir George, 10, 220 249 dramatic format, see stage format film effects Draper, R. P., 222, 223, 241, 246, 250, cross-cutting, 48, 124, 135, 158, 251, 256 174, 216 dual continuity, see narrative depth of field, 151 transitions: bifurcations establishing shots, 71, 116 filmic dissolve, 163 Eagleton, Terry, 212, 213, 215, 225, lap dissolve, 193 236, 257, 258 montage techniques, 199, 228 eavesdropping, see narrative pan shot, 163 perspectives: surveillance: proto-cinematic techniques, 177 overhearing split screen techniques, 48 Ebbatson, Roger, 234, 241, 242, 256 tilt shot, 163 Eco, Umberto film, Hardy’s view of, 215 The Name of the Rose, 19 Fincham, Gail, 227, 256 economic factors, 136, 172 fine-grained representations, see style: Eisenstein, Sergei, 199 granularity elegiac tone, see style Fisher, Joe, 247 Eliot, George, 11, 167, 209, 210, 211 Flaubert, Gustave Index 279

Madame Bovary, 64, 150, 185, 230, Gladstone, William Ewart, 167 245 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 11, 12 Sentimental Education, 34, 225 Wilhelm Meister, 138 Fleishman, Avrom, 89, 234, 236 Gold, Jack, 233 Fludernik, Monika, 218, 254 Good Words, 87, 234 focalization/narrative focus, see Goode, John, 89, 144, 235, 239, 243, narrative perspectives 247, 256, 258 folk-tales, see literary forms Gosse, Edmund, 155, 190, 250, 252 Fontane, Theodor, 168 Gossin, Pamela, 239 Effi Briest, 135 Gothic, see also architectural styles Foucault, Michel, 221 as emotion/mood, motifs, 9, 10, Fowles, John 23, 28, 30, 32, 36, 88, 121, 140, The French Lieutenant’s Woman, 140, 158, 160, 221 243 granularity, see style France, 34, 62, 64, 66, 90, 104, 106, Graphic, 134, 135, 166 110, 111, 112–13 graphological marks, see style France, Anatole, 4 Greek Classical tragedy, see tragedy free indirect discourse, see speech Gregor, Ian, 211, 219, 245, 247, 250, Freud, Sigmund, 203 256 front-loading elements, see narrative Grindle, Juliet, 246 structures Grossman, Julie, 233–4, 257 Furlong, Anne, 243 grotesque effects, 57, 202, 204 future-in-the-past, see narrative Grundy, Joan, 254 transitions: analeptic prolepsis Guerard, Albert, 10, 194, 220, 237–8, 241, 253 Garson, Marjorie, 171, 243, 246, 248 Gaskell, Elizabeth, 209 Håkansson, Sara, 219 Gaskell, Philip, 244 Hakenstil, see narrative transitions Gatewood, Jane, 236 Hamsun, Knut, 3 Gatrell, Simon, 219, 228, 230, 238, Hunger, 132 239, 240, 246, 247, 250, 253, Hardy, Barbara, 210, 225, 236, 248, 255 256 Gaylin, Ann, 233 Hardy, Emma Lavinia (née Gifford, generic mixtures/genres, see literary Hardy’s first wife), 22, 102, 222 forms Hardy, Florence Emily (née Dugdale, Genette, Gérard, 11, 18, 219, 220, Hardy’s second wife) 221, 222, 223, 228, 229, 232, The Life of Thomas Hardy, 1840– 236, 237, 239, 241, 244, 245, 1928, 219, 224, 229, 230, 231, 253, 254 233, 234, 235, 244, 247, 250, Geological Time, see time 253, 255, 257, 258 Gérôme, Jean-Léon Hardy, Thomas Jerusalem, 168 ‘The Bride-Night Fire’, 225 Gide, André, 229 ‘Candour in English Fiction’, 258 Gifford, Emma Lavinia, see Hardy, ‘The Chapel-Organist’, 230 Emma Lavinia Desperate Remedies, 4, 7–20, 24, 30, Giles, David, 241 33, 35, 47, 57, 60, 84, 102, 103, Gilmartin, Sophie, 219 119, 130, 155, 172, 173, 180, Giotto di Bondone, 249 189, 195, 206, 215, 216, 220, Gittings, Robert, 223 223, 224, 230, 237, 245, 248 280 Index

Hardy, Thomas – continued Tess of the d’Urbervilles, 24, 26, 58, 59, The Dynasts, 100, 122, 204, 219, 81, 82, 111, 112, 115, 124, 128, 230 146, 148, 149, 150, 163–77, 179, Far from the Madding Crowd, 37–53, 180, 188, 193, 194, 206, 209, 56, 58, 59, 69, 71, 78, 84, 88, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 216, 103, 121, 124, 125, 126, 149, 222, 236, 242, 245, 246, 248 160, 168, 173, 180, 194, 209, The Trumpet-Major, 59, 86–100, 212, 216, 223, 225, 238, 248, 102, 105, 106, 115, 116, 117, 251 118, 127, 172, 180, 194, 196, The Hand of Ethelberta, 8, 54–69, 209, 213, 216, 234, 238, 248, 71, 73, 102, 121, 180, 206, 216, 254 228, 236, 243, 248, 254 Two on a Tower, 26, 59, 99, 102, ‘An Imaginative Woman’, 197 115–28, 134, 146, 150, 165, ‘An Indiscretion in the Life of an 180, 193, 194, 202, 216, 236, Heiress’, 210 238, 248, 254, 257 Jude the Obscure, 58, 59, 105, 114, Under the Greenwood Tree, 15, 21–36, 117, 138, 144, 149, 165, 167, 40, 41, 47, 74, 168, 180, 194, 172, 173, 178–91, 193, 204, 206, 212, 216, 221, 224, 227, 205–6, 209, 211, 213, 214, 215, 230, 235, 238, 248, 251, 254 216, 243, 245, 248, 249, 250, ‘The Waiting Supper’, 210 253, 257 The Well-Beloved, 4, 117, 125, 165, A Laodicean, 8, 57, 60, 99, 100, 167, 180, 191, 192–204, 205, 101–14, 115, 116, 118, 120, 206, 209, 215, 216, 236, 238, 121, 122, 124, 134, 149, 180, 242, 248, 251, 252, 253, 255 194, 216, 236, 248 The Woodlanders, 115, 118, 122, The Mayor of Casterbridge, 3, 118, 134, 147–62, 165, 167, 193, 129–46, 148–9, 150, 152, 165, 209, 211, 212, 215, 216, 244, 172, 173, 180, 193, 209, 210, 248, 257 211, 216, 231, 241, 248 ‘harmartia’ (tragic flaw), see tragedy A Pair of Blue Eyes, 4, 21–36, 40, 41, Harper’s New Monthly Magazine, 102 117, 122, 126, 160, 180, 188, Harvey, Geoffrey, 218, 237, 238, 247, 194, 200, 204, 213, 216, 220, 253 221, 230, 248 Hatherell, William, 251 Poems of the Past and the Present, Hawthorn, Jeremy, 256 212 Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 241 The Poor Man and the Lady, 8–9, 11, The Scarlet Letter, 3, 165 60, 118 Hayles, N. Katherine, 258 ‘The Profitable Reading of Fiction’, headings, see style: titles 256 Hegel, Friedrich, 89 The Pursuit of the Well-Beloved, 193, Heine, Heinrich, 240 195, 201–2, 205 Hemingway, Ernest, 106 The Return of the Native, 49, 56, 58, Henchman, Anna, 223, 239 59, 70–85, 87, 98, 100, 103, Herman, David, 227, 228, 232, 233, 105, 115, 119, 122, 148, 149, 244–5, 246, 249, 254, 257 150, 173, 180, 209, 211, 212, hermeneutic code, see narrative 215, 216, 222, 230, 248, 257 structures ‘The Ruined Maid’, 247 Hesse, Hermann, 12 ‘The Science of Fiction’, 214, 257 Hetherington, Tom, 252, 255 ‘The Son’s Veto’, 210 Hickey, Leo, 221, 233 Index 281

Higdon, David Leon, 166, 220, 230, instalments, see narrative structures: 237, 239, 241, 247 serialization Higonnet, Margaret R., 224, 228, 232, interplay of arts, see literary devices 245, 249 intertextual associations, see literary historical novels, see literary forms devices historical present tense, see style intradiegetic levels, see narrative levels historicity/history, 87, 89, 91, 100, inversions, see narrative structures: 132, 136, 189 reversals historiographic metafiction, see Ireland, Ken, 221, 223, 224, 227, 228, literary forms 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 235, Hobbema, Meyndert, 213 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241–2, Holquist, Michael, 231, 249, 251 243, 245, 248, 249, 250, 251, Holst, Gustav 252, 254 Egdon Heath, 231 irony, see style Homer isochronous discourse, see speech Iliad, 12 Hopkins, Gerald Manley, 209 Jackson, Arlene M., 242, 251–2 Horace, 48 Jacobus, Mary, 245 Hornback, Bert G., 213, 225, 234, Jahn, Manfred, 193, 248, 252, 254 242, 257 Jakobson, Roman, 2 Houghton, Walter Edwards, 225 James, Henry, 11, 167, 201, 205, 209, Howe, Irving, 89–90, 219, 235, 242, 211, 246, 253 246, 247, 251 The Turn of the Screw, 255 Hughes, Linda K., 258 Jones, Katherine Zeta, 233 Hugo, Victor, 11 journey, trope of, see travel Hühn, Peter, 218 Joyce, James, 205, 209 Humpál, Martin, 3, 218 Ulysses, 11, 185, 213 Hutcheon, Linda, 235 Jung, Carl, 253 Huxley, Aldous, 215 Eyeless in Gaza, 19 Keats, John, 101 hybridization, see literary devices Keller, Gottfried Hynes, Samuel, 230, 247, 257 Der grüne Heinrich, 138 hyponarrative, see narrative levels: Kettle, Arnold, 172, 214, 248, 257 embedded narratives Kiely, Robert, 245 King, Jeannette, 219, 232, 233, 248 Ibsen, Henrik, 131–2, 251 Kolb, Philip, 255 Illustrated London News, 193 Krajka, Wieslaw, 227 illustrations, see style Kramer, Dale, 4, 49, 142, 211, 218, imagery, see literary devices: 219, 226, 228, 231, 232, 233, symbolism 241, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, immediate ties, see narrative 252, 254, 256 transitions Kulturgeschichte, 234 Impressionism, 151, 222, 245 Künstlerroman (artist novel), see indirect/tangential presentations, see literary forms narrative perspectives Ingham, Patricia, 221, 225, 233, 242, Laird, J. T., 247, 248 244, 249, 254–5, 257 Lämmert, Eberhard, 223, 226, 232, in medias res, see narrative structures: 235, 237, 243, 245, 251 starts Lancaster House, 238 282 Index

Landa, José Angel García, 11, 221 historical novels, 87, 89, 234, 235 Langacker, Ronald W., 50, 232 historiographic metafiction, 92 Langbaum, Robert, 228, 244, 253 Künstlerroman (artist novel), 216 Lange, Attie de, 227, 256 medieval romances, 72, 230 La Valley, Albert J., 247, 248 morphological types, 12 Lawrence, D. H., 59–60, 74, 194, 209, ‘narrative rhythm’, 3 210, 229, 232, 253 nouveau roman, 119 Women in Love, 205 oral fiction/storytelling, 56, 210, Le Fanu, Sheridan, 9 216, 229 Lerner, Laurence, 135, 242, 243 parody, 114, 149 letter format, see style: epistolary pastiche, 60, 140 format/insertions pastoral forms/mood, 22, 38, 88, Levine, George, 243 89, 91, 132, 149, 221, 222, 223, Lévi-Strauss, Claude, 2 224, 246 light, effects of, see style regional fiction/history, 99, 136, liminality, concept of, see spatial 190, 216 dimensions romances, 117, 122, 165, 226, 230 linguistic criticism, 2 satire, 9, 57, 117 literary devices sensation fiction/Sensation Novels, archetypes, 99, 168–9, 172, 247 9, 11, 32, 114, 130, 140, 189, biblical allusions, 80, 163, 164, 184, 221 185, 186, 187, 189, 209, 231, Lock, Charles, 257 249, 250 Locke, John L., 233 hybridization, 92, 216, 235 Lodge, David, 206, 244, 249, 252, 256 interplay of arts, 22 London, 7, 9, 17, 25, 31, 33, 39, 58, intertextual associations, 28, 60, 237 62, 66, 67, 90, 91, 104, 108, ‘objective correlative’, 56 128, 158, 159, 181, 193, 195, object-symbols, 82–4, 88–9, 90, 99, 196, 197, 198, 201, 202 101, 115, 121, 179, 213, 216, Lothe, Jakob, 209, 219, 231, 232, 241, 233, 248, see also symbolism 256 paralipsis, 15, 95, 132 Lukács, Georg, 89 pathetic fallacy, 169 Lund, Michael, 258 reification, 90 symbolism, 68, 103–4, 130, 133, Mackenzie, Henry, 240 165, 166, 168, 169, 173, Macmillan’s Magazine, 148 176, 177, 181, 204, 213, 236, Mallett, Phillip, 218, 226, 251, 256, 242, 245, 249, 251, see also 257 object-symbols Manford, Alan, 222 literary forms Mani, Inderjeet, 218 allegory, 58 Mann, Thomas ballads, 38, 73, 166, 169 Buddenbrooks, 12, 252 Bildungsroman (novel of inner Joseph trilogy, 12 development), 138, 172, 179, The Magic Mountain, 165 190, 191, 216 Marivaux, Pierre Carlet de Chamblain fairytale topos, 120, 165 de, 230 folk-tales, 166, 169 Marxist criticism, 136, 210 generic mixtures/genres, 11, 34, 58, medieval period, 101, 104, 105, 114, 60, 73, 89, 132, 149, 206, 212, 166 216, 224, 231, 233 medieval romances, see literary forms Index 283

Meisel, Perry, 234 music, 14, 22, 23, 29, 38, 49, 50, 56, Meister, Jan Christoph, 228 58, 61, 66, 68, 74, 78, 88, 91, melodramatic effects, see style 127, 128, 137, 185, 186–7, 203, Melville, Herman, 241 222, 230, 231 Mengham, Rod, 219 Meredith, George, 9, 209 Narrative Features, Table of, 207–8 The Ordeal of Richard Feverel, 224 narrative gaps, see narrative Meyer, Conrad Ferdinand transitions: temporal/time gaps Jürg Jenatsch, 12 narrative levels, 64 micro-narratives, see narrative embedded narratives/hyponarratives/ structures inset narratives, 174, 229, 248 micro-rhythms, see narrative intradiegetic, 233 structures: divisions: subsections metadiscourses, 177 Miller, J. Hillis, 166, 194, 201, 212, narrative loops, see narrative 213, 219, 247, 249, 250, 253, transitions 254, 257, 258 narrative-Now, 87, 91, 132 Millgate, Michael, 99, 167, 173, 222, narrative perspectives, 50, 56, 234 223, 226, 227, 228, 229, 231, complex mode, 50, 63, 83, 150, 232, 235, 236, 238, 239, 241, 213, 221, 228, 257 242, 243, 247, 248, 250, 251, detached, 58, 81, 134, 163 252 distal/remote, 22, 51, 76, 83, 85, mimetic textures, see style: 122, 150, 176, 181, 187, 193, documentary insertions 249 mise en abyme, see narrative structures: external/outsider, 46, 145, 151 micro-narratives focalization/narrative focus, 51, 59, Mitchell, Judith, 249 62, 75, 76, 78, 81, 82, 95, 135, modern/contemporary period, 101, 163, 168, 175, 176, 196, 237 114, 149, 159, 179, 191, 205, hypothetical, 41, 83, 150, 185, 244–5 210, 245 impersonal, 150 Modernism, 3, 48, 161, 184, 188, indirect/tangential presentations, 205–6, 209, 210, 212, 215, 216, 50, 52, 56, 62, 63, 115, 148, 234, 255 150, 168, 212, 216, 228 Moers, Ellen, 247 limited/narrow, 63, 78–9, 151, 253 montage techniques, see film effects male gaze, 177, 213, 228 Moore, George medial/middle-distance, 51, 83, 85 Esther Waters, 164, 165, 167, 170, multiple/prismatic, 65, 66, 96, 105, 171, 246, 248 124, 134, 148, 149, 161, 165, Moore, Kevin Z., 10, 220 177, 186, 187, 201, 211–13, Morgan, Rosemarie, 225, 226 216, 235, 236 morphological types, see literary offstage events, 33, 82, 90, 113, forms 123, 144, 145, 152, 154, 175, Morrell, Roy, 225, 238 224, 233 Moses, Michael Valdez, 131, 241 ‘polyphony’, 211, 234 Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, 230 private/subjective, 51, 78, 110, Müller, Friedrich Max, 247 163 Müller, Günther, 8, 11–19, 31, 221, proximal/close-up, 22, 26, 50, 51, 222, 224, 230, 235, 237, 243, 52, 76, 77, 83, 85, 156, 163, 248, 250 175, 187, 193, 249 Munch, Edvard, 167 ‘reception area’, 85 284 Index narrative perspectives – continued micro-narratives, 56, 65, 183, 216 surveillance, 32, 50, 66, 82, 198, ‘narrative profile’, 3, 211 212, 216, 221 order transforms, 183–4, 215–16, 241 double, 108, 160 initial reverse, 47 overhearing, 16, 50, 52, 65, 66, medial reverse, 43–5, 132, 183, 251 84, 85, 107, 117, 128, 137, 142, retrograde, 189 144, 150, 151–2, 212, 225, 238 types of, 227, 251 triple, 237, 245 organic form, 4 voyeurism, 32, 50–2, 63, 66, 83, parallelism, 204 84, 85, 107–8, 128, 144, 151, repetitions, 149, 182, 186, 188–9, 160, 175, 186, 212, 228 190, 206, 249 teichoscope, 186, 233 lexical, 79, 119, 181 transformation scenes, 42, 87, 124, reversals 193, 197, 216 of character roles, 69, 200 trompe l’oeil techniques, 57 of conventions/norms, 13, 56, 57, vertical aspects, 136 59, 60, 67, 68, 73, 80, 120, 138, wide angle, 50, 176 159, 165, 168, 177, 180, 190, ‘narrative profile’, see narrative 201, 215, 216, 233, 240 structures secrets, motifs of, 32, 119, 133, 134, ‘narrative rhythm’, see literary forms 139, 141, 174, 216, see also narrative scales, 63, 64, 71, 74, 82, 92, hermeneutic code 105, 109, 111, 116, 118, 130, serialization/serial instalments, 15, 134, 140, 152, 155, 157, 165, 22, 24, 29, 38, 40, 73, 81, 102, 170, 173, 180, 194, 195, 198, 105, 112, 117, 119, 124, 135, 201, 206, 235, 238, 239, 251 136, 138, 139, 142, 143, 148, ‘quantitative indicator’, 3, 72 152, 153, 154, 155, 156–7, 166, narrative structures 179–80, 189, 193, 194, 195, adjacency, principle of, 30, 32, 36, 201–2, 206, 215, 229, 234, 242, 42, 50, 78, 92, 94, 100, 107, 250, 254–5 109–10, 111, 139, 144, 171, divisions listed, 223, 226, 229, 232, 173, 182, 229 234, 236, 239, 242, 244, 247, ‘broken method’, 216 250, 252 circularity/cyclical forms, 18, 72, starts, 180–1, 189, 195, 201, 231, 82, 98, 116, 133–4, 144, 148, 253 161, 172, 179, 180, 190, 195, in medias res, 64, 180–1 215, 242, 250 pre-emptive starts, 27, 34, 42, contrasts, 42, 66, 71, 91, 105, 159, 142, 197, 198, 201 170, 180, 228, 250 singulative markers, 74, 159, 232, divisions, 81, 102, 105, 118, 135, 245 136, 150, 165, 168, 171, 190, unnarratable content, 248 193, 206, 233, 239 visual shapes, 226, 233 subsections, 13–14, 18–19, 216 narrative tempo, 11, 18, 23, 34, 47, endings, 49, 59, 73, 99, 146, 148, 90, 180–1, 210, see also time 149, 162, 177, 188, 194, 195, accelerated/rapid/rising, 31, 34, 43, 201–2, 203, 215, 216, 244, 246, 48, 59, 67, 77, 78, 80, 88, 93, 249, 251 106, 108, 110, 112, 115, 126, front-loading elements, 105 139, 142, 143, 153, 156, 157, hermeneutic code, 132, 224, see also 176, 181, 196, 198, 199, 216, secrets 227 Index 285

breite Darstellung (expansive narrative loops, 47, 216 presentation), 12, 31, 172 nocturnal gaps/ties, 15, 31, 62, 67, decelerated, 34, 45, 78, 132, 145, 76, 80, 97, 106, 108, 113, 126, 151, 160, 179, 227, 237 137, 139, 142, 153, 154, 156, leisurely, 61, 88, 93, 96, 120, 148, 157, 184, 185, 196, 230 150, 153, 189, 196 parallel overlaps, 15, 25, 45, 76, 78, Raffung (telescoping), 12, 32, 172 79, 88, 94, 95, 96, 97, 107, 108, reader-tempo/reader-time, 34, 106, 109, 137, 139, 141, 142, 143, 110, 120, 160, 193, 196 145, 152, 153, 154, 156, 157, rhythm, 14, 23, 42, 58, 61, 63, 133, 161, 173, 175, 182, 183, 209 170, 172, 190, 199, 200, 209 parallel phases, 16, 27, 31, 48, 61, self-limiting techniques, 51, 141, 78, 80, 108, 109, 112, 216 142, 223, 227, 239 ‘poetics of interruption’, 210, 215 of speech, 18, 29 prefigurations, 56, 68, 71, 79, 88, variable, 24, 109, 113, 158, 159, 89, 98, 100, 113, 118, 127, 130, 165, 170, 171, 176, 181, 189, 137, 139, 141, 142, 143, 151, 195, 202 156, 157, 159, 165, 169, 173, narrative transitions, see also time 179, 188, 195, 198, 199, 232, alternate phases, 46, 47, 81, 143, 176 245, 250, 253, 257 analeptic overlaps, 26, 47, 62, 66, pre-narrative events, 72, 133, 152, 68, 81, 141, 182, 183, 230 231 analeptic phases/analepsis, 27, 76, prolepsis/proleptic phases, 8, 27, 118, 130, 201, 241 44, 100, 105, 118, 127, 128 analeptic prolepsis/proleptic proleptic analepsis, see analeptic analepsis, 87, 100, 127, 216, prolepsis 234, 240 proximate gaps/ties, 27, 51, 68, 81, bifurcations/dual continuity, 44, 64, 95, 108, 112, 126, 138, 139, 79–80, 94, 97, 141, 142, 143, 158 152, 155, 198, 201, 230 continuity spans, 25, 27, 43, 47, semantic links, 159 61, 62, 65, 72, 75, 93, 97, 105, simultaneity/simultaneous phases, 106, 112, 126, 137, 152, 153, 16, 22, 26, 27, 32, 49, 50, 65, 160, 161, 181, 185, 196, 198, 66, 67, 80, 82, 85, 96, 122, 141, 199, 200 153, 175, 185, 186, 210, 212, diversity of, 65, 78, 157 216, 230, 245 false continuity, 140, 158–9 split phases, 44, 45, 48 Hakenstil, 28, 37, 75, 76, 93, 105, stream-of-consciousness, 252 108, 142, 143, 156, 184 temporal/time gaps, 25, 27, 31, 35, immediate ties, 14, 17, 19, 27, 28, 45, 88, 97, 111, 113, 123–4, 29, 30, 42, 43, 47, 48, 58, 61, 126, 130, 138, 144, 145, 153, 62, 67, 72, 75, 76, 79, 80, 81, 156, 158, 164, 166, 169, 170, 93, 95, 97, 98, 106, 108, 110, 171, 175, 181, 182, 184, 209, 112, 118, 126, 137, 138, 139, 211, 215, 216, 225, 243 141, 143, 152, 157, 158, 173, narratology, defined, 218, 261 179, 181, 182, 184, 185, 193, narrators, see also narrative 196, 197, 198, 200, 209, 230 perspectives indeterminate gaps, 97, 126, 139, attitudes to readers, 19, 99, 118, 140, 143, 144, 153, 157, 159, 134, 169, 211 196, 199, 200, 254 changing roles of, 118, 119, 145, lexical links, 143 149, 159, 165, 177, 180, 234 286 Index narrators – continued pan shot, see film effects compared with other novelists, 132, paralipsis, see literary devices 138, 211, 216 parallel overlaps, see narrative technical functions of, 55, 56, 132 transitions temperamental range of, 16, 81, parallel phases, see narrative 113, 127, 170 transitions Naturalism, 9, 167, 190, 214, 246 paratextual features, see style Nemesvari, Richard, 256 Paris, 39, 71, 74–5, 76, 77, 79, 80, 82 neo-Gothic style, see architectural parody, see literary forms styles pastiche, see literary forms neo-Greek style, see architectural pastoral forms/mood, see literary styles forms Newman, Cardinal John Henry, 49 Pater, Walter, 254 New Monthly Magazine, 179 Paterson, John, 73, 232 New Woman, 114 pathetic fallacy, see literary devices Niemeyer, Paul J., 249 Perpendicular style, see architectural nocturnal gaps/ties, see narrative styles transitions perspectives, see narrative perspectives nomenclature, see style Pettersson, Torsten, 219 Norman style, see architectural styles Pettit, Charles P. C., 226, 236, 242, nouveau roman, see literary forms 247, 252, 253 Nünning, Ansgar, 219 Phelan, James, 218, 248 phenomenological criticism, 194 ‘objective correlative’, see literary pictorial effects, see painterly effects devices Pier, John, 255 object-symbols, see literary devices Pinion, F. B., 73, 220, 222, 227, 231, Oedipus, 73, 131 232, 239 offstage events, see narrative Poe, Edgar Allan perspectives The Fall of the House of Usher, 229 O’Gorman, Francis, 226 ‘poetics of interruption’, see narrative Olson, Greta, 218 transitions Onega, Susana Jaén, 11, 221 ‘polyphony’, see narrative perspectives opera buffa, see comic opera Post-Impressionism, 60, 167 Oppel, Horst, 248 Postmodernism, 2, 177 oral fiction/storytelling, see literary Poststructuralism, 194, 210 forms pre-emptive starts, see narrative order transforms, see narrative structures: starts structures prefigurations, see narrative Orel, Harold, 257 transitions organic form, see narrative structures pre-narrative events, see narrative Owen, Rebekah, 149 transitions Prentiss, Norman, 210, 256 Page, Norman, 218, 221, 223, 228, present-tense verb forms, see style 236, 239, 242, 247, 253, 255 ‘process time’, see time Painter, George D., 204, 255 prolepsis/proleptic phases, see painterly effects/paintings, 22, 23, 27, narrative transitions 61, 83, 148, 151, 166, 168, 182, proleptic analepsis, see narrative 200, 203, 213, 214, 222 transitions: analeptic prolepsis Palmer, Alan, 228 Prometheus, 73 Index 287 proto-cinematic techniques, see film retards (delaying elements), 132, effects see also narrative tempo: Proust, Marcel, 85, 184, 190, 204, 205, decelerated 252, 255, 257 retrospective techniques, see time À l’ombre des jeunes filles en fleurs, return, trope of, 74, 82, 90, 124, 133, 204 145, 147, 148, 179, 188, 195, La prisonnière, 203 198, 200 proximate gaps/ties, see narrative reversals, see narrative structures transitions revival styles, see architectural Purdy, Richard Little, 226, 232, 236, styles 238, 239, 242, 247, 252, 253 rhematic titles, see style: titles rhythm, see narrative tempo ‘quantitative indicator’, see narrative Richardson, Brian, 244 scales Ricoeur, Paul, 11 Riesen, Beat, 222 Raabe, Wilhelm Riffaterre, Michael, 2, 218 Prinzessin Fisch, 190, 243 Rimmer, Mary, 11, 221 Rabinowitz, Peter J., 218, 244, 246, 248 Rimmon-Kenan, Shlomith, 248 Racine, Jean Robinson, F. N., 241 Phèdre, 132 Rococo Revival style, see architectural Radford, Andrew D., 238, 247, 256 styles Raffung (telescoping), see narrative Rode, Scott, 225 tempo romances, see literary forms railways, 9, 20, 66, 102, 103, 104, romantic moods/motifs, 55, 60, 77, 109, 112 89, 197, 214, 224 Railway Time, see time Rossetti, Dante Gabriel, 254 readers, see also narrators Ruined Maid archetype, see literary ‘conative solicitude’, 193, 201 devices: archetypes reader-tempo/reader-time, see Ryan, Michael, 254 narrative tempo role of, 118–19, 133, 134, 171, 174–5, Sadoff, Dianne Fallon, 249 194, 210–11, 214, 235, 253 Samson and Delilah, 182, 214 realism, 4, 9, 13, 38, 60, 92, 167, 185, satire, see literary forms 189, 209, 213, 214, 226, 246, Saturday Review, 4 252, 255 Schalcken, Godfried, 222 bourgeois, 191 Schivelbusch, Wolfgang, 220 circumstantial, 35 Schweik, Robert C., 227, 251 defined by Hardy, 214–15 Scott, Sir Walter, 93, 100, 119 ‘reception area’, see narrative The Bride of Lammermoor, 4 perspectives Guy Mannering, 130 Regan, Stephen, 222, 226 The Heart of Midlothian, 92, 133 regional fiction/history, see literary seasons, see time forms secrets, motifs of, see narrative reification, see literary devices structures repetitions, see narrative structures self-limiting techniques, see narrative Restoration comedy, see comedy tempo ‘retardierendes Moment’ (delaying sensation fiction/Sensation Novels, factor), 237, see also narrative see literary forms tempo: decelerated sentiment, Victorian cult of, 9 288 Index serialization/serial instalments, at chapter-end, 18, 29, 31, 43, 48, see narrative structures 61, 64, 65, 69, 76, 80, 81, 93, Seymour-Smith, Martin, 194, 240, 253 95, 96, 97, 106, 111, 112, 114, Shakespeare, William, 22, 195 119, 138, 141, 143, 144–5, 152, As You Like It, 222 154, 156, 160, 161, 174, 181, Hamlet, 132, 229 182–3, 186, 188, 193, 196, 202, King Lear, 73, 131 206 Love’s Labours Lost, 106, 109 at chapter-start, 18, 29–30, 31, Romeo and Juliet, 109 42–3, 48, 61, 62, 94, 98, 112, Sonnet 73, 199 119, 152, 174, 182, 195, 196, Sonnet 87, 57 198, 206 Timon of Athens, 131 dialectal/vernacular, 29, 72, 113, 119, Twelfth Night, 124, 240 127, 130, 152, 206, 223, 233 The Winter’s Tale, 130 dialogue form, 18 Sharff, Stefan, 252 free indirect discourse, 196, 202, Shelley, Percy Bysshe, 195, 197 213, 237 ‘Alastor’, 201 isochronous discourse, 18, 106, 196, Shires, Linda M., 224, 228, 234, 246, 237 249 key role of, 17–18, 43 Short, Clarice, 229 positioning of, 29, 250 Showalter, Elaine, 241, 243 proportions of, 18, 29, 43, 50, 61, Shuttleworth, Sally, 238, 240 62, 72, 79, 93, 94, 107, 111, Silverman, Kaja, 247 119, 138, 140, 141, 153, 157, simultaneity/simultaneous phases, 159–60, 173, 183, 195, 196, see narrative transitions 198, 206, 222, 224, 251, 254 singulative markers, see narrative at subsection-end, 19, 82 structures: starts Spencer, Herbert, 245 Skilton, David, 246 split phases, see narrative transitions skimmity-double/-ride, 133, 136, 142, split screen techniques, see film effects 143 Squires, Michael, 226 Smollett, Tobias, 93 stage allusions/devices, 76, 144, 233 social class, 55, 57, 59, 63, 111, 114, stage format, 24, 48, 144 116, 120, 128, 131, 149, 179, Stallman, R. W., 233 188, 193, 197, 198 Stanzel, Franz Karl, 3, 171, 211, 218, sociological criticism, 136 248, 257 Sophocles, 131, 150–1 Steiner, George, 241 Oedipus Tyrannus, 251 Stendhal, 90 spatial dimensions, 82–3, 85, 116, Stephen, Leslie, 226, 235 122, 188, 190, 233 Sternberg, Meir, 3, 72, 218, 231 liminality, concept of, 233, 253 stichomythia, see style speaking presence, 50, 93, 110, 117, Stifter, Adalbert 149, 167, 168, 179, 193, 209, Der Nachsommer, 138 223–4, 233, 253 stop-time portraits, see time Spectator, 224 story-time, see time speech Strindberg, August, 167 absence of, 31, 43, 71, 109, 173, structural contrasts, see narrative 231 structures: contrasts at Book-/Part-end, 76, 114, 162, structural divisions, see narrative 188, 202 structures: divisions Index 289 style (writing), 45–6, 104, 119, 150, Sublime, cult of the, 122 154, 155, 158, 160, 176, 186, subsections, see narrative structures: 195, 197, 229, 243, 244, see also divisions literary devices Sumner, Rosemary, 205, 210, 219, anaphora, 158, 244 240, 252, 253, 255, 256, 257 deictic elements/deixis, 93, 110, surveillance, see narrative perspectives 176, 186 Swinburne, A. C., 33, 185, 209 documentary insertions, 34, 96, symbolism, see literary devices 120, 145, 206 synchronization, see time elegiac tone, 99, 162, 179, 246 Szondi, Peter, 241 epigraphs, 48, 193, 195, 206, 254 epistolary format/insertions, 58, 64, Talmy, Leonard, 50 80, 98, 110, 119, 120, 139, 142, tangential presentations, see 152, 157, 158, 159, 160, 174, narrative perspectives: indirect 175, 193, 195, 196, 199, 201, presentations 206, 229, 239 Tanner, Tony, 166, 246, 247 granularity, 44, 52, 76, 77, 85, 176 Taylor, Dennis, 250 graphological marks, 209, 249 Taylor, Richard H., 223, 225, 229, 235, historical present tense, 18, 87, 224 236, 237, 238, 239, 248 illustrations, 118, 134, 150, 251–2 teichoscope, see narrative perspectives irony, 32, 36, 41, 49, 56, 60, 67, 72, tempo, see narrative tempo 78, 80, 89, 116, 121, 130, 139, temporal/time gaps, see narrative 140, 154, 160, 180, 182, 188, transitions 189, 194, 195, 199, 213, 214, temporal ordering/transforms, 215, 237 see narrative structures: order light, effects of, 151 transforms melodramatic effects, 10, 14, 17, 22, temporal transparency, see time 38, 68, 112, 114, 121, 140, 157, Tennyson, Alfred Lord, 209 180, 214, 224, 225, 246 Ternan, Ellen, 10 negative quantifiers, 67 Thacker, David, 241 nomenclature, 41, 46, 92, 199 Thackeray, W. M., 209, 211 paratextual features, 105, 118, 149, Vanity Fair, 4, 90 193, 194 Thompson, Charlotte, 248 present-tense verb forms, 22, 33, Thomson, George H., 234, 236 110 thought stichomythia, 34, 106, 224 at chapter-end, 78 titles, of Books/Parts, 105, 112, 118, free indirect, 109, 143 164, 165, 180, 190, 193, 195, Thurley, Geoffrey, 241 236 tilt shots, see film effects of chapters, 40, 48, 58, 100, 105, time, see also narrative tempo, 134, 149, 150, 165, 180, 193, narrative transitions 195, 229, 250 archaeological time, 116, 136, 189 of novels, 104, 122, 149, 152, asynchronicity, 175 171, 179–80, 229, 244 atemporal/timeless aspects, 71, 216, rhematic pattern of, 8 244 typographical gaps/typography, 34, attitudes to, 38, 39–40, 84, 103, 68, 80, 106, 153, 157, 160, 175, 104, 125, 154, 200, 202, 203, 183, 187, 196, 199, 201, 203, 217, 244 209, 227, 251 ‘barrier time’, 9, 60, 108, 130, 239 290 Index time – continued timekeeping, 39–40, 103 calendar dates/facts, 8, 35, 36, 38, timeshifts, 217 41, 60, 71, 74, 80, 87, 102, 125, trans-temporal attitudes, 100 135, 136, 160, 172, 180, 214, vertical time-scheme, 238 222, 228, 240, 242, 244 Tinsley’s Magazine, 24 chronotope, 72, 179, 188, 189, 216, titles, see style 233, 249 Tolstoy, Leo, 49, 90, 100 cliff-hangers, 26, 140, 160, 189, 216 Toolan, Michael J., 2, 218, 219 clock-time, 34, 137, 172, 176 tragedy/tragic, 41, 49, 58, 60, 71, 73, coincidences/co-occurrences, 16, 74, 131, 132, 136, 149, 172, 35–6, 38, 59, 121, 166, 185, 173, 174, 180, 189, 190, 215, 189, 213–14, 221, 225 226, 231 as constitutive, 4, 85, 93, 244 ‘agon’ (challenge), 131 Country Time, 35 ‘anagnorisis’ (recognition), 136 discourse-time/Erzählzeit, 11, 34, Greek Classical, 73, 131, 132, 231, 106, 222 232, 233, 237, 249 epiphany, 26, 91, 118, 127, 136, ‘harmartia’ (tragic flaw), 136 174, 181, 197, 213, 216 trains, see railways everyday time, 35 transformation scenes, see narrative Geological Time, 35 perspectives index of, 35, 60, 67, 72, 77, 80, 87, trans-temporal attitudes, see time 91, 105, 108, 116, 121, 123, 130, travel, topos of, 109, 120, 145, 166, 135, 170, 189, 242, 248, 250, 253 168, 173, 180 internal measures of, 108, 125, Trollope, Anthony, 124, 209 136–7, 155, 172 The Eustace Diamonds, 4 material representations of, 83–4, trompe l’oeil techniques, see narrative 133, 172, 233 perspectives ‘process time’, 166 Turgenev, Ivan, 126 Railway Time, 10, 15, 35, 84 Turner, J. M. W., 222 relativity of, 39, 49, 84, 123, 156 Rain, Steam and Speed – The Great retrospective techniques, 132 Western Railway, 10 seasons, 22, 38, 40–1, 59, 148, 155, typographical gaps/typography, 159, 160, 168, 180, 186, 199, see style 216, 226, 233, 240 as second level of plot, 216 Van Gogh, Vincent, 167 speed of composition, 248 Verlaine, Paul stop-time portraits, 43, 59, 71, 106, Fêtes Galantes, 33 216 viewpoints, see narrative perspectives story-time/erzählte Zeit, 11, 34, 106, Vigar, Penelope, 168, 247 222 voyeurism, see narrative perspectives: synchronization, 40, 250 surveillance temporal transparency, 19 as thematic, 5, 82, 85, 87, 89, 92, Waddesdon Manor, 238 114, 116, 120, 121, 124, 132, 239 Wales, Katie, 235, 237 time-cover Warhol, Robyn, 248 external/historical, 8, 24, 40, 59, Waugh, Evelyn, 106 60, 73, 87, 135, 171, 180, 240, Weber, Carl J., 73, 223, 226, 231, 240, 244, 248 242, 244, 248 internal, 207 Wedekind, Frank, 167 Index 291

Wessex, 37, 55, 58, 59, 62, 67, 68, 89, Woolf, Virginia, 210, 215, 235 90, 91, 92, 102, 116, 125, 131, Between the Acts, 205 172, 175, 180, 193, 194, 198, Mrs Dalloway, 161, 213 199, 204, 214, 216, 225, 250 ‘The Novels of Thomas Hardy’, White, R. J., 234, 235 256 Widdowson, Peter, 11, 60, 177, 218, Orlando, 205 220, 229, 230, 234, 237, 238, To the Lighthouse, 209, 231 244, 246–7, 248, 249, 250, A Writer’s Diary, 257 251 World, The, 194 Wieland, Christoph Martin Wright, T. R., 89, 234, 235, 238, 240, Agathon, 138 241, 249 Wilde, Oscar writing-Now, see narrators: attitudes The Picture of Dorian Gray, 195 to readers Wilson, Keith, 222, 226, 228 Wyatt, Sir Thomas, 195 Windsor Castle, 238 Wittenberg, Judith Bryant, 249 Yalck-Yi, Suzanne, 225 Wolfreys, Julian, 11, 13, 210, 219, Yeazell, Ruth Bernard, 222 221, 223, 236, 239, 256 Wood, Mrs Henry, 9 Zola, Émile, 214