THEHABSBURGSANDTHEIRCOURTSINEUROPE,1400–1700.BETWEENCOSMOPOLITISMANDREGIONALISM 

OfficialPortraitsandRegionalIdentities

ThecaseofEmperorMaximilianI(1459–1519)

DagmarEichbergerȋ‹˜‡”•‹–›‘ˆ”‹‡”Ȍͳ







InhismonographMarketingMaximilian.ThevisualideologyofaHolyRomanEmperor,LarrySilver investigates the multiͲfaceted artistic projects that Maximilian I undertook in order to further his fameandtoshapehispublicimage.2TherecentexhibitionKaiserMaximilianI.unddieKunstder Dürerzeitanalysedtheemperor’slifeandhispatronageoftheartswithparticularemphasisonthe triumphalprocessionbothonparchmentandpaper.3Incontrasttohisfather,EmperorFrederickIII, Maximiliancanbedescribedasamostambitiousandmodernpatron.Thisappliesnotonlytothe employmentofnewmediasuchasprintedmaterial,butequallytoMaximilian’simaginativeuseof multiplelikenesses.Thepresentpaperinvestigatestheroleofportraitpaintingsbyfocusingbothon thegeographicconditionsthatdeterminedtheproductionofimagesandonMaximilian’spolitical agenda.Withinthelargebodyofportraitsthathavesurviveduntiltoday,onecanidentifyatleast fivedifferenttypesofimages.4

ManyofthecourtartistsinvolvedincreatingthepublicpersonaofMaximilianareknownby name:AmbrogiodePredisfromMilan,BernhardStrigelfromandAlbrechtDürerfrom . Each can be associated with one or two specific portrait types that were used and reusedindifferentcontexts.TheNetherlandishpainterJoosvanClevewasnotformallyattachedto theimperialcourt,butneverthelessproducedadistinctiveportraittypethatwasimportantatthe time.5Thisessaywillinvestigatethespecificfeaturesoftheseportraittypesandpursuethequestion astowhethertherewasaregionalpreferenceinparticularfortheimagecreatedbyJoosvanCleve.



AmbrogiodePredis.Theclassicalportrait

ThereexistsonlyonecopyoftheportraitcreatedbyGiovanniAmbrogiodePredis,apaintingsigned anddatedbytheartistinthebottomleftͲhandcorner.6TheMilanportraitistjoinedtheHabsburg court in 1493, shortly after Maximilian had married Bianca Maria Sforza, his second wife. This particular portrait has occasionally been described as oldͲfashioned, as it adheres to the strict portraitinprofile.Itis,however,aclassicalformatthatwasreintroducedatthebeginningofthe fifteenthcenturyviacoinsandmedalsandremainedpopularwellintothesixteenthcentury.7The likeness emphasizes Maximilian’s aquiline nose, a distinctive trait that appears in most of his

©ÖAW,KULeuvenandauthors 100 ISBN978Ͳ94Ͳ6018Ͳ483Ͳ3 THEHABSBURGSANDTHEIRCOURTSINEUROPE,1400–1700.BETWEENCOSMOPOLITISMANDREGIONALISM  portraits. If the anonymous drawing in Berlin is an authentic likeness of the emperor, De Predis idealizedhis facialfeatures.8In this mediumͲsized portraitMaximilianwearsagold brocadedress withablackfurcollarandablackhatprobablymadefromthesamematerial.Whilehispositionas KingoftheRomansishighlightedbyaLatininscription,heiswearingneitherasuitofarmournorany oftheattributestypicalofthisoffice.Thepatternofhisgoldbrocadedresshasbeeninterpretedby KarlSchützasasymbolofhisnewalliancewiththehouseofSforza.9Theceremonialchainofthe OrderoftheGoldenFleeceisthemostprominentattributeinthepainting.Maximilianwasmadea memberofthisBurgundianorderon31April1477,whichwasasignificantmomentinhislifeandin thehistoryoftheOrder.TheceremonialinaugurationisdocumentedbyaminiatureintheBruges chronicle of 148110 and is also described in the  statute book of the Order of the Golden Fleece.11MaximilianimmediatelytookontheofficeofsovereignandheadoftheOrderandgreatly cherished his newly gained status. He held the office twice during his lifetime, first during the minorityofhissonPhiliptheHandsome(1478വ1506),andasecondtimeduringtheminorityofhis grandsonthefutureEmperorCharlesV(1500വ1558).Thisportraittypewasrepeatedinamodified versionbyananonymousGermanartistshowingMaximilianinashoulderͲlengthportrait,withthe emperorfacingtotheright.12



AlbrechtDürer.Alateportrait

AverydifferentimageoftheemperorisrepresentedbyaportraittypethatwascreatedbyAlbrecht Dürerin1518.Attherequestoftheemperor,theNurembergartistdrewMaximilianfromlifewhile he was staying in the city of  to attend the Diet of Augsburg. Dürer’s charcoal drawing servedastheblueprintforthetwopaintedportraitsnowinViennaandNuremberg,13andforthe woodcut that was published in several editions soon after Maximilian’s death in January 1519.14 Dürer’s woodcut became the most widely distributed image of the emperor and exists in several editions;someprintswereembellishedwithcolourandshellgold.15WhiletheViennapaintingon woodandtheNurembergpaintingon canvaswere uniqueund probablynotmeanttotravel,the woodcutinspiredmanycontemporaryprintmakers:HansWeiditz,LucasvanLeyden,PieterdeJode andothers.16



JoosvanCleve.Maximilian’sNetherlandishlikeness

The third portrait type can be associated with the AntwerpͲbased painter Joos van Cleve and his workshop(fig.1).Sofar,thisportraithaslargelyattractedtheinterestofasmallnumberofvanCleve specialistssuchasJohnHandandCécileScailliérez.17Theportraitexistsinseveralreplicasandcopies thatvaryinsizeandshowsnumerousvariationsregardingthechoiceofattributes.18

Maximilian’sbodyisalwaysshowninafrontalposition,withhisheadturnedslightlytothe left,sothathisfaceappearsinthreeͲquarterview.InsimilarfashiontotheportraitbyAmbrogiode Predis,Maximilianwearsaluxuriousovercoatmadefromgoldbrocadeandfittedwithabroadfur collar.Maximilian’sundershirtisblackincolourandhishead iscoveredwithasoftblackhat.He wears very fine leather gloves that are almost white in colour. Maximilian’s only ornament is the

©ÖAW,KULeuvenandauthors 101 ISBN978Ͳ94Ͳ6018Ͳ483Ͳ3 THEHABSBURGSANDTHEIRCOURTSINEUROPE,1400–1700.BETWEENCOSMOPOLITISMANDREGIONALISM 

OrderoftheGoldenFleece;therearenoreferencestohispositionasKingoftheRomansorasHoly RomanEmperor.Whilehislefthandisportrayedasifrestingontheledgeoftheframe,hisright handisliftedupslightlyhigherandholdsaposyofcarnations.19



Fig.1JoosvanCleveandworkshop,MaximilianI assovereignoftheOrderoftheGoldenFleece, wood,30.8x21.1cm,Berlin,KMPK,GG1321.



BernhardStrigel.Thefirstofficialportrait

A large group of portraits represents Maximilian wearing a polished suit of armour and carrying numerousregaliasuchasahalfͲarchcrown,asceptre,asword,andacoronationcloak.Whilethe paintings from this group show a wide range of styles and diverging facial features, they are all attributedtoBernhardStrigelandhisworkshop.20TheSwabianartistStrigelwascloselyattachedto Maximilian’s court.21 He produced two different portrait types, one showing Maximilian clad in armourandanotherinwhichheisdressedinmore‘civilian’orcourtlydress.22Formanyyears,Strigel seemstohavebeenMaximilian’spreferredportraitistuntilhefinallyturnedtoAlbrechtDüreronlya fewmonthbeforehisprematuredeath.

WithintheStrigelgroupveryfewpanelscanbedatedaccurately.Theindividualportraitsare generallydatedbymeansofcircumstantialevidence,onthebasisofthestyleofthearmourorthe particular crown Maximilian is wearing. Karl Schütz proposed that the earliest portraits date from circa 1500.23 The Strigel portrait, now in Berlin, carries the date '1496' in the central axis of the painting(fig.2),thoughtheauthenticityofthedate‘1496’hasbeenquestionedbyErichEggbecause MaximilianwasappointedKingoftheRomansin1486andcrownedHolyRomanEmperorin1508.24 Theinscription‘DIVIMAXIMILIANIIMPERATORISFIGURAANNOSCUMESSETNATUSQUADRAGINTA’ totherightoftheclothofhonourpointstotheyear1499,asMaximilianisdescribedasbeing40

©ÖAW,KULeuvenandauthors 102 ISBN978Ͳ94Ͳ6018Ͳ483Ͳ3 THEHABSBURGSANDTHEIRCOURTSINEUROPE,1400–1700.BETWEENCOSMOPOLITISMANDREGIONALISM  yearsofage. 25 DieterVorsteherhasrecentlyarguedinfavourof1496beingtheyearinwhichthe panelwaspaintedbyStrigel.Heproposedthatthesecondinscriptionwasaddedthreeyearslater, whentheportraitwasgivenawayasagift.26



  Fig.2BernhardStrigel,EmperorMaximilianI Fig.3BernhardSrigel,MaximilianIasHolyRoman dressedinarmourandpresentinghisregalia,oilon Emperor,circa1507/08,oilonwood,84x51.8cm, parchmentonwood,76,5x48cm,Berlin, Innsbruck,TirolerLandesmuseum. DeutschesHistorischesMuseum,inv.no. 1988/1496.

Inportraitsofthiskind,MaximilianisalwaysshownasahalfͲlengthfigureinthreeͲquarter view,turningbodyandfacetotheright.Heisplacedinfrontofatextilebackgroundthatrepresents aclothofhonour.Inadditiontohismilitaryattire,hecarriessceptre,swordandacrown.Hisbent rightarmrestseitheronawindowsilloronapillow,demarcatingthespaceofthesitterfromthatof theviewer.IthasbeensuggestedthatStrigel’sofficialportraitofMaximilianinarmourwasmodelled onanearlierportraitofhisfather,EmperorFrederickIII(1415വ1493),27whichMaximilianprobably commissionedhimselfintheseconddecadeofthesixteenthcentury.Thereareindeedanumberof similarities, such as the choice of attributes and the positioning of the figure within the pictorial space.Bothmenholdemblemsofpower,thegoldensceptrerunsdiagonallyfromlowerrighttothe upperleft,andtherightarmrestscomfortablyonahorizontalparapet.Allthesefactorspointtoan intrinsicinterrelationshipbetweenthesetwoportraits.

It can be assumed that they were both conceived as one left wing of a portrait diptych. Father and son are both turning to the right, facing their spouses Eleanor of Portugal and Bianca Maria Sforza on a complementary panel.28 While only one version of the portrait of Emperor

©ÖAW,KULeuvenandauthors 103 ISBN978Ͳ94Ͳ6018Ͳ483Ͳ3 THEHABSBURGSANDTHEIRCOURTSINEUROPE,1400–1700.BETWEENCOSMOPOLITISMANDREGIONALISM 

Frederick III is known, multiple copies of Emperor Maximilian’s portrait have survived. It can be assumedthatmanycopiesofMaximilian’sofficialportraitsweregivenawayasgifts,asthiswasa common practice at the time. The inscription on a lost version from Strasbourg indicated that Maximilian donated the likeness to the Johannite monastery after his visit to the imperial city of Strasbourgin1507.29



MaximilianinMargaretofAustria’sportraitcollection

IntheNetherlands,ArchduchessMargaretofAustria(1480വ1530)representedtheinterestsofher familyasRegentandGovernessoftheBurgundianterritories.30Inall,shekeptfourportraitsofher father in different parts of her principal residence, the soͲcalled Palais de Savoy in Mechelen or Malines.Thespatialcontextsinwhichtheseportraitswereoncedisplayedcanbereconstructedand thusprovidesignificantcluestoreconstructingthefunctionofeachofthelikenesses.31Theportraits inquestionwerelocatedinMargaret’slibrary,herdininghallandthesmallcabinetorStudiolonext toherbedroom.MargaretofAustria’sstocklistofmovableitems(1516)mentionsalargeportrait panelofMaximilian,whichisdescribedasfollows:

autretableau,plusgrant,del‘empereur,habilléensonaccoustrementimpérial [anotherpanel,larger,oftheemperor,dressedinhisimperialaccoutrement].32

This painting is described as larger than the previous one depicting John the Fearless (Jehan de Bourgoigne).AsthemostprominentfeatureinthispaintingwasMaximilian’simperialattire,itcan beassumedthatinherlibraryMargaretdisplayedacopyoftheStrigel’sstatelyportraitasEmperor in order to represent her father as the ruling head of the Habsburg dynasty (fig. 3).33 The richly furnishedlibrarywasoneofthemorepublicspaceswithintheresidenceandwasopentomembers ofhercourtaswellastooutsidevisitors.34Thiswasthelocationwherethemilitarytriumphsofthe Habsburgfamilywerecommemorated:thevictoryovertheDukeofGuelders,theBattleofPavia,the conquestoftheNewAmericas,andothers.InherlibraryMargaretalsokeptherpersonalcopyof Dürer’sArchofHonour,theeternalmonumenttoMaximilian’sentireachievement.

The 1516 stock list of paintings in the library refers to a second, albeit somewhat smaller portraitofEmperorMaximilian.Itisdescribedasfollows:

ungpetittableauduchiefdel’Empereur,pourtantrobeetbonnetdecramoisy,etunelettre ensamain [asmallpaneloftheheadoftheEmperor,wearingacrimsonredrobeandbonnet,anda letterinhishand].35

ThisentrycallstomindaparticularStrigelportraitinwhichMaximilianisdressedinaredovercoat withafurcollar.InthisportraitMaximilianwearsnoarmourandnoregalia.Heisproudlypresenting thecollaroftheOrderoftheGoldenFleeceandholdsaletterinhislefthand.Thetwopaintingsthat correspondtothisdescription,however,arenotparticularlysmallinsize.AfineportraitbyStrigelin theNationalTrustcollectionmeasures39.5x30cm;36anotherversioninBerlinmeasures37x25.37 The inscription in the Berlin portrait names Maximilian’s position as Holy Roman Emperor: ‘MaximilianiprimiRomanoru(m)ImperatorisArchducisAustrieEffigies’.Hisraisedhandandhisindex

©ÖAW,KULeuvenandauthors 104 ISBN978Ͳ94Ͳ6018Ͳ483Ͳ3 THEHABSBURGSANDTHEIRCOURTSINEUROPE,1400–1700.BETWEENCOSMOPOLITISMANDREGIONALISM  fingerpointforwardasifgivinginstructionstoapersonoutsideofthepictureframe.Inthepast,this portrait type has been labelled ‘Maximilian as a private man’, because he is depicted without his paraphernalia.38 Maximilian’s attire corresponds to the image of the White King in Maximilian’s autobiography Weisskunig.39 While this portrait type from the Strigel workshop served as an alternativelikenessforMaximilianitisnotclearwhenitappearedforthefirsttime.

In addition to the portraits of Maximilian in the Mechelen library already mentioned, a portrait by Joos van Cleve was kept in Margaret’s official portrait gallery, the soͲcalled première chamber à chemynée on the second floor of the western wing. In the household inventory of 1523വ24theportraitofthedeceasedemperorisdescribedasfollows:

Item,ungaultretableaudelaportraituredel’empereurMaximilien,pèredeMadame,que Dieupardonne,habilléd’unerobbededraptd’or,fouréedemartre,aungbonnetnoirsurson chief,pourtantlecolierdelaThoisond’or,tenantunroletensamaindextre. [Item,anotherpanelwiththeportraitofEmperorMaximilian,thefatherofMadame,whom Godforgive,dressedinarobemadefromgoldcloth,linedwithmarten,ablackcaponhis head, wearing the collar of the Order of the Golden Fleece, holding a scroll in his right hand].40

Therearetwopaintingsthatmatchthisdescriptionveryclosely,oneinBrussels(fig.4)and one in Berlin (fig. 1).41 These two panels are almost identical in size and colour. In the Brussels painting, three letters ‘M • R • I’ discreetly point to the identity of the sitter: M(aximilianus) R(omanorum)I(mperator).Inbothexamples,Maximilian’slefthandrestsontheedgeoftheframe,a popularmotiveinNetherlandishportraiturethatcanbetracedbacktoRogiervanderWeyden.Itcan beassumedthatJoosvanCleve’sworkshopusedatemplatetoproducemultiplecopiesofthisnew portraittype.42

                        Fig.4JoosvanCleveandworkshop,MaximilianIas Fig.5Anonymous,Maximilianassovereignofthe sovereignoftheOrderoftheGoldenFleece,wood,33x OrderoftheGoldenFleece,inthestatutebookofthe 23cm,Brussels,MuséesRoyauxdesBeauxͲArtsde OrderoftheGoldenFleece,parchment,28.4x21cm, Belgique,inv.no.2581. Bruges,after1518,Vienna,ÖNB,Cod.2606,fol.77.

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 A large, fullͲpage miniature in the Vienna statute book of the Order of the Golden Fleece reproduces the same portrait type in which Maximilian is represented first and foremost as the sovereignoftheOrderoftheGoldenFleece(fig.5).43Thesitter’spostureandthepatterningofhis goldbrocadedressareveryclosetotheportraitpanelinBerlin.Ifweassumethatthiscopywasonce keptinMargaret’sportraitgallery,itismostlikelythattheminiaturistwouldhavehadaccesstothis copy.ThispanelwasjustoneofseveralpaintingsfromMargaret’sportraitgallerythatwereusedas modelsbytheilluminatoroftheViennastatuebook.44

InthismanuscriptMaximilianisdescribedas:‘Mostdistinguishedandverypowerfulprince, Monseigneur Maximilian, Archduke of Austria, Duke of Lorraine, of Brabant, of Luxemburg, etc’.45 Given that this manuscript was made after 1518, it is remarkable that the caption accompanying Maximilian’s portrait refrains from mentioning his rank as emperor. This wording confirms that Maximilian’spublicprofilechangedaccordingtothedifferentregionalandpoliticalcontextsinwhich he operated. In the Burgundian Netherlands he gained respect and exerted political influence by stressinghispositionassovereignoftheOrderoftheGoldenFleece,hisroleasHolyRomanEmperor not being an asset in this political region. In Margaret of Austria’s official portrait gallery, many membersofthisprestigiousorderwererepresentedwithanemblemoftheirmembership,mostlya goldpendantoftheGoldenFleecehangingfromasimpleblackstring.Maximilianalwayswearsthe collarofthesovereignwhichconsistsofagoldchainwithbroadlinksandagoldpendant.Joosvan Cleve’s portrait of Maximilian I with a scroll (fig. 1) was thus considered most appropriate for MargaretofAustria’sofficialportraitgallery.

Maximilianasbridegroom

AsecondversionofJoosvanCleve’sportraittypewaskeptinMargaretofAustria’spetitcabinet,an intimatespaceadjoiningherstatelybedroom.Insteadofascroll,Maximilianholdstwocarnationsin hisrighthand.In1523വ24,theportraitwasdescribedasfollows:

Item, ung aultre tableau de la portraicture de l‘empereur Maximilien, tenant deux fleurs d‘ulletzensamain,habillédedrapd‘or,pourtantlaThoison. [Item,anotherpanelwiththeportraitofEmperorMaximilian,holdingtwocarnationsinhis hand,dressedingoldfabric,wearingtheFleece.]46

JohnHandliststhreeversionsofthisalternativeportraittypefromtheJoosvanCleveworkshop.47 The Paris painting is the smallest, measuring 19 x 13 cm; the Amsterdam painting is the largest, measuring34.6x24.4(fig.6).IntheAmsterdamportrait,Maximilian’sbodyisdepicteddowntothe waist.ThisdetailiscomparabletotheBerlinpaintingwithscroll(fig.1).ThecopiesinVienna(fig.7) andParishaveroundedtopsandoptforanarrowercloseͲupconcentratingmoreonMaximilian’s headandhands.Inallthreepaintings,Maximilianturnshisheadtotherightandraiseshislefthand, whichtouchestheledgeoftheframe.

MarissaBasshasarguedthattheAmsterdampaintingshouldbeidentifiedastheonefrom Margaret’scollectionbecauseMaximilianholdstwoinsteadofthreecarnations.48Thefactthatthe inventory does not explicitly talk about a small painting supports her assumption. The van Cleve portrait with two carnations was kept in the most secluded section of Margaret’s residence, the studiolonexttoherbedroom.Itissignificanttonote,however,thatMargaretgaveawaythisportrait

©ÖAW,KULeuvenandauthors 106 ISBN978Ͳ94Ͳ6018Ͳ483Ͳ3 THEHABSBURGSANDTHEIRCOURTSINEUROPE,1400–1700.BETWEENCOSMOPOLITISMANDREGIONALISM  toherbastardsister,inOctober1527.49Whatwasthereasonforthisdecision?Didsheherselflose interestinthisportraitafterherfatherdied?























  Fig.6JoosvanCleveandworkshop,MaximilianIwith Fig.7JoosvanCleve,MaximilianIwiththreecarnations, Twocarnations,oak,34,6x24,4cm(withoutframe), oilonoak,27x18cm,Vienna,Kunsthistorisches Amsterdam,Rijksmuseum,inv.No.SKͲAͲ3293. Museum,inv.no.GG972.   TheParisversionistheonlypaintingwithadate.Theyear‘1510’onthelowerledgeofthe frameprovidesuswithaterminusantequem.50Itisunlikelythattheblueprintforthisportraitwas conceivedaslateas1510,becauseMaximiliandidnotvisittheNetherlandsinthatparticularyear.51 BoththewrittencorrespondencebetweenMaximilianandhisdaughterandtheemperor’sdetailed itinerary demonstrate that Maximilian sojourned in the Netherlands in 1508/09 because of the ongoing war with the Duke of Guelders; in fact, he stayed continuously in this region from 1 November1508to31March1509,Antwerp,Brussels,Gent,Kalkar,Mechelen,Lier,Dordrechtbeing someoftheplaceshepassedthroughatthetime.DuringthesefivemonthsMaximilianwillhavehad manyopportunitiestomeetJoosvanCleveinperson.52GivenMaximilian’sstrongpersonalinterest incommissioningofficialportraits,itseemsmorethanlikelythathehimselfselectedtheartistand decided on the choice of attributes, a scroll and several carnations. The specific nature of these imagesandtheprecisionofthefacialfeaturessuggestthattheartistwasgivenachancetomakea preparatorydrawingfromlife.Thelargenumberofcopiesconfirmsthat JoosvanCleve’sportrait wasconsideredanimportantlikeness,aportraitthatwascopiedoverandoveragain.53

In thelightoftheseconsiderationstheimageofMaximilianwithcarnationsraisesseveral questions.Depictingasitterwithoneorseveralflowersinhishandisusuallyunderstoodasasymbol ofloveandcourtship;itwasamotivefrequentlyemployedinconnectionwithbetrothalormarriage

©ÖAW,KULeuvenandauthors 107 ISBN978Ͳ94Ͳ6018Ͳ483Ͳ3 THEHABSBURGSANDTHEIRCOURTSINEUROPE,1400–1700.BETWEENCOSMOPOLITISMANDREGIONALISM  portraits.54 Maximilian wedded his first wife Duchess Mary of Burgundy on 18 August 1477, a historicallyimportanteventdatingbackmorethanthirtyyears.WhenJoosvanClevestartedworking onthisnewportrait,Maximilianhadbeenmarriedtohissecondwifeformorethanfifteenyears.If thisimagerefersbacktotheemperor’sfirstmarriage,wearedealingwitharetrospectiveportrait and a considerable lapse in time. John Hand convincingly argued that this composition may have beenmodelledonasimilarpaintinginMargaretofAustria’scollection,theportraitoftheTudorKing Henry VII as a potential bridegroom (1505).55 At the time, Henry had the intention of marrying Maximilian'swidoweddaughter.FortheKingoftheRomans,HenryVIIwasanimportantpolitical ally, which was why he had been made a member of the Order of the Golden Fleece. After the marriage negotiations failed, the panel painting was kept in Margaret’s illustrious portrait gallery. Thetreatmentoftheframeaspictorialborderisreminiscentoftheofficial portraitsofPhilipthe GoodandCharlestheBoldbyRogiervanderWeydenandhisworkshop.

TheretrospectivenatureofEmperorMaximilian’sportraitbyJoosvanCleveislesssurprising than it seems at first sight. To Maximilian and his offspring, the union of the two dynasties— Habsburg and Burgundy—remained one of the most important events for this upwardͲmoving dynasty. This is documented in his Arch of Honour, the Triumphal Procession and in the chivalric romancecalledTheuerdank.Between1505and1516MaximiliandictatedthestoryofWeisskunigto hissecretaryMarxTreitzsauerwein.Maximilian’sjourneytotheNetherlands,hisarrivalattheBruges court, his meetings and negotiations with Margaret of York and Mary of Burgundy, and the final marriageceremonyaredealtwithingreatdetail.TheluxuriouscoatthatMaximilianiswearingin mostofthesewoodcutsbyHansBurgkmairisreminiscentofthefurͲlinedovercoatintheportrait panelsbyJoosvanCleveandhisworkshop(fig.1).56Weisskunig,Maximilian’salterego,wearsarich collarandaroyalcrown—symbolsofpowerthattheyoungprincewasstillstrivingforin1477.

In1511,notlongafterthedeathofhissecondwife,Maximilianreissuedacommemorative silvercoininthecityofHall,Tyrol,basedonthedesignofanearlymedalbyGiovanniCandida.The soͲcalled‘Hochzeitsguldiner’byUlrichUrsentalerreproducesMaximilian’sportraitasayoungprince on one side and that of his young bride on the reverse.57 The inscription ‘ETATIS 19’ points to Maximilian’syoungage,andthedate1479equallyrefersbacktothetimeofhisyouth.Thisminted likenessofMaximiliancommemoratesaneventofthepastthathadongoingpoliticalsignificancefor theHabsburgfamily.ItcanbeassumedthatMaximiliandistributedthesecoinsamonghisallies.

In the light of Maximilian’s ambition to glorify his union with the house of Burgundy, the commission of a portrait as an ageless courtier with flowers appears to be more of a strategic decisionthananexpressionofromanticlove.ThemodestywithwhichMaximilianisrepresentedin this portrait can be interpreted as a wellͲconsidered manoeuvre. In the Burgundian Netherlands, Maximilianwasseenmoreasaninvoluntaryguestthanasapotentruler:inthisregionofhisempire hewasmerelytoleratedasMaryofBurgundy’shusbandandasthefatheroftheirchildren,Philipthe HandsomeandMargaretofAustria.JoosvanCleveportrayedMaximiliantwiceassovereignofthe OrderoftheGoldenFleece,alwaysshowingoffthecollaroftheOrder.

In this political context, the creation of a new likeness by Joos van Cleve in 1508/09 is as significant as the conception of an official portrait by Bernhard Strigel in 1496 (fig. 2). The Strigel portraitwasdevelopedatatimewhenMaximilianwasclimbingupthepoliticalladderandhadto asserthimselfasKingoftheRomansandasthemostpromisingcandidateforthepositionofHoly

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Roman Emperor (fig. 3). Strigel’s portrait of Maximilian in armour reflects this ambition and was employedacrosstheEmpire,asthecopiesinStrasbourgandMechelenshow.

TheportraitthatwasconceivedbyvanCleveadecadelaterwasprobablyemployedwithina much more limited geographical area, the Burgundian Netherlands. This portrait established Maximilian’sroleasleaderoftheBurgundiannetwork(fig.1)equalinimportancetoPhiliptheGood, Charles the Bold and Philip the Handsome. It reminded visitors to Margaret’s residence that MaximilianwastheactingsovereignoftheOrderoftheGoldenFleece(fig.5),whilehisgrandson, thenineͲyearͲoldCharles,wasstillaminor.Maximilian’smarriagetoMaryofBurgundywasthekey tohisrisetopower,aturningpointinthehistoryoftheHabsburgdynasty.Theportraitwithaposy ofcarnations(fig.6),ontheotherhand,wasemployedbyMaximilianasaposthumousmonumentto hishappyandprosperousunionwithMaryofBurgundy,thelastheirtotheBurgundianempire.





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Frimmel, Theodor and Joseph Klemme, 'Ein Statutenbuch des Ordens vom Goldenen Vliesse', JahrbuchderKunsthistorischenMuseendesallerhöchstenKaiserhauses5(1887),pp.263വ338.

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GemäldegalerieBerlin,Gesamtverzeichnis,ed.HenningBocketal.(Berlin,1996).

Gesichter der Renaissance. Meisterwerke italienischer Porträtkunst, ed. Keith Christiansen and PatriciaLeeRubin(Berlin,2012).

Hand,JohnOliver,JoosvanCleve.ThecompletePaintings(NewHaven&London,2004).

Hochrenaissance im Vatikan, Kunst und Kultur im Rom der Päpste, 1503ൻ1534, ed. Petra Kruse (Ostfildern&Ruit,1999).

Im Atelier der Geschichte. Gemälde bis 1914 aus der Sammlung des Deutschen Historischen Museums,ed.SabineBeneke(Dresden,2012).

ItinerariumMaximilianI.,1508ൻ1518,ed.VictorvonKraus(Vienna,1899).

JoosvanCleve.LeonardodesNordens,ed.PetervandenBrink(Aachen&Stuttgart,2011).

JoosvanCleve.LeonardodesNordens,ed.PetervandenBrink(Aachen,2011).

KaiserMaximilianI.unddieKunstderDürerzeit,ed.EvaMichelundMariaLuiseSternath(Vienna, 2012).

Löcher, Kurt, Germanisches Nationalmuseum Nürnberg. Die Gemälde des 16. Jahrhunderts (OstfildernͲRuit,1997).

LosInventariosdeCarlosVylafamiliaimperial/TheInventoriesofCharlesVandtheImperialFamily, dir.FernandoChecaCremades,3vols(Madrid,2010).

Luber, Katherine Crawford, ‘Albrecht Dürer's Maximilian portraits: an investigation of versions’, in MasterDrawings29(1991),pp.30വ47.

MaximilianI.,ed.ErichEgg(Innsbruck,1969).

Maximilian I. and Marx Treitzsauerwein, Der WeißͲKunig. Eine Erzählung von den Thaten Kaiser Maximilian des Ersten, herausgegeben aus dem Manuscripte der kaiserl. königl. Hofbibliothek von MarxTreitzsaurwein,aufdessenAngebenzusammengetragen,nebstd.vonHannsenBurgmairdazu verfertigtenHolzschnitten(Vienna,1775).

Mende,Matthias,AlbrechtDürer,einKünstlerinseinerStadt(Nuremberg,2000).

Musées royaux des BeauxͲArts de Belgique, Département d’Art Ancien. Catalogue inventaire de la peintureancienne,ed.PhilippeRobertsͲJones(Brussels,1984).

NetherlandishartintheRijksmuseum,1400ൻ1600,ed.AnkOverbeek,JanPietFiledtKok,Annemiek Overbeek(Amsterdam,2000).

Polleroß,Friedrich,'TraditionundInnovation.KaiserMaximilianI.imPorträt',in:KaiserMaximilianI. unddieKunstderDürerzeit,ed.MichelandSternath(Vienna,2012),pp.101വ15.

Scailliérez,Cécile,‘DiePorträtkunstJoosvanCleves’,in:JoosvanCleve.LeonardodesNordens,ed. PetervandenBrink(Aachen,2011),pp.86വ111.

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Scheller,RobertW.,'KaiserMaximilianunddiePäpsteseinerZeit',in:HochrenaissanceimVatikan, KunstundKulturimRomderPäpste,1503ൻ1534,ed.PetraKruse(Ostfildern&Ruit,1999),pp.70വ76.

Schütz‚Karl,'DieEntstehungdeshöfischenRepräsentationsporträtsinderZeitKaiserMaximiliansI.', in:WerkefürdieEwigkeit.KaiserMaximilianI.undErzherzogFerdinandII.,ed.WilfriedSeipeland AlfredAuer(Innsbruck,2002),pp.16വ18.

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Illustrations Fig.1JoosvanCleveandworkshop,MaximilianIassovereignoftheOrderoftheGoldenFleece, wood,30.8x21,1cmBerlin,KMPK,GG1321.

Fig.2BernhardStrigel,EmperorMaximilianIdressedinarmourandpresentinghisregalia,oilon parchmentonwood,76.5x48cm,Berlin,DeutschesHistorischesMuseum,inv.no.1988/1496.

Fig.3BernhardStrigel,MaximilianIasHolyRomanEmperor,circa1507/08,oilonwood,84x51.8 cm,Innsbruck,TirolerLandesmuseum.

Fig.4JoosvanCleveandWorkshop,MaximilianIassovereignoftheOrderoftheGoldenFleece, wood,33x23cm,Brussels,MuseésRoyauxdesBeauxͲArtsdeBelgique,inv.no.2581.

Fig.5Anonymous,MaximilianassovereignoftheOrderoftheGoldenFleece,Vienna,ÖNB,Cod. 2606,fol.77:StatutebookoftheOrderoftheGoldenFleece,parchment,28.4x21cm,Bruges,after 1518.

Fig.6JoosvanCleveandworkshop,MaximilianIwithtwocarnations,oak,34.6x24.4cm(without frame),Amsterdam,Rijskmuseum,inv.no.SKͲAͲ3293.

Fig.7JoosvanCleve,MaximilianIwiththreecarnations,oilonoak,27x18cm,Vienna, KunsthistorischesMuseum,inv.no.GG972.  

 1In2011,PhilippeLorentzkindlyinvitedmetoParistolectureontheearlyHabsburgsattheEPHA.Itwasin thiscontextthatIfirstdevelopedtheideaforthispaper.Iwouldliketothankthefollowingcolleaguesfor helpingmetoputthematerialforthisessaytogether:KatrinDyballa,EvaͲMariaHöllerer,StephanKemperdick, PilarSilvaMaroto,MatthiasUblandJoostvanderAuwera.IamgratefultoHerbertKarnerforencouragingme topursuethistopicandforhispatience. 2Silver2008. 3Polleroß2012,pp.101വ15;seealso:Scheller1999,pp.70വ76.

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 4ThisincludestheremarkableimageofthedeceasedMaximilianonhisdeathbed(diedon2January1519),see GuidoMessling,‘MonogrammistA.A.,DasTotenbildnisMaximiliansI.,1519’,inKaiserMaximilianI.2012,cat. no.127,pp.380വ83. 5Hand2004,pp.112വ14. 6AmbrogiodePredis,MaximilianI,oak,44x30.3cm,1502,Vienna,KunsthistorischesMuseum,inv.no.GG 4431.KarlSchütz,‘AmbrogiodePredis,MaximilianI.,1502’,inMaximilianI.2012,cat.no.11,pp.146വ47;fora digitalimagesee:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Ambrogio_de_Predis(accessedon22February2013). 7SeealsothemedalbyBenediktBurkhartdepictingMaximilianinarmour,withtheinscription‘MAXIMILIANUS ROMANO(RVM) REX IMPERATOR AVG(VSTVS)‘, 1505, Prague, Národní museum; for a digital image see: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maximilian_I_1505_av.jpgand http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maximilian_I_1505_rv.jpg(accessedon11February2013). 8 Anonymous, Maximilian I, charcoal drawing, 37.3 x 25.3 cm, Berlin, Staatliche Museen Preussischer Kulturbesitz,Kupferstichkabinett,KdZ10;AndreasBayerhasrecentlyattributedthisdrawingtoAmbrogiode Predis,inGesichterderRenaissance2011,cat.no.106;foradigitalimagesee: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ambrogio_de_Predis_001.jpg(accessedon12February2013) 9KarlSchütz,‘AmbrogiodePredis‘,inMaximilianI.2012,p.146. 10ExzellenteChronikvanFlandern,Brügge,1481,inBrüssel,KBR,Ms.13073വ4,f.335v.;seeFillitz1988,pp.70– 71,ill.4. 11 Vienna, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek (ÖNB), Cod. Vin. 2606, fol. 75: ‘Et mondit seigneur le duc Maximilianotemprisetaccepteleditordrepourenestrechiefetsouveraincequilfitapresavoirrechutlordre dechevalerieenleglisedesaintsauveuretlecollierduditordrelederrnierjourdumoisdavrillanmiliiijclxxvij enlavilledebruges’,quotedfromFrimmelandKlemme1887,p.296. 12Anonymous,MaximilianI,paintingonconifer,54.6x36.1cm,Berlin,SMPK,inv.no.GG2111;althoughthe date given in the inscription is 1504, the accompanying text seems corrupted and is thus less reliable; see: http://bpkgate.picturemaxx.com/webgate_cms/(accessedon5December,2012). 13AlbrechtDürer,EmperorMaximilianI,Vienna,1519,oilonlimewood,74x61.5cm,KarlSchütz,‘Albrecht Dürer,KaiserMaximilianI,um1519’,inMaximilianI.2012,cat.no.78,pp.292–95;anotherversionofthis paintingisheldbytheGermanischesNationalmuseuminNuremberg:AlbrechtDürer,EmperorMaximilianI, 1519,canvas,86.2x67.2cm,seeLöcher1997,pp.213വ16. 14Ontheprocessoftransferringthedesignfrompapertocanvasorwood,seeLuber1991,pp.30വ47. 15Mende2000,cat.no.14,pp.316വ17. 16DagmarEichberger,'KaiserMaximilianI.,um1519',inAlbrechtDürer2002,cat.no.252,pp.456വ59. 17Scailliérez2011,pp.86വ111. 18Hand2004,cat.nos.2.1വ2.10,pp.112വ14. 19Thismotiveisgenerallyemployedinportraitsthatwereproducedinthecontextofmarriagenegotiations.I willcomebacktothemeaningofthismotiveatalaterpoint. 20 For example, Bernhard Strigel and workshop, Emperor Maximilian I, wood, 60.5 x 41 cm, Vienna, KunsthistorischesMuseum,inv.no.GG922;anotherversionofthesametypeisinv.no.GG4403,75.5x49cm. A slightly later version shows Maximilian with his imperial mitre crown: Bernhard Strigel, Maximilian I as Emperor,circa 1507/08, wood,82.8 x 50.5 cm, privatecollection/ Innsbruck,Maximilianeum, inv. no. Gem 136. 21Strigel’sprofessionalconnectionwithEmperorMaximilianisbasedonaninscriptiononthebackofapanel paintingthatshowsAnnaandJohannesCuspian(1473Ͳ1529)andtheiroffspring:‘Annohumannaereparacionis MDXXMensoctobri...BernhardinusStrigilpictorcivisMemingennobilisquisolusedictoCaesareMaximilianuut olimApellesAlexandrumpingereiussushasimaginesmanusinistraperspeculafermesexagenariusViennae pingebat’, Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum, inv. no. GG 6411, see also Karl Schütz, 'Berhard Strigel, Die FamilieKaiserMaximiliansI.,zwischen1515und1520',inMaximilianI.2012,cat.no.13,pp.152. 22 Bernhard Strigel and workshop, Emperor Maximilian I, limewood, 29 x 22 cm, Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum,inv.no.GG828;foradigitalreproductionsee: http://www.lessingͲphoto.com/dispimg.asp?i=26010224+&cr=10&cl=1. 23Schütz2002,p.17. 24ErichEgg,‘BildnisKönigMaximiliansI.’,inMaximilianI.1969,cat.no.547,p.148.AccordingtoEgg,thecopy inBerlin,formerlyinSchweinfurt,istheearliestportraitfromthisseries.Hequestionsthedate‘1496’asitisin contradictionwiththeinscriptionontherightͲhandside.

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 25IwishtothankBrigitteReinekeforprovidingthisinformation;BernhardStrigel,EmperorMaximilianI,oilon parchmentonwood,76,5x48cm,Berlin,DeutschesHistorischesMuseum,inv.no.1988/1496;foradigital reproduction see: http://www.dhm.de/datenbank/dhm.php?seite=5&fld_0=K1000080 (accessed on 15 February2013). 26DieterVorsteher,‘BerhardStrigel,KaiserMaximilianI.,1496’,inHochrenaissanceimVatikan1999,cat.no. 72,pp.454വ55.ThisviewisalsoadoptedbyBrigitteReinekeinImAtelierderGeschichte2012,cat.no.8,pp. 32and346. 27 Hans Burgkmair the Elder (?), Emperor Frederick III, wood, circa 1510, 78,5 x 51,5 cm, Vienna, KunsthistorischesMuseum,inv.no.GG4398.Ithasbeensuggestedthatitwasbasedonalostpaintingdating from1468;MargotRauch‘FriedrichIII.’,inWerkefürdieEwigkeit2002,cat.no.11,pp.45Ͳ47;foradigital reproduction see: http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei:Hans_Burgkmair_d._%C3%84._005.jpg (accessed on 15 February2013). 28 Hans Burgkmair the Elder (?), Empress Eleanor of Portugal, wood, circa 1510, 79 x 51.5 cm, Vienna, KunsthistorischesMuseum,inv.no.GG4399;MargotRauch‘EleonorevonPortugal.’,inWerkefürdieEwigkeit 2002,cat.no.11,pp.47Ͳ49;foradigitalimagesee: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hans_Burgkmair_d._%C3%84._006.jpg(accessedon15February2013). 29Silver2008,p.102.AsmallnumberofportraitscanbetracedbacktothecollectionofArchdukeFerdinandII, whoestablishedaportraitcollectionatSchlossAmbras. 30Eichberger2005,pp.48വ55. 31Eichberger2002,pp.58വ115. 32 Lille, AdN, Chambre des Comptes de Lille, no. 123904, fol. 4: ‘Les painctures estans en la librairye de madame’, in The Inventories of Charles V (2010), vol. III, p. 2393. The portrait is mentioned again in the householdinventoryof1523Ͳ24:‘Celledel‘empereurtrespassé’,Paris,BNF,CinqCentsdeColbert128,fol.46v, seeEichberger2002,p.173,fn.117.Formoreinformationonthevariousinventories,seeEichberger2010,vol. III,pp.2351വ63. 33BernhardStrigel,EmperorMaximilianI,Innsbruck,TirolerLandesmuseum,oilonwood,84x51.8cm,circa 1507/08. 34Eichberger2009,pp.241വ64. 35Lille,AdN,ChambresdesComptes,123904,inTheInventoriesofCharlesV2010,vol.III,p.2393. 36 Bernhard Strigel, Maximilian I, oil on limewood, 39.5 x 30 cm, National Trust, Upton House, Banbury, Warwickshire, cat. no. 213; for a digital image see: http://www.bbc.co.uk/arts/yourpaintings/paintings/theͲ emperorͲmaximilianͲiͲ14591519(accessedon21February2013). 37BernhardStrigelandworkshop,EmperorMaximilianIwithscroll,ca.1515,limewood,37x25cm,Berlin, Gemäldegalerie,inv.no.2110;foradigitalimagesee: http://bpkgate.picturemaxx.com/preview.php?WGSESSID=dcec51b266a2804a19350a3e18fc6aca&UURL=67f5 b88c215c9a208c2b26be9036ab15&IMGID=00025455. Further versions of this portrait exist in: Vienna [Kunsthistorisches Museum, inv. no. GG 828], Kreuzlingen [Sammlung Kisters] and Innsbruck [Tiroler LandesmuseumFerdinandeum,inv.no.1277]. 38ErichEgg,‘BildnisKaiserMaximiliansI.alsPrivatman‘,inMaximilianI.1969,cat.no.551/552,p.148. 39 Larry Silver, ‘Leonard Beck, Hans Burgkmair the Elder, Hans Schäufelein, Hans Springinklee, Weisskunig, 1514Ͳ16’,inKaiserMaximilianI.2012,cat.no.74,pp.288വ89. 40Paris,BNF,CinqCentsdeColbert128,fol.59v,inTheInventoriesofCharlesV2010,vol.III,p.2448. 41JoosvanCleveandworkshop,MaximilianIassovereignoftheOrderoftheGoldenFleece,wood,30.8x21.1 cmBerlin,KMPK,GG1321;seeGemäldegalerieBerlin1996,vol.2,cat.no.791;JoosvanCleveandworkshop, MaximilianassovereignoftheOrderoftheGoldenFleece,wood,33x23cm,Brussels,MuseésRoyauxdes BeauxͲArtsdeBelgique,inv.no.2581;seeMuséesroyauxdesBeauxͲArtsdeBelgique1984,p.60. 42ThepaintingwasstudiedwithIRRbyMollyFairiesinMarch2001.Thecolourofthebackgroundisgreen,the hatisblack;theunderdrawinginexecutedinadrymedium,delineatinghisfaceandhands(correspondence withEvaͲMariaHöllererdatingfrom2December2012). 43StatutebookoftheOrderoftheGoldenFleece,Vienna,ÖNB,Cod.2606,fol.77:anonymous,'MaximilianIas sovereignoftheorder',Bruges,after1518,parchment,28.4x21cm;seeDasStatutenbuchdesOrdensvom GoldenenVlies(1934).Foradigitalimagesee: http://wwwg.uniͲklu.ac.at/kultdoku/kataloge/37/html/2756.htm(accessedon20February2013). 44EichbergerandBeaven1995,pp.233വ35.

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 45 ‘Tres excellent et tres puissant prince, monseigneur Maximilien, archidux d‘autriche, duc de lothrie, de Brabant,deluxemburg,etc.’ 46Paris,BNF,CinqCentsdeColbert128,fol.81v;inTheInventoriesofCharlesV(2010),vol.III,p.2455. 47 Hand 2004, pp. 112വ14; [2.0] Joos van Cleve, Maximilian I with carnations, oak, 28.5 x 22.3 cm, Vienna, KunsthistorischesMuseum,inv.no.GG972;[2.1]JoosvanCleveandworkshop,MaximilianIwithcarnations, oak,19x13cm,thedate1510iswrittenontotheoriginalframe;Paris,MuséeJacquemartͲAndré,inv.no. 2234;[2.2]JoosvanCleveandworkshop,MaximilianIwithcarnations,oak,34.6x24.4cm(withoutframe), Amsterdam,Rijskmuseum,inv.no.SKͲAͲ3293,foradigitalimagesee: https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/en/search/objecten?q=maximiliaan+I&js=1&p=6&ps=12#/SKͲAͲ3293,70 (accessedon20February2013). 48IntheViennaandthePariscopiesMaximilianisholdingthreeflowersinsteadoftwo,seeNetherlandishart intheRijksmuseum2000,p.43.OnedetailthatraisesquestionsintheAmsterdamversionisthewayinwhich theOrderoftheGoldenFleeceisdepicted.Thefiligreestyleinwhichthecollaroftheorderhasbeenpainted does not correspond to the more solid chains in the other paintings. For digital information see: http://www.rijksmuseum.nl/collectie/zoeken/asset.jsp?id=SKͲAͲ3293&lang=nl (accessed on 22 November 2011). 49Textinthemarginsoftheentryquotedabove:‘CetableauaestédonnéparMadameàsaseurbatarde, religieusedeBoisͲleͲDucparsalettredu10d‘octobreanno1527,pourceroyé’. 50Hand2004,p.20. 51ItinerariumMaximilianI1899,pp.48വ56. 52OntheearlycareerofJoosvanCleveseeHand2004,pp.13വ21. 53ThisisalsoemphasizedbyScaillérez2011,p.104.Theauthorsofthecatalogueentryseemtoquestionthe suppositionthatMaximilianmetupwiththeartists,seeJoosvanCleve2011,p.179. 54JoosvanCleve2011,cat.nos.48വ49,50,pp.180വ81;seealsoScailliérez2011,p.104. 55Hand2004,p.20;anonymous,HenryVII,oilonwood,42.5x30.5cm,London,NationalPortraitGallery,inv. no.416.TheinscriptionontheLondonpaintingdocumentsthatHenry’sportraitwaspaintedon29October 1505 on command of Herman Rinck, aLondonagentfor the HolyRoman Emperor; for a digital image see: www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portraitLarge/mw03078/KingͲHenryͲVII?LinkID=mp02144&role=sit&rNo=1 (accessedon21February2013). 56 Hans Burgkmair, no. 53: The marriage ceremony ofMaximilian andMaryof Burgundy inBruges1477, in MaximilianI.andTreitzsauerwein1775,online:http://digi.ub.uniͲheidelberg.de/diglit/maximilian1775. 57The1511silvercoinismodelledonanearliermedalbyGiovanniCandida;foradigitalimageofthe1511 silvercoin,see:http://www.coingallery.de/KarlV/Maximil_D.htm.Thereareseveralversionsingold(Dresden, Prague, Vienna): Ulrich Ursentaler, Kaiser Maximilian, 1511, Dresden, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen, Münzkabinett,inv.no.886;foradigitalimagesee:http://www.habsburger.net/de/kapitel/kunstͲimͲdiensteͲ derͲherrschaft;thereverseofUrsentaler’scoinisreproducedunder: http://www.habsburger.net/en/node/3120(accessedon21February2013).

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