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Vertebrata: Aves: Piciformes) and Implications for Creationist Design Arguments P.A

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Vertebrata: Aves: Piciformes) and Implications for Creationist Design Arguments P.A OPEN ACCESS JCTS Article SERIES B Baraminological Analysis of the Picidae (Vertebrata: Aves: Piciformes) and Implications for Creationist Design Arguments P.A. Garner Biblical Creation Ministries, Soham, Cambs, UK Abstract The Picidae (woodpeckers, wrynecks and piculets) comprise a family within the near passerine order Piciformes. Creationists have often appealed to the unique anatomical and behavioural specializations found in woodpeckers as evidence of divine design. However, until now no baraminological studies of the group have been undertaken. This paper reports a baraminic distance correlation analysis of 50 morphological characters (mostly related to hind limb musculature) and 20 taxa (12 picids and eight outgroup taxa). The results show that the woodpeckers, wrynecks and piculets form a well-defined group united by significant positive correlation and separated from seven of the eight outgroup taxa (barbets, toucans and toucanets) by significant negative correlation. The eighth outgroup taxon, the honeyguide Indicator, was neither positively nor negatively correlated with the other taxa in the dataset. Multidimensional scaling applied to the baraminic distances revealed an orthogonal pattern with ingroup taxa arranged on one axis and outgroup taxa on another, a result that has previously been interpreted as mitigating conclusions of negative discontinuity. However, repeating the analysis without the genus Indicator, which formed one of the axes, did not change the negative correlation between the picids and non-picids, suggesting that the result cannot be dismissed merely as an artefact of the multidimensional scaling pattern. The results suggest that all members of the Picidae constitute a single holobaramin. This conclusion is consistent with hybridization data indicating the monobaraminic status of at least 12 genera in six of the nine tribes within the Picidae. Since the picids are holobaraminic, and since not all members of the group possess the full range of “typical” woodpecker characters, this suggests that at least some of these morphological and behavioural traits arose by mediated design during intrabaraminic diversification. This has implications for our understanding of the origin of natural evil (in this case, insectivory) and suggests that standard creationist design arguments concerning woodpecker anatomy and behaviour need to be modified. Editor: T.C. Wood Received January 30, 2012; Accepted January 30, 2014; Published July 7, 2014 ©2014 The author. This article is open access and distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution License, which allows unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium as long as the original author and medium are credited. Citation: Garner. 2014. Baraminological Analysis of the Picidae (Vertebrata: Aves: Piciformes) and Implications for Creationist Design Arguments. Journal of Creation Theology and Science Series B: Life Sciences 4:1-11. Introduction Table 1. Taxonomy of the Picidae (after Short 1982, Winkler et al. 1995 and Clements et al. 2012). The Piciformes is an order of near passerine birds comprising several families, including the jacamars (Galbulidae), puffbirds (Bucconidae), honeyguides (Indicatoridae), barbets (Capitonidae), Subfamily Tribe Genus toucans (Ramphastidae) and woodpeckers (Picidae). This paper Jynginae Jyngini Jynx (2) focuses on the Picidae, which consists of three subfamilies (Short Picumninae Picumnini Picumnus (26) 1982; Winkler et al. 1995; Clements et al. 2012): the wrynecks (Jynginae), the piculets (Picumninae) and the true woodpeckers Sasia (3) (Picinae). In all, there are 227 species in 28 genera (Table 1). Nesoctitini Nesoctites (1) Members of the family are found worldwide, with the exception Picinae Melanerpini Melanerpes (23) of Australasia, Madagascar, some remote oceanic islands and the most extreme polar regions. Most picids are woodland or forest Sphyrapicus (4) dwelling species, but some inhabit savannas, deserts, tundra Xiphidiopicus (1) and mountain grasslands. The wrynecks are small, relatively Campetherini Campethera (12) unspecialized birds, and have an exclusively Old World distribution across Eurasia and Africa. The piculets, though small and lacking Geocolaptes (1) the use of the tail as a prop, are otherwise quite woodpecker-like Dendropicos (15) in their habits and are found in the tropics of America, Asia and Africa. The true woodpeckers are generally larger and possess Dendrocopos (21) long, stiffened tail feathers and other specializations suited to Picoides (12) their pecking and drumming activities; they are widely distributed Colaptini Veniliornis (14) across Eurasia, Africa and the Americas. Most woodpeckers are arboreal and excavate holes in dead timber or live wood in order Piculus (7) to build nests and lay eggs. They are frequently insectivorous and Colaptes (12) forage for prey by probing or prying into crevices in bark, wood Celeus (12) or soil. Some species feed on sap, fruits, berries or nuts. Others raid anthills or termite nests. Campephilini Dryocopus (7) Woodpeckers display many morphological, anatomical and Campephilus (11) behavioural features that equip them for their distinctive habits Picini Picus (15) and lifestyle. Most true woodpeckers have feet specialized for vertical climbing and clinging (the ectropodactyl condition; Bock Dinopium (5) and Miller 1959), although the flickers, like the piculets and Chrysocolaptes (8) wrynecks, which more commonly forage on the ground, have zygodactylous feet. The tail feathers of true woodpeckers usually Gecinulus (2) have stiff central shafts, with longitudinal ridges in some species. Sapheopipo (1) Together, the feet and tail enable the bird to brace itself firmly Blythipicus (2) against the vertical surface of a tree (Winkler and Bock 1976). The chisel-shaped bill is typically strengthened with a hard, Reinwardtipicus (1) horny covering (ramphotheca). During hammering, woodpeckers Meiglyptini Meiglyptes (3) -1 impact the substrate at speeds of about 600-700 cm s (Winkler et Hemicircus (2) al. 1995, p.17). Many suggestions have been made to explain how they avoid brain injury and retinal damage during this activity, Mulleripicus (4) including employment of a straight trajectory to ensure minimal rotational or shearing forces, possession of a small subarachnoid space with little cerebrospinal fluid thus reducing the transmission of shock waves, cranial kinesis that directs impact forces towards the more massive ventral portion of the braincase, and muscles at the rear end of the mandible that act as cushions (Bock 1964; Bock 1966; Bock 1999a; Bock 1999b; May et al. 1979; Schwab 2002; Winkler et al. 1995). However, in a re-evaluation of previous studies, Gibson (2006) argued that the three most critical factors were their small size (which minimises the stress on the brain for a given acceleration), the short duration of the impact (which increases the tolerable acceleration) and the orientation of the brain within the skull (which increases the area of contact between the brain and the skull). Woodpeckers also typically possess an elongated tongue that can be extended well beyond the JCTS B: Life Sciences www.coresci.org/jcts Volume 4:2 bill tip to permit foraging for insects. The tongue is supported by according to Clements et al. (2012). the Y-shaped hyoid apparatus, with horns that may, depending on Jyngini. A putative hybrid between the Rufous-necked the length of the tongue, wrap around the head as far as the frontal Wryneck (Jynx ruficollis) and the Eurasian Wryneck (Jynx bone, encircle the eye, or even extend into the nasal cavity. Prey torquilla) was reported by Desfayes (1969). However, Bock and capture is assisted by a sticky salivary fluid secreted by sublingual Short (1972) regard the specimen as an aberrant Jynx ruficollis. glands and, in many species, the tongue tip is also equipped with Picumnini. Extensive interbreeding is thought have occurred barbs or bristles that are used to spear or sweep up food items. between the White-barred Piculet (Picumnus cirratus) and the The unique anatomy of woodpeckers has long been remarked White-wedged Piculet (Picumnus albosquamatus) in Brazil and upon by creationists (as evidence of divine design, e.g. Ray Bolivia (McCarthy 2006, p.108; Short 1982, pp.85, 88). Picumnus 1722, p.143; Paley 1826, pp.235-236; Sunderland 1976; albosquamatus also hybridizes with the Ocellated Piculet Morris and Parker 1982, pp.50-51; Bliss 1985; Parker 1994, (Picumnus dorbignyanus) in Bolivia (McCarthy 2006, p.108). pp.56-59; Juhasz 1995-1996) and evolutionists (as evidence of Picumnus cirratus is also known to hybridize with Picumnus evolutionary adaptation, e.g. Darwin 1968 [1859], pp.215-216; dorbignyanus in southern Bolivia (and probably northern Wilson 1992, pp.92-93). However, until now no baraminological Argentina) and with the Ochre-collared Piculet (Picumnus evaluation of the group has been carried out. In this paper, I temminckii) in southeastern Brazil (McCarthy 2006, p.108). will seek to clarify the baraminological status of the Picidae by Hybridization is also reported between Picumnus cirratus and reviewing what is known regarding the picid fossil record and the Varzea Piculet (Picumnus varzeae) along the Amazon River interspecific hybridization within the group, and with the results in Brazil (McCarthy 2006, p.108; Short 1982, pp.82-83, 85). A of a baraminic distance correlation (BDC) analysis and classical museum specimen taken in central Peru appears to be a hybrid multidimensional scaling
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