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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, IRVINE The Relevance of Black Ballet Schools in 21st Century America THESIS submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF FINE ARTS in Dance by Brandye Lee Thesis Committee: Dr. Jennifer Fisher, Chair Professor Diane Diefenderfer Dr. S. Ama Wray 2021 © 2021 Brandye Lee DEDICATION To Doris W. Jones, who taught countless students how to be graceful, tenacious and fearless. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS v INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER 1: Racist Exclusions and the History of the Black Ballet School 4 Stereotypes and Myths 7 Early Black Ballet Schools 11 The Influence of Arthur Mitchell and Dance Theatre of Harlem 13 CHAPTER 2: The Cultural Markers of Black Ballet Schools 16 CHAPTER 3: Creating Lasting Change: Definitions of Success in a New Era 31 Defining Success 31 Black Dancers in a White World 35 Sea (See) Change 37 Lip Service or Sustained Action? 39 CHAPTER 4: Responding to a Double Pandemic 42 Moving Through Pandemic Challenges and Beyond 45 CONCLUSION 51 BIBLIOGRAPHY 55 iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Words are inadequate to express the depth of gratitude I have for my thesis chair, Professor Jennifer Fisher, whose ongoing enthusiasm for my work served as both an anchor and a guiding light. Her scholarly inquiry opened my eyes to new possibilities and helped me to see how important it is to use my voice to help create necessary change. My thesis is so much due to her hours of brilliant and compassionate consulting and selfless leadership. I would like to thank my committee members, Professor Diane Diefenderfer and Professor S. Ama Wray for their curiosity about my thesis topic and support for my work. Their commitment to my effort is deeply appreciated. I thank the Dance Department at University of California, Irvine, from each of my professors, to the administrative staff, to Chair, Molly Lynch. I can’t imagine having attended another school for my Master of Fine Arts degree, and it is because of the beautiful, honest interactions that unfolded with each of you. I also express deep love and thanks to my fellow cohort members, the class of 2021, whose support, understanding, talent and dedication throughout this journey have continually made me better. In addition, I thank University of California, Irvine librarian Scott Stone and District of Columbia Public Library librarian David Edmonds for identifying and providing invaluable scholarly resources. This work was made possible by the many people I interviewed and their willingness to candidly share their experiences. I am forever grateful to each of them. I am especially grateful to Sandra Fortune-Green, Robert Garland, Marcellus Harper, Kevin Thomas, Nena Gilreath and Waverly Lucas, whose insight into their tireless work gave me hope and inspiration for the future. The last year was challenging in ways large and small. Through it all, my family, friends and neighbors were right there for me, encouraging me at every twist and turn. My mother, especially, was my effervescent cheerleader. Her sunny smile and positive disposition on even the darkest days kept my spirit afloat and encouraged me to continue on and on, until I crossed the finish line. Last, but certainly not least, this list wouldn’t be complete without thanking my heavenly Father. I chose this path by faith, and by faith I have completed this portion of my journey. I thank God for seeing me each and every day and supplying all my needs, and much more, along the way. iv ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS The Relevance of Black Ballet Schools in 21st Century America by Brandye Lee Master of Fine Arts in Dance University of California, Irvine, 2021 Professor Jennifer Fisher, Chair Ballet’s problem with race and inclusion has been well-documented over the last 15 years. One of the natural outgrowths of Black dancers being systematically excluded from the art form - largely because of America’s sordid racist history and Jim Crow segregation laws and ballet’s racial bias towards whiteness- was the early formation of Black ballet schools in the 1920s and 1930s. Separate but equal, by law, has long ended, but the existence of Black ballet schools and their continued draw for parents and students alike cannot be denied. This paper examines the most prominent U.S. Black ballet schools, and the purpose they serve in the larger American ballet ecosystem. The author culls data from twenty-five (25) interviews with various stakeholders in the ballet world to determine why parents choose a Black ballet school, whether students of these schools can matriculate to major American ballet companies, asking what other outcomes are important as well. The thesis focuses on current challenges for Black ballet schools and how the Black Lives Matter movement and the coronavirus pandemic affected Black ballet schools. Included is a history of Black ballet schools, why they were initially established, their cultures, and why they continue to thrive in the so-called post-racist society that is America in the 2000s. v INTRODUCTION Returning to school to earn my Master of Fine Arts degree twenty years after I graduated from Smith College gave me the time and space to reflect on my career, in which I have consistently performed, taught or served as a director for predominantly Black dancers and companies. While this wasn’t necessarily my intention at the outset of my journey, I realize what a privilege it has been to serve my community through my artistic passion of dance for so many years. In hindsight, I can see that the trajectory I have followed, consistently working in the Black dance community, began with my training at Jones-Haywood School of Ballet in Washington, DC.1 For 13 years, I took ballet lessons under the watchful eye of the school’s co-founder Doris Jones. By day, I attended predominantly white private schools, but my evenings and weekends were spent in a studio where nearly all of the students were Black. The experience of training in a historically white art form by teachers who were mostly black, equipped me mentally and emotionally to contend with unforeseeable race-related challenges, and prepared me to advocate for myself when my needs as a Black student, Black dancer or Black woman were left unmet. I can now, unequivocally attest to the fact that my Jones-Haywood experience prepared me to not only compete in the dance world, but to also thrive in white spaces. I know the power of my experience growing up in a Black ballet school, while relatively rare in the ballet world, is not unique. My research centers around three major organizations in America whose mission is to train Black dancers specifically in classical 1 The school was renamed Jones-Haywood Dance School in 2006. 1 ballet. They are Ballethnic, Dance Theatre of Harlem and Jones-Haywood.2 These schools, while few in number, are well-respected in the communities they serve. The leaders at these schools have been rolling up their sleeves and working tirelessly—one of them for 80 years—to provide the rigorous training that can lead to a successful ballet career. Though the students at these niche studios are steeped in the European tradition that is ballet, these schools have a look and feel that are undeniably Black. From the myriad hues of brown skin, to the flesh tone tights worn by female students, to the voices heard at the front of the room (speaking in what former DTH Executive Director, Laveen Naidu calls “the code”), these schools, while teaching a European art form, are providing a Black experience for their students.3 From the evidence of their sustained existence and the success of their alumni, it is clear that a Black ballet training experience is sought after, in demand, and one of clear importance, not only for individuals, but for entire communities, and also for the dance field in general. My research questions grew from this experience and knowledge: What are the training outcomes of Black ballet schools? Can their students successfully matriculate into elite U.S. ballet companies? What function do these schools serve inside of the larger American ballet ecosystem? Why are these schools even necessary in 2020 (the year that I began my research on this topic), over five decades after the Civil Rights Act ended segregation? What are their major challenges? Enrollment is not one of them, given that, 2 The current mission and training focus of Dance Institute of Washington, Chicago Multicultural Dance Center and others might have warranted inclusion with these three highlighted schools, but time constraints led to their not being part of my research. 3 Naidu. 2 during the coronavirus pandemic, some of their enrollments grew, or at least stayed the same. These are the numerous, pertinent questions that drove my research. My methodology consists of two main parts: a literature search and interviews. A literature search was used to establish the history of whiteness and white supremacy in ballet. There is also literature containing evidence of early Black ballet schools, from the 1920s onward. Works by Brenda Dixon Gottschild and Melissa Klapper were critical in establishing this history. At the time of my research, the story of Black ballet schools’ collective impact, however, had yet to be written. I found it important to include more voices, therefore, much of my research is original and based on interviews with Black ballet school directors, parents of Black ballet students, their teachers, professional Black ballet dancers, Black ballet school board members, white company directors and others. These 60–90-minute conversations took place online via Zoom during the coronavirus pandemic era, from November 2020 – April 2021.

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