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Changing News Changing Realities Media Censorship’S Evolution in Egypt ReuteRs InstItute for the study of JouRnalIsm Changing News Changing Realities media censorship’s evolution in egypt Abdalla F. Hassan Changing News Changing Realities Changing News Changing Realities media censorship’s evolution in egypt Abdalla F. Hassan Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism University of Oxford Research sponsored by the Gerda Henkel Foundation Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism Department of Politics and International Relations University of Oxford 13 Norham Gardens Oxford OX2 6PS United Kingdom http://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk Copyright © 2013 by Abdalla F. Hassan Design by Sally Boylan and Adam el-Sehemy Cover photographs by Abdalla F. Hassan, Joshua Stacher, and Lesley Lababidi The newspapers’ sting at first seemed slight and was conveniently disregarded, but its cumulative effect proved dangerous. By aggressively projecting political messages to its readers and generating active political debate among an expanding reading public . the press helped create a climate for political action that would eventually undermine the British hold on the country. (Ami Ayalon, The Press in the Arab Middle East) For Teta Saniya, my parents, and siblings with love, and for all those brave souls and unsung heroes who have sacrificed so much so that others can live free Contents Acknowledgments xi Preface:TheStateandtheMedia 1 I: Since the Printing Press 5 1. PressBeginningsinEgypt 7 2. NasserandtheEraofPan-Arabism 29 3. Sadat,theInfitah,andPeacewithIsrael 63 II: The Media and the Mubarak Era 79 4. Mubarak’sThree-DecadeCaretakerPresidency 81 5. Television’sComingofAge 119 6. BarriersBroken:Censorship’sLimits 137 7. FreeExpressionversustheRighttoBark 189 III: Revolution and Two and a Half Years On 221 8. NoGoingBack:FirstFourDayofRevolution 223 9. SustainingtheRevolution 265 10.TheMediaafterMubarak’sDownfall 315 11.What’sChanged?PoliticsandthePress underMilitaryRule 355 12.Mubarak2.0:RevolutionariesversustheGenerals 433 13.FallofMilitaryRule,theIslamists, andtheWeightofWords 541 14.Conclusion:LessonsfromEgypt’sExperience withCensorship 649 Bibliography 669 ix Acknowledgments am grateful to my parents for all they have given me. From the Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism, I would like I to thank David Levy, James Painter, John Lloyd, Sara Kalim, Alex Reid, Kate Hanneford-Smith, Amanda Armstrong, Anne Geniets, and Angela Julian. Eugene Rogan, director of the Middle East Centre at St Anthony’s College, has been an extremely help- ful and supportive adviser and always a pleasure to exchange ideas with. Most of all, I am grateful to my fellow fellows at the Reuters Institute and to everyone who has taken the time to be interviewed for this research. I have learnt so much from them. My thanks to Norman G. Finkelstein, David Levy, and James Painter for their suggestions on earlier versions; Jane Robson for her copy-edit of the manuscript; Sally Boylan for her layout design; Joshua Stacher, Elijah Zarwan, Lesley Lababidi, Andrew Sultana, the Dominican Institute for Oriental Studies (IDÉO), and the Bibliotheca Alexandrina for use of their photographs; Carlos Latuff for use of his cartoons; and Norman G. Finkelstein, Craig Duff, Lawrence Pintak, Doug Tarnopol, Jennifer Alejandro, Sally Boylan, Brian Childs, Jason Thompson, Courtney Kealy and Adam el-Sehemy for their support and encouragement. I am honoured to have been a fellow at the Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism and I am indebted to the Gerda xi xii Acknowledgments Henkel Foundation for their generous sponsorship. My research and stay at the University of Oxford, one of the world’s foremost institutions of higher learning and scholarship, would not have been possible without them. Oxford for me will always be connected with many warm and happy memories. It is an experience I will cherish always. PREFACE The State and the Media he media have long been used to shape public opin- ion. Stirring aspirations for social and political reform, Tthe press has often been at loggerheads with the politi- cal elite. Changing News, Changing Realities examines the evolution of media censorship in Egypt from the monarchy to the present. It traces how direct censorship and govern- ment ownership of the media has given way to other forms of information management, looking into the processes and factors causing censorship walls to fall and the intricate dance between the authorities and the public that have contributed to a broader media space. Censorship and free expression involve a dynamic push and pull from various directions – the state, police, military, intelligence services, the religious estab- lishment, and self-appointed protectors of social morality on one side versus journalists, artists, novelists, filmmakers, dis- sidents, and bloggers on the other. The targets of censorship represent a challenge to entrenched interests. National security and maintaining public order have been high on the agenda of the censorship regime. This was the case during the era of the monarchy and British occupation and even more so in the aftermath of the 1952 Free Officers’ revo- lution, where political expression was tightly controlled in a 1 2 Preface manner unprecedented in Egypt’s recent past. The press, film industry, and publishing houses were nationalised. An addi- tional measure of control was instituted through a network of state-run cultural institutions that created a more restricted space for private initiative and the arts. Through the presiden- cies of Gamal Abd al-Nasser, Anwar Sadat, and Hosni Mubarak authoritarianism has remained a fixture in Egyptian politics and society. The press has been kept in check not just by laws but often through the reach and influence of the security apparatus. Satellite television and the internet, modern methods of evading government minders, have signalled the collapse of the information regime, and the state has lost its near-total ability to set the media agenda. The sheer volume of information and communications movement is beyond the capacity of the state to apply the same controls that worked so effectively a genera- tion ago. Private broadcast media represent a greater challenge to the authorities since they reach a mass audience in a nation where the illiteracy rate stands at just under a third of the popu- lation and newspaper sales are still low relative to population. The media space has widened by the state willingly or unwillingly allowing greater room for expression, enterpris- ing journalists and bloggers brave enough to break taboos, popular movements and activism expanding as much as secu- rity interests will allow, and social media – the newest mass communication tool – which has amplified the voice of the ‘street’, irreversibly altering the censorship equation. But was the media’s new ‘right to bark’ having a negligible effect in undermining an entrenched security state or would the cumu- lative efforts of a freer press enable action capable of politically TheStateandtheMedia 3 transforming Egypt’s future? The response to that question came when popular revolution erupted on 25 January 2011, on the heels of mass protests in neighbouring Tunisia that ousted that nation’s dictator. Eventually it was not enough simply to permit a wider space for speech. Political action was taking form online – Facebook was not only the freest press in Egypt, it was a mobilisation tool, pushing the barriers of speech and action in a tightly con- trolled police state. The call to revolution was announced on the ‘We are all Khaled Said’ Facebook page, begun in memory of a young man senselessly beaten to death by police in Alexandria seven months earlier. Khaled Said’s image would become the icon of a popular uprising to bring down the country’s pres- ent-day pharaoh. Eighteen days altered the future of Egypt’s media, shattering barriers of fear and censorship that have held together an autocratic regime. Yet after Hosni Mubarak’s down- fall, the country’s military rulers have used various strategies to fence in a discordant media. As Egypt’s first freely elected pres- ident, turning his back on campaign pledges, consolidates the power of his office and dominant Islamist parties hold political sway, the struggles for democratic governance and a free press are far from over. I Since the Printing Press 1 Press Beginnings in Egypt If all mankind minus one were of one opinion, mankind would be no more justified in silencing that one person than he, if he had the power, would be justified in silencing mankind. (John Stuart Mill, British philosopher) If you speak out, don’t be afraid, and if you’re afraid, don’t speak up. (Egyptian proverb) Stimulated by the French experience with printing during Napoleon Bonaparte’s expedition to Egypt in 1798–1801, the country’s Ottoman ruler, Muhammad Ali (r. 1805–48), initi- ated the production of printing facilities by sending a delegation to Milan, Italy, to learn how it was done. Seven years later, in 1822, the Bulaq Press was inaugurated, with its first publication being an Italian–Arabic dictionary.1 The new government press printed items such as technical manuals for the military and other official documents for civil servants, books in European languages, Arabic translations, medical and school texts, and an Arabic edition of the Arabian Nights. The press was also part of Muhammad Ali’s commitment to broadening education. The Bulaq Press was not restricted by official laws – until its supervisor, Nicola Masabiki, carelessly printed a poem by 7 8 PressBeginningsinEgypt an Italian that demeaned the Islamic faith. When Egypt’s ruler found out, he issued a decree on 13 July 1823 that became the first BIBLIOTHECA ALEXANDRINA act of censorship, forbidding the publication of any work that did not have his official permission.2 Muhammad Ali also supervised the first Egyptian newspaper, an official bulletin useful in manag- ing a government bureaucracy called al-Waq’i‘ al-misriya (Egyp- Muhammad Ali tian Events), printed in both Turkish and Arabic, which he founded in 1828. It was not long before newspapers in Arabic and French and other printed material became a regular part of Egyptian life.
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