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Edward Irving, Thomas Carlyle, and the Making of the ‘Victorian Prophet’ Randall Reinhard PhD History The University of Edinburgh 2019 I declare that this thesis has been composed solely by myself and that it has not been submitted, in whole or in part, in any previous application for a degree. Except where stated otherwise by reference or acknowledgment, the work presented is entirely my own. Randall Reinhard Abstract The concept of the ’Victorian prophet’ has been used by scholars to refer to such figures as Thomas Carlyle and John Ruskin as they secularised the office of the Old Testament prophet for industrialising Britain in the nineteenth century. This thesis seeks to historically contextualise this phenomenon by examining the career and influence of Edward Irving (1792-1834), a minister in the Church of Scotland who self- consciously embodied the role of prophet to the British nation. In this capacity, he interpreted disasters such as the economic crisis of 1825-26 as divine retribution for the sins of all classes, including the idolatry of wealth; he publicly warned of the terrible judgments which would follow the dismantling of Britain’s Protestant constitution through the repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts and Catholic emancipation; and he appealed directly to the rulers of the land through his sermons and numerous publications. Some of the factors which allowed him to do this were: his understanding of the traditions and legacy of the Church of Scotland combined with his conspicuous position as a popular Scottish preacher in London; his (essentially Romantic) reverence for the ideal, the transcendent, and the supernatural; and his pre-millenarian eschatology. The controversies in his later career, leading to his ultimate expulsion from the Church on a charge of heresy in 1833, contributed to his sense of persecution. Irving’s influence extended beyond just the ‘religious world’ as his publications were frequently reviewed in the magazines, and events in his life were often discussed in the major newspapers. From early on, the periodical press picked up on his prophetic denunciations, though this particular aspect of his style was almost universally criticised. When some of the works of social criticism by Robert Southey, John Sterling, and John Stuart Mill were published in the late 1820s and early ’30s, they did so with some level of awareness of Irving’s career, but none more so than Carlyle, who sought to reinterpret the significance of Irving’s ‘failure’ as a prophet. For Carlyle, it was not possible to return to the outdated forms of the past, and he consequently presented himself as a secular prophet for a new age, though his criticism of British society shared many similarities with Irving’s. In addition to religious developments such as the establishment of the Catholic Apostolic Church, I argue ultimately that the complex legacy of Edward Irving includes, through the mediation of Carlyle, the creation of the ‘Victorian prophet’. Lay Summary The concept of the ’Victorian prophet’ has been used by scholars to refer to such figures as Thomas Carlyle and John Ruskin as they portrayed themselves as secular prophets for industrialising Britain in the nineteenth century. This thesis seeks to historically contextualise this phenomenon by examining the career and influence of Edward Irving (1792-1834), a minister in the Church of Scotland who self-consciously embodied the role of prophet to the British nation. In this capacity, he interpreted disasters such as the economic crisis of 1825-26 as divine retribution for the sins of all classes, including the idolatry of wealth, he publicly warned of the terrible judgments which would follow the decision to allow Catholics full political participation in Britain, and he appealed directly to the rulers of the land through his sermons and numerous publications. Some of the factors which allowed him to do this were: his understanding of the traditions and legacy of the Church of Scotland combined with his conspicuous position as a popular Scottish preacher in London; his reverence for the ideal, the transcendent, and the supernatural; and his belief in the imminent apocalypse and second coming of Christ. The controversies in his later career, leading to his ultimate expulsion from the Church on a charge of heresy in 1833, contributed to his sense of persecution. Irving’s influence extended beyond just the ‘religious world’ as his publications were frequently reviewed in the magazines, and events in his life were often discussed in the major newspapers. From early on, the periodical press picked up on his prophetic denunciations, though this particular aspect of his style was almost universally criticised. When some of the works of social criticism by Robert Southey, John Sterling, and John Stuart Mill were published in the late 1820s and early ’30s, they did so with some level of awareness of Irving’s career, but none more so than Carlyle, who sought to reinterpret the significance of Irving’s ‘failure’ as a prophet. For Carlyle it was not possible to return to the outdated beliefs of the past, and he consequently presented himself as a secular prophet for a new age, though his criticism of British society shared many similarities with Irving’s. In addition to religious developments such as the establishment of the Catholic Apostolic Church, I argue ultimately that the complex legacy of Edward Irving includes, through the mediation of Carlyle, the creation of the ‘Victorian prophet’. Acknowledgements I would like to thank the staff of the School of History, Classics, and Archaeology, as well as those at the Edinburgh University Main Library, New College Library, and National Library of Scotland, whose daily efforts allowed me to carry out my research seamlessly. My supervisors, Profs Thomas Ahnert and Stewart J. Brown, and my friend, Prof Ian Campbell, were instrumental in helping me shape the vague thoughts I had about the Victorian Prophet more than five years ago. My friends in the History department and the Nineteenth Century Research Seminars team provided the camaraderie to make for an enjoyable journey. Finally, this experience would not have been possible without the personal support from my family, especially my parents, Russell and Rebecca Reinhard, and my wife, Emily Cooper. They have been a tireless source of encouragement through the years and provided a fresh set of eyes at crucial moments. This work is dedicated to Emily, who has learned far more about Edward Irving and Thomas Carlyle than she ever wished to know. Table of Contents Introduction 1 The Early Nineteenth-Century Context 21 Edward Irving’s Life and Career 65 Irving as Prophet 115 Reviews and Reactions 169 The Making of the ‘Victorian Prophet’ 207 Conclusion 261 Bibliography 269 Introduction In the 1820s Edward Irving, a minister in the Church of Scotland, caused a stir in Britain with his preaching and publications. People of all classes came out to hear him as he denounced aspects of the new industrial society which was then taking shape. He ultimately became convinced that he and his generation were living in the final days of the Christian dispensation, and he attempted to show this by mapping current events onto apocalyptic prophecies. Building on the recent work by scholars who have re-examined Irving’s life and theology, this thesis further establishes the importance of Irving’s thought to the intellectual history of the period by analysing his social criticism and self- portrayal as a prophet for nineteenth-century Britain. In so doing I historically contextualise the concept of the ‘Victorian prophet’, as I argue that the more famous critiques of industrial society seen later in the century, in particular that of Thomas Carlyle who had such a profound impact on later generations, must be understood in the context of the late 1820s and early 1830s when Irving was denouncing idolatry, infidelity, and political expediency with all the language and rhetoric of an Old Testament prophet. The last few decades of the eighteenth century and the first half of the nineteenth saw widespread changes in British society, regardless of whether these constituted a ‘revolution’ or (less ambitiously) a ‘transformation’ or ‘divergence’. The spread of coal-powered steam engines stimulated the textile and iron industries, which led to a transfer of population from the countryside to the large towns and manufacturing centres all while the net population more than doubled. The country itself was dramatically reshaped during this period, through the implementation of the final stages of public land enclosure with its now-ubiquitous hedgerows and a proliferation of canals, iron bridges, and railways. According to the traditional account, the unbridled optimism often exhibited by the liberal champions of ‘progress’ was met with fierce criticism from certain voices in society who feared the destructive forces being unleashed by nascent industrial capitalism. Such critics have been termed the ‘Victorian prophets’, men like Thomas Carlyle, John Ruskin, and Matthew 1 Arnold who were peculiarly perceptive in their awareness of the demoralising effects outward ‘improvement’ was having on British society.