قراءات وترجمات

The History of Author: Michael S. Casey Professor of Humanities at Graceland University in Iowa Publisher: Greenwood Foundation, UK Year of publication: 2013 Translation Department

The book is a series of Greenwood›s history of mod- ern nations, written by Michael Kasey, Professor of Human Sciences at University of Graceland, Iowa, a Ph.D. in philosophy, widely written in military his- tory, and co-author of the Korean War Teaching: A Defense Review Group, the Teacher Handbook, and as a member between Kuwait and the United States, has helped plan to reconstruct the post-war national defense of Kuwait and Kuwaiti defense leaders.

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Advisory Board John T. Alexander: Professor of History and Russian and European Studies, University of Kansas George W. Littlefield: An honorary professor of American history, University of Texas at Austin John F. Lombardy: Professor of History, University of Florida

Timeline of Historical Events

ca. 3000–2000 B.C.E. Military and commercial activities ca. 1783 Kuwait’s fleet defeats the Bani Kaab in a naval by various Mesopo- tamian empires pass through Kuwait battle, fending off invasion ca. 2300 B.C.E. Kuwait is part of the civilization centered 1859 Sabah II becomes and rules until 1866 on in present-day 1866 Abdullah II becomes sheikh and rules until 1892 ca. 600–300 B.C.E. Greek trading post established on 1892 Mohamed becomes sheikh and rules until assas- Kuwait’s Faylakha Island, known to the Greeks as Icaros sinated in 1896 610 c.e. Prophet Mohamed founds , which spreads 1896 Mubarak (Mubarak the Great) assassinates his rapidly ca. 1613 Migrant fishing village established at brother, becomes sheikh, and rules until 1915 Kuwait 1897 The recognizes Mubarak the ca. 1650 Drought forces Bedouin families, later known as Great as the provincial subgovernor of Kuwait the Bani Utub, to migrate from in Central Arabia; 1899 January 23: Memorandum between Mubarak the the Al-Sabah family is among the immigrants Great and Great Britain recognizes Kuwait’s sovereignty ca. 1672–1680 Sheikh Barrak bin Ghurair of the Bani 1913 Anglo-Ottoman Convention Khalid tribe builds a small fort at Kuwait 1914 Small desalinization plant built ca. 1710 The Bani Utub, including the Al-Sabah family, settle in Kuwait 1914–1918 First World War; Great Britain recognizes Kuwait’s inde- pendence from the Ottoman Empire 1756 Sabah bin Jaber (Sabah I) elected sheikh of Kuwait, founds the Al-Sabah dynasty and rules until 1762; Ku- 1915 Jaber II becomes sheikh and rules until 1917 wait is a vassal state to the Ottoman Empire 1916 The Great Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire 1762 Abdullah I becomes sheikh and rules until 1814 1917 Salem becomes sheikh and rules until 1921 ca. 1766 Al-Khalifa and Al-Jalahima begin to depart Ku- 1920 Ikhwan invasion and battle of Jahra (“Red Fort”) wait, leav- ing Al-Sabah family in control 1921 Ahmad al Jaber becomes sheikh and rules until 1773–1775 Plague strikes Kuwait 1950 1775 Kuwait’s first contact with the 1922 Uqair Protocol; Neutral Zone established with Sau- through the British East Company di Arabia

2 Issue 1 November 2019 The History of Kuwait 1934 Kuwait Oil Company receives oil concession, be- 1966 Kuwait and set borders, drop the Neu- gins ex- ploration tral Zone, and create the Divided Zone; agree to split oil The “Destructive Year”; rain destroys many of Kuwait’s rev- enues equally in the jointly held territory mud homes 1973 OPEC oil embargo causes steep increase in global 1936 First exploratory oil well drilled in Kuwait prices; Kuwait’s oil revenue spikes 1938 Majlis Movement advocates for popular political 1976 Kuwaiti government nationalizes the oil industry repre- sentation in Kuwait’s government (for ac- counting purposes, retroactive to 1975) First oil struck in Burgan field in Kuwait 1977 Jaber III becomes emir and rules until 2006 1939–1945 Second World War; prevents development of 1979 Radical Shiite cleric Ayatollah Khomeini leads Ira- Kuwaiti oil fields nian revolution, overthrows the Shah of , and estab- 1946 Kuwait’s petroleum industry begins pumping oil lishes an Islamic theocracy that threatens Sunni Kuwait and sells it overseas; oil revenues continue to grow annu- 1980 Kuwait Petroleum Corporation (KPC) founded; oil ally; Kuwait begins to develop as a welfare state indus- try restructured beginning in 1981 1950 Abdullah al Salem (Abdullah III) becomes sheikh 1980–1988 Iran- War; Kuwait supports Iraq and rules until 1965 1981 Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) organized A massive, modern desalinization plant is built to pro- 1982 Souk al-Manakh stock market crash vide fresh water; other plants follow 1983 Iran attacks Kuwaiti-flagged shipping and oil rigs in 1960 Kuwait National Petroleum Company (KNPC) retal- iation for Kuwait’s support of Iraq; Iran encourages founded OPEC forms; Kuwait is a founding member na- Shiite unrest and terrorist activities inside Kuwait tion 1984 GCC’s Peninsula Shield defensive force established 1961 Kuwait Fund for Arab Economic Development 1985 Thousands of foreign workers, primarily Shiites, are (KFAED) created ex- pelled from Kuwait to quell internal unrest June 19: Kuwait becomes an independent emirate; Sheikh 1987 May: In response to Iranian attacks, Kuwaiti oil Abdullah III becomes Kuwait’s first emir tankers are reflagged and the U.S. Navy provides convoy July 20: Despite an Iraqi protest, Kuwait joins the Arab protec- tion in Arabian Gulf League 1990 August 2: Iraq invades and occupies Kuwait, start- 1962 November 11: Kuwait’s first constitution ratified by ing First ; Emir Jaber III takes exile in Saudi Emir Abdullah III Arabia; Security Council Resolution 660 1963 January 23: Popular election for Kuwait’s first Na- calls for immediate Iraqi withdrawal; U.S. forces soon tional Assembly deploy to Saudi Arabia to prevent Iraqi invasion; Opera- January 29: First National Assembly convenes May 14: tion Desert Shield begins Kuwait joins the United Nations 1991 January 17: Operation Desert Storm begins libera- 1965 Sabah III becomes emir and rules until 1977 tion of Kuwait

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February 27: Kuwait liberated by the U.S.-led coalition March 14: Martial law is in effect inside Kuwait; Jaber III Contents returns from exile October: Kuwait signs 10-year defense pact with the The book consists of 9 chapters United States 1- The Land and People of Kuwait 2003 March 19: Operation Iraqi Freedom, later called the 2- Desert Origins and Settlement (ca. 3000 B.C.E.–1756 Sec- ond Gulf War, invades Iraq and soon topples Sad- c.e.) dam Hussein 3- Desert Sheikhdom (1756–1899) April 9: U.S. occupation of Iraq begins 4- British Protectorate (1899–1961) 2006 January 15: Saad becomes emir, rules briefly un- til, due to ill health, he abdicates and is simultaneously 5- Independence and Nationhood (1961–1990) deposed by the National Assembly on January 24, 2006 6- Invasion and Occupation (1990–1991) January 29: Sabah IV becomes emir 7- Liberation (1991) April 4: Kuwaiti women vote for the first time in munici- 8- Reconstruction (1992–1999) pal elections 9- Kuwait Today (2000–)

4 Issue 1 November 2019 The History of Kuwait In 1990, Kuwait was the center of world attention, after Chapter One the year of invasion by the forces of the late Iraqi Presi- The Land and People of Kuwait dent , then expelled a US-led military The State of Kuwait is located in the far corner of the alliance the Iraqi invaders, and quickly returned Kuwait Arabian Gulf, the Kingdom of Government by a small to its legitimate owners. but incredibly rich Arab family, the Al Sabah death, and Geographical location modern Kuwait has great geographical and regional sig- Kuwait›s location is the first key to its importance in the nificance. world, with only the strategic head of the Gulf in the The people of Kuwait are of Saharan origin, but the long- heart of the Middle East, a location in the north-west term benefit of stability in an isolated and relatively good corner, an Arab border and a definition of the Iraqi state, place that meets their modest needs must be attractive, and other land borders of less than 150 land reaches because, once there, they have arrived in Kuwait. Saudi Arabia. Kuwait is now one of the world’s most powerful oil states, Kuwait has many islands, the coast is about 300 miles from the twentieth century, the enormous oil reserves in long, and the Gulf of Kuwait is one of the finest natural Kuwait have achieved the decisive influence of the NTA, ports in the Arabian Gulf region, and Kuwait›s maritime and this oil revolution has been a major cause of Kuwait’s borders have always been a hidden issue and have some- economy in some countries of the world. times reached the armed conflict, and after the end of the Iran Iraq Markaz Hudud al Abdali Boubyan Qasr as Sabiyah Faylaka KUWAIT Ash Shuwaykh Persiah Mina al Ahmadi Gulf Ash Shuaybah Mina Abd Allah

Qaruh Al Wafrah SAUDI An Nuwaysib Umm Al ARABIA Maradim

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last Gulf War the border problem ended. Kuwait›s arable Kuwait must import almost all other foodstuffs required land area is approximately 1%, a limited geographical to meet the growing population’s needs. Other major factor that has had a significant impact on the develop- imports include vehicles and repair parts, clothing, and ment of Kuwait and its people. construction materials, especially wood. Kuwait lacks the On the western side of Kuwait, freshwater was discov- resources and the industrial capacity to meet these needs ered underground, and there is a small deep under- domestically, and no society can continue for long with- ground aquifer to the south, but the water it provides is out them. The primary providers of these essential ma- very salty and requires expensive treatment. terials are the United States, Germany, Japan, the United Although the underground reservoir for irrigation is Kingdom, Saudi Arabia, Italy, France, and . not sufficient on a large scale, it is vital to meet Kuwait›s Kuwait imports almost all other foodstuffs required to drinking water needs adequately and other commer- meet the growing population’s needs. Other major im- cial requirements, and before the discovery, much of ports include vehicles and repair parts, clothing, and Kuwait›s water had to be imported. construction materials, especially wood. Kuwait lacks the The weather of Kuwait is similar not only to its neighbors, resources and the industrial capacity to meet these needs but to almost every country across the Sahara geographi- domestically, and no society can continue for long with- cal band. Kuwait is officially the fourth-hottest nation on out them. The primary providers of these essential ma- Earth, Temperatures during the summer can exceed 120°F terials are the United States, Germany, Japan, the United Kingdom, Saudi Arabia, Italy, France, and China. Economy People The , the local currency, was created at in- dependence in 1961 to replace the Indian , which Practically all Kuwaiti citizens are ethnically Arab by had been the coin of the realm. The dinar is issued by the birth, meaning they can trace their origins back to the and now, almost every year, is before the advent of Islam. The offi- rated as one of the highest-valued monetary units in the cial language of the country is , though English world. The strength of Kuwait’s currency is a clear reflec- is widely understood, especially in the major business tion of Kuwait’s entire economy. The solid foundation on and population centers. Arabic belongs to the Hamito- which both are based is petroleum. Semitic family of languages, which is related to Hebrew, Aramaic, and Ethiopian, among others. Spoken Arabic Kuwait controls approximately 10 percent of the world’s is colloquial, the spoken dialect of Kuwait is essentially known oil reserves. Proven oil reserves are slightly less Arabian Peninsular in other words, Arabic as spoken in than 100 million barrels, and proven natural gas reserves Saudi Arabia, but is significantly different are 1.5 trillion cubic meters. Estimates of Kuwait’s hold- from the dialects spoken in, say, Syria, Egypt, or Algeria. ings, rather than proven reserves, run even higher. All citizens of Kuwait embrace Islam, while many non- Not surprisingly, Kuwait’s economy is entirely focused on citizens within Kuwait are also , but people in the petroleum industry. Oil makes up more than 60 percent other regions such as South Asia bring with them a range of Kuwait’s gross domestic product (GDP). In addition to of other religious beliefs. the United States, Kuwaiti oil is purchased primarily by Ja- pan, South Korea, Sin- Singapore, and Taiwan. Of note, all Partly as a result of the negative effects of the Iraqi occupa- are major allies and trading partners of the United States. tion on older Kuwaitis and partly as a result of a baby boom since the Gulf War, Kuwait’s population is rather young, The Other than petroleum and natural gas, the only natural median age of the population is in the mid-twenties. resources found in significant quantities in Kuwait are fish and shrimp, but even these once-thriving local in- All Kuwaiti citizens, girls as well as boys, receive com- dustries are now relatively small in scale. Kuwait’s natural pulsory free education through high school. If a citizen pearling industry once led the world and brought with chooses to pursue a college degree, he or she can do so it incredible wealth for Kuwaiti businessmen, but the for free, either in Kuwait or outside the country. development of cultured pearls in Japan shattered that The literacy rate in Kuwait, for males and females alike, dominance before the Second World War. exceeds 80 percent, which is well above the norm found among Muslim nations. Supported by a comprehensive

6 Issue 1 November 2019 The History of Kuwait national health care program, life expectancies for Ku- tion in Kuwait, but it is clear that the area was home to waiti men and women are in the upper seventies and a series of different peoples over the millennia. Some of continue to rise slowly. those migrants came to conduct trade with the many im- Political Structure perial cities of ancient Iraq and Iran. Kuwait’s governmental structure is a form of constitu- Other migrants came for opportunities for prosperity tional monarchy, Where the small nation was a heredi- offered by the pearling industry, which was centered on tary emirate. the Arabian Gulf for centuries. Some, like the family Kuwait’s ruling dynasty comes from the Al-Sabah fam- groups of Bedouin nomads who created the Kuwait we ily, which helped found the country in the middle of the see today, would be driven from their homes by harsh eighteenth century, during this long period of Al-Sabah weather, stopping where they did because of the respite rule, Kuwait has vacillated politically between quasi-in- that the grazing lands of Kuwait provided to their herds dependence, being a part of the Ottoman Empire, and of camels, goats, and sheep. being a protectorate of the British Empire. For centuries, Kuwait’s rulers have had to find a balance between inde- Ancient Inhabitants pendence and security. (ca. 3000–300 B.C.E.) designs of hostile neighbors have often caused Kuwait to It is likely that some areas of present-day Kuwait have seek protection where it could be had. Upon receiving never served as a home to humans; other parts, in par- official independence from Great Britain in 1961, a new ticular, Faylakha Island, have provided shelter or sanctu- constitution delineated the political structure of the new ary to a long list of travelers, traders, and troops. Directly national political structure that has continued to slowly offshore in Kuwait Bay, Faylakha Island is an obvious evolve Over time. stopping point for those The is the official head of state, along sailing the upper reaches of the Arabian Gulf. Numerous with the Prime Minister appointed by the Emir, who su- archaeological artifacts can be found on Faylakha Island pervises the executive authority of the government, and that can be dated as far back as the third millennium the Crown Prince is the apparent heir. B.C.E., though proof of human habitation begins to fade The Council of Ministers shall advise the Amir and the away again sometime around 1000 B.C.E. Prime Minister, the National Assembly or the Council of There are few documents to shed light on ancient Kuwait Nation. The Supreme Court of Appeal presides over the that tell little about those ancient sects, known by deci- government’s judicial branch, a multi-tiered system that phering clay tablets in archaeological forms or wedge- handles everything from the Traffic Court to the appeal shaped writing invented in ancient . of death sentences. So far there are no written records of life on Failaka. Civil law (being secular while Kuwait has a system by Thousands of clay tablets exist but have not yet been de- its very nature), civil laws governing the personal con- ciphered, so it is possible to know much about the island duct of both men and women are based on Islamic law. and its potential location in the trading empires in and Although the Kuwaiti government is highly centralized, around Bad Mesopotamia. Greek sailors and major busi- there are five internal administrative governorates that ness interests later established a small commercial colony function primarily as regional governments. on the island of Failaka, leaving these engraved stones that helped Greek archaeologists behind them to study Chapter 2 the island’s history during this era. Following the Hellenization of Faylakha Island and most of Desert Origins and Settlement the Fertile Crescent by Alexander’s armies, Greek became (ca. 3000 B.C.E.–1756 C.E.) the primary language of the commercial class, so it was probably also the language of the merchants on Faylakha Kuwait is a small slice of the area of the world sometimes Island. Thus, the Greek cultural artifacts found in Kuwait referred to as the “cradle of civilization.” It is not known do not necessarily indicate they were left behind by ethnic for sure how far back into prehistory to situate civiliza-

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Greeks. It is quite possible that Greek-speaking or the “Aiyam al Juhl”, or Days of Ignorance meaning not Persians might well have deposited some of the numerous only ignorance of the One True God, Allah, but also ig- archaeological treasures in Kuwait over the centuries. norance of history in general. After Alexander’s untimely death, control of Faylakha Islam Island likely fell to the Seleucids, the dynasty that inher- The arrival of Islam had an immediate and profound im- ited those parts of Alexander’s conquests based in Per- pact on the Bedouin. Islam did not merely govern the sia. Since the rest of Mesopotamia enjoyed almost two relationship between an individual and God, it also pro- hundred years of peace and prosperity that accompanied scribed the relationships in and among the entire com- this Hellenization, it is likely that conditions on Faylakha munity. The religious law of Islam, Shariah, governed Island were also amenable. the interactions be- tween Muslim men and women, and Muslims with non-Muslims. Desert Nomads before the migration to Kuwait would begin. The first (300 B.C.E.–ca. 1650 C.E.) Kuwaitis no doubt harbored many doubts about their uncertain future, but none whatsoever about their reli- The large plateau located in the very heart of the Arabian gious convictions. Peninsula is known as the “Najd”, This region of the cen- tral Arabian highlands has been the home of a nomadic Within this socio-religious context, relations were people of Arabic origin called the Baduwin or Bedouin, grouped by a common name of a common clan and fall more commonly in the West. somewhere in a broader tribal structure. One example is the Al-Sabah, a Bedouin family that has helped establish In general usage, the word Arab applies to the people and rule Kuwait since then. who lived on the Arabian Peninsula prior to the arrival of Islam, the Bedouin name is more restrictive because it The traditional Sabah family home was Hadar in the Afaj indicates the presence of an Arab from the Sahara, this region of central Arabia. Al-Sabah was a group in the is an appropriate descriptive term because it is one of the Unaizah group, a major subsidiary of the Amarat tribe, most widespread terms. which was a component, an aristocratic Islamic group that enjoyed Sharif status. Little is known about central Arabia prior to the coming of Islam, and it is likely to stay that way unless or until Migration (ca. 1650–ca. 1710) something is discovered in an archaeological exploration. In 1613, a small fishing village was established in what is the lack of written records prevents in-depth knowledge. now Kuwait. The modest collection of tents and huts was What can be said is that the inhabitants of the area were known as Qurain, from qarn, the Arabic word for hill. nomadic, organized tribally, and their economy has been The few European sailors who plied the Arabian Gulf about livestock raising with low level of agriculture and were aware of the village, listing it as Grane on maps small crafts for centuries. drawn in the middle of the seventeenth century. The Bedouin were attacking convoys that moved around The fishermen and their families of Qurain were mem- and through the Arab region carrying wealth such as bers of the tribe, which controlled eastern spices and silk from remote areas such as China, and Arabia and the coastline from Qatar practically to Bas- kept the specific military efforts of the existing forces, rah. Technically, the of the Bani Khalid were whether Persian, Romanian or Ethiopian, piracy at an the first rulers of Kuwait, but there is little evidence that acceptable level, and this theft never transferred enor- many of them ever even visited the locale, let alone lived mous wealth to the Bedouin. there for any length of time. Real Bedouin herding was not an option but a survival Beginning in the late seventeenth century, Central Ara- strategy, as they lived in an environment where vegeta- bia witnessed a severe drought, which made it impossible tion represented less than 10% of the population. to use the already scarce agricultural areas. Insufficient prehistoric times. Oral history was proudly passed on to rainfall has long been a fact of life for these Sahrawi no- each succeeding generation, but few written records were mads, but they have not rushed to grasp this natural ob- kept. Indeed, the Bedouin refer to pre- Islamic times as stacle.

8 Issue 1 November 2019 The History of Kuwait sailed to India and Madagascar, where they returned Chapter 3 with valuable goods of wood, spices, and slaves. Desert Sheikhdom (1756–1899) Wood was imported to build Kuwaiti ships from India. It is commonly agreed that Sabah bin Jaber, the head of Kuwaiti ships were traveling to learn about the civiliza- his family, was elected sheikh of the settlement of Ku- tion, culture and commercial work of other countries wait, the first in the family to be so recognized. There is then visited ports along the Arabian Gulf, then moved to some doubt over the exact date of his election, as both Zanzibar and Karachi Pakistan, when ships returned to 1752 and 1756 have been recorded. There is no ques- Kuwait after about 7 months carrying spices, cloth, and tion, however, that Sheikh Sabah’s credentials for the Kuwait trees after about mangroves and rice. post were solid, and this new position was in line with the power- and a profit-sharing deal struck decades be- Threat of Invasion fore by Kuwait’s leading families. While written records do not exist to confirm such The succession of Sheikh Sabah I certainly supported popular accounts, local legends, passed on by oral tradi- the leading business interests in the booming coastal tion from generation to generation, shed light on these city. turbulent early years in the development of Kuwait. For His election to this position distinguishes the first example, Kuwaiti legends tell of perhaps the first armed morning from each other ruler’s closeness to the re- conflict faced by the new settlers. Nearby, across the Ara- gion, especially the rulers who reached the authority by bian Gulf. resentment from others by force, and each subsequent The Al-Nassar were an Arab people of the Bani Kaab Kuwaiti leader will follow Sabah’s tradition of being tribe, which had taken up residence in the Arabistan re- ruled with caution, seeking to get local political sup- gion of Persia (now Iran). The Bani Kaab traced their port, and depending on diplomacy to the maximum line to a sharif tribe originally from Central Arabia, extent possible internationally. essentially making them former neighbors of the Bani Traditional Kuwaiti accounts at the time point out spe- Utub. Just as the new Kuwaiti Bedouin had migrated, the cifically that the Islamic Sharia helped Sabah to run the Bani Kaab had done so years before, making their new city and its visitors, along with the support of the first capital in Dawraq, a city east of Basrah. judge in Kuwait, where the tenure of Ibn Fayrouz’s po- A senior member of al-Nassar’s family sought to marry a sition for secure commercial traffic coincided with the woman in the morning family called Maryam, and soon first morning era. a dispute arose, as the al-Sabah family refused to show Kuwait was a road through which commercial convoys the hijacker, and members of al-Nassar’s family sent a were passing, and ships could always travel between small fleet of ships to Kuwait to transport the woman by India and Europe through , but the journey was force, and the people of Kuwait were about to face the long and expensive, in addition to exposure to enemy first serious attack on their new country. naval forces and pirate attacks, as ships heading to the Whether these legends are true or not, it is clear that east deposit commercial goods in Suez, and from there Sheikh Abdullah spared no effort in arming and expand- they travel to Alexandria by camel, where they can be ing the Kuwaiti fleet against Bani Kaab, and by 1779 the loaded on board a ship again for transport to Europe. Kuwaiti fleet was strong enough to deter the attack of The Ottomans banned 1779, but in the year of secu- Bani Kaab. rity this was the way of Christian merchants to do their During Abdullah’s first era, Kuwait flourished commer- work in Suez, these conditions of merchants made the cially, and this prosperity for Kuwait was somewhat sur- convoys from Kuwait/Basra to Aleppo safe the Euro- prising, because Basra was the main seaport in the upper peans. Arabian Gulf, and generally the worse the night work The new ships, financed by rich Kuwaiti returnees, of Basra was good for Kuwait, Between 1750 and 1850, started to practice round-trade for the benefit of all, work was bad in Basra, where it faced many problems, Kuwaiti-made sailboats participated in the pearl fishing including the spread of plague disease in 1773. in the summer months, and in winter the same crews

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Contact with the British Empire Economic Development the Kuwaitis had their first significant exposure to the Fortunately for the general public in Kuwait, the Al Sa- Brit- ish Empire. In 1776, the British East India Com- bah family was close to the ruling family in other gen- pany established several new factory/trading posts along erous places, where gifts of food and other goods were the Arabian Gulf. When it came to the Arabian Gulf, given, relative in part as a result of the Islamic teachings Great Britain was less interested in gaining control than that encouraged charity to the poor. This practice gave enforcing stability. Kuwait’s rulers more daily control over the population, The sea lines of communications from Great Britain’s in- which quickly became dependent on leaflets. valuable imperial holdings in India to the Red Sea and, In these circumstances, it is not surprising that modern later, the Suez Canal were of paramount importance in Kuwait is developing into the largest state of prosperity British strategic calculations. British goals, then, were on this planet, as Abdullah I succeeded his son Jaber I, twofold. First, Great Britain sought to ensure that an in- who ruled for 1814, and Sheikh Sabah II, Jaber I, in 1859, imical foreign power could not use the Arabian Gulf as a long until a year, although the period 1866 and ruled un- base for threatening those lines of communications. Sec- til his death in 1859 was shorter, but the second morning ond, it was critical that local powers in the region never the fourth ruler was still in more than a century of early gain enough military strength to threaten those British control over Kuwait. At that time, all Kuwaitis enjoyed lines of communications on their own. stability and prosperity, especially the merchant class. During this period, British mail and diplomatic dispatch- es to and from the Orient were regularly carried through the Arabian Gulf via the port at Bas- rah. At the time, Chapter 4 the British was struggling through British Protectorate (1899–1961) the empire-building process, and the reliable flow of mail was imperative to British success in and around India. At the turn of the twentieth century, a growing and its immediate environs held around fifty thou- In 1775, the plague again struck Basrah, and Persian sand settled inhabitants. As a rule, these people lived as forces along with Arab allies took advantage of the port’s they had always lived. Relative to their nomadic kinfolk, weakness to launch their assault on the city. To keep their everyday life was stable, and Al-Sabah rule was gen- the mail moving, the British East India Company made erally benign, On the other hand, except for the major overtures directly to the sheikh, who responded with in- merchant families, few Kuwaitis were growing- rich. terest. Shortly thereafter, British mail was routed through the port of Kuwait until 1779. After 1900, when British naval authority had all but eliminated slave running as a profitable activity for mer- This stay in Kuwait afforded the British a unique opportunity chant vessels, the profits from pearling became all the to consider future relations with Kuwait. In 1776, the British more attractive. In 1906 Kuwait was known to have pos- considered stationing an agent, for political and commercial sessed 461 boats that employed over nine thousand men purposes, in Kuwait. Since none was avail- able, however, in the pearl trade. Along with the families they support- they decided to utilize British naval officers whenever Royal ed, these pearl fishermen represented about a third of Navy or company ships put into Kuwait’s harbor. Kuwait’s population at the time. As had his father before him, Sheikh Abdullah I strug- Over the course of the next several decades, the pearl gled to maintain a policy of scrupulous neutrality. When trade in Kuwait would continue to expand. At its height, war broke out between Great Britain and France in the the pearl trade employed as many as fifteen thousand late 1770s, however, Abdullah I was hard-pressed to stay Kuwaitis as crew members and divers on at least seven uncommitted to one side or the other. Until recently, hundred vessels, both large and small. France had maintained its factory-fort in Persia, directly across the Arabian Gulf. It was equally important to the With Japanese and Australians discovering scientific French as to the British that the critical lines of com- ways of producing cultured pearls in the late 19th centu- munications from Europe to India remain open for their ry, which caused the collapse of the natural pearl market, purposes, but closed to their adversary. which coincided with the collapse of the Kuwaiti econo-

10 Issue 1 November 2019 The History of Kuwait my based on pearl trade, and forced the Kuwaiti people wait’s foreign policy and national defense. to depend on Britain in the energy field. The first test of Kuwait’s defense and British determina- tion came from a former Ottoman territory, Saudi Arabia, Anglo-Ottoman Convention under its de facto ruler, Ibn Saud, who worked hard to In 1913, perhaps wishing to appease the Turks in the hope strengthen his control over the entire Arabian Peninsula. that this would keep the Germans out of the Arabian Gulf, the British formally negotiated and approved the Anglo-Ot- Uqair Protocol toman Convention. Sheikh Mubarak was displeased since the British moved quickly to prevent additional econom- the convention partially ceded his hard-won autonomy ic and political disruption from occurring as a result of from the Ottoman Empire while marking the limits to the growing enmity between Kuwait and Saudi Arabia. Sir defense that the British Empire would provide to him. The , the regional high commissioner of imperial convention, to which Kuwait was by no means a signatory. affairs, chaired a convention to resolve the underlying In particular, the agreement provides for the indepen- border problems between the Arabian Najd on one hand, dent judiciary and the convert of Kuwait’s Sheikh from and both Kuwait and Iraq on the other. In November the post of governor or administrative subordinate to the 1922, a meeting was convened at Uqair to establish the governor of the province in , and the agreement final boundaries between Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Iraq. led to the appointment of the Ottomans as an agent in Kuwait was represented by the British resident politi- Kuwait, a step which was avoided by the sheikhs in the cal agent in Kuwait City, a lowly major. The disparity in morning for 150 years. rank among these participants was a clear sign, to the the Kuwaitis finally received official written confirmation Al-Sabah at least. that Sheikh Mubarak’s political authority extended a full 80 In 1923, Sheikh Ahmad requested in writing that the kilometers from Kuwait City. The map accompanying the British formally and finally delineate Kuwait’s border convention used a red circle to indicate this zone, which with Iraq. It was understood by British authorities that included the major Kuwaiti islands of Bubiyan, Faylakha, the Kuwaitis expected the border to be set consistent and Warbah, as well as several more of the smaller islets. with the earlier “green line” of the Anglo-Ottoman Con- A circle marked by a green line was used to delineate an ad- vention. Within weeks, the British, by way of a memo- ditional 100-kilometer radius within which Mubarak could randum to their resident political agent in Kuwait. collect tariffs and taxes, a considerable financial boon to the In 1932, the kingdom of Iraq became completely inde- Al-Sabah family fortunes. Moreover, Kuwait for a position pendent from post- Ottoman and applied for as an “autonomous district” under Ottoman “”— membership in the League of Nations. The Iraqi govern- both phrases having been carefully selected by the British ment once more agreed to the established border with for their inherent ambiguity—was a tacit sign that the Ot- Kuwait since that boundary was included in the docu- tomans would not interfere in Kuwait’s affairs domestically mentation that Iraq submitted to the League of Nations or internationally. This was a significant concession on the as part of its application process. While to the Kuwaitis part of the Ottomans, which should have pleased Mubarak the issue was now closed, many subsequent Iraqi leaders, deeply. If it did, however, he kept it largely to himself. including Saddam Hussein, would be unwilling to con- cede Iraq’s claim to the territory of Kuwait. Ikhwan Invasion Following the collapse of the Ottomans, the British for- Economic Developments malized the disintegration of that empire by officially re- Global economic depression had a powerful negative im- pudiating the tenets of the Anglo-Ottoman Convention pact on Kuwait’s economy starting in the later 1920s. At as they applied to Kuwait. There was no longer any pre- its height, Kuwait’s pearling industry led the world, regu- tense of imperial ties; Great Britain recognized Kuwait as larly sending out between 750 and 800 vessels to meet an independent sheikdom in its own right. Great Britain the world’s need for pearls. Unfortunately, in the middle again reiterated its continuing commitment to see to Ku- of a depression, luxuries like pearls are the first casualties

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of belt-tightening everywhere. The Kuwaiti pearl indus- social welfare system became so widespread that many try quickly began to languish. Kuwaiti citizens found it better not to work on the table. A Kuwaiti central bank was established in 1959, and the Impact of Oil regulation of the banking system became a key function Kuwait’s economy prior to the exploitation of oil was of the new institution. Kuwait’s slowly bloating bureau- primarily seminomadic in nature, based on agriculture, cracy responded with new Kuwaiti laws borrowed from fish, pearls, and the caravan trade. By the 1930s, however, other countries where they had proven effective. In most these activities collectively were barely allowing a subsis- cases, these regulations were a step forward, but there tence existence for many Kuwaitis. The pearl trade was was no guarantee that every foreign regulation, however crushed by the glut of cultured pearls on the market. The effective it had been elsewhere, would readily translate once-lucrative caravan trade had been severely restricted to Kuwait’s dynamic business environment. The failure by allied blockades during the First World War. to adequately and effectively regulate speculation in Ku- wait’s volatile stock market, for example, would eventu- The new, jointly held firm was called the Kuwait Oil Com- ally prove nearly catastrophic to the Kuwaiti pany (KOC). Active oil exploration inside Kuwait began almost immediately, and survey teams scoured Kuwait throughout 1935. By 1936, KOC was prepared to sink its Chapter 5 first well. Drilling equipment and personnel were quickly landed and soon began drilling in the Bahrah field to the Independence and Nationhood north of Kazma. No oil was found in the first well, but a (1961–1990) second well nearby struck oil in 1938. KOC had located On June 19, 1971, Kuwait became an independent state one of the largest and most lucrative oil fields in the world. after it broke away from British control, which was con- After the end of World War II in 1946, the oil company trolled because of its huge oil wealth, and subsequently and Sheikh Ahmed were jointly prepared to pump as established a new national currency with a local banking much oil as possible quickly, build pipelines and other oil system, the Kuwaiti dinar, and Kuwait recognized a sov- processing facilities quickly, and start commercial export ereign state by a group of Arab League countries. security, then the oil production doubled the intensity The government became constitutional monarchy on of the upturn of the 1946th June first year to the second. November 11, 1962, the new constitution was ratified by 5.9 million barrels were produced in 1946, and over 16 a specialized constituent assembly and the first session million barrels were pumped in 1947. At least seven of the National Assembly of the new Kuwaiti nation was more oil fields would be located and drilled before oil held. production would finally peak in 1972. Sheikh Abdullah succeeded in founding a constitution By 1953, Kuwait had become the largest producer of oil in that included many specific laws, the most prominent of the Arabian Gulf. Indeed, the oil industry had grown so which was that Islam is the official religion, and the main large so rapidly, a new city, Ahmadi, named after Sheikh source of legislation is the Islamic Sharia, and Kuwait is Ahmad, had to be erected to house the petroleum com- an independent and Islamic Arab country. panies’ many workers. While these boom times brought The constitution imposed instructions on citizens to money, foreign workers, and hopeful immigrants to Ku- abide by them, including the immediate payment of wait, the tiny state was ill-prepared to expand in areas taxes, respect of public order and public morals, contri- other than petroleum. bution to the defense of the homeland, and the number As oil contributed to the final result of the country, con- of cabinet members reached 15 members of the Sabbah tributions from other economic sectors continued to de- family. cline, Kuwait was not able to struggle to meet his needs Kuwait continued to advance and flourish until August for sufficient cause of fishing, pasture or agriculture, when 2, when the Iraqi army launched an attack on Kuwait. a paid-up job was high, or somewhere in the oil indus- The military operation lasted two days and ended with try was within the reach of the Government, the Kuwaiti Iraq›s seizure of Kuwait, forming a formal government

12 Issue 1 November 2019 The History of Kuwait headed by Colonel Alaa Hussein between August 4 and policy, as it exceeded its oil production and drowned the August 8 under the name of «», de- international market, which harmed the Iraqi economy. claring Kuwait›s annexation of Iraq and the cancellation Iraq exploited that Kuwait owed it about $13 billion in of all international embassies in Kuwait in August 1990. return for its protection from Iran, and declared at the Kuwait, at that time, reported to the United States to de- Arab League summit in May 1990 that the loans it gave mand the US-made «Stinger» missiles, yet, the US fear to Kuwait were only partial payments for protection from of the missiles› fall in the wrong hands prevented them Iran, and Saddam Hussein accused Kuwait of stealing oil from missile launchers to Kuwait. and land revenues, and conspiring with the United States Iraq›s occupation of Kuwait remained for 7 months be- and Israel against Iraq. fore it ended on 26 February 1991 with the liberation On the same day, Iraq›s first armored division started and independence of Kuwait after the Second Gulf War. redeployment south of Iraq at the borders with Kuwait, and in the absence of two weeks of useless discussions between the two parties, Egyptian President Hosni Chapter 6 Mubarak tried to mediate, as did Jordan, and both got Invasion and Occupation (1990–1991) a promise from Saddam Hussein that he will not invade Kuwait. On August 2, 1990, Iraqi infantry and armored forces On July 31, 1990, Kuwaitis and met face to face in invaded Kuwait. Initial Iraqi pronouncements claimed Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, to resolve their differences, while the invasion was intended to support a Kuwaitis people. about hundreds of thousands of Iraqi troops were de- Although there is no popular revolution in Kuwait, an ployed along the Kuwaiti border, and the delegation was Iraqi ruler was appointed as the ruler of Kuwait, and one led by Crown Prince and Prime Minister Sheikh Sabah week after the Iraqi invasion, Iraqi officials declared that al-Ahmad al-Jaber al-Sabah, and Kuwait confirmed its Kuwait became Iraqi, and the name of the southern part readiness to offer Iraq an additional $9 billion in addi- of Kuwait “Al-Kazma” was changed to the 19th governor- tion to $13 billion in loans, but negotiations failed. ate in Iraq. The talks eventually failed on August 1, 1990, and by midnight that day Iraqi commandos and infantry crossed Iraqi argument for invasion the Kuwaiti border in preparation for opening roads to As of August 1990, Iraq’s claim to land Kuwait and its the waves of tanks following the . people was a major topic of Iraq’s diplomacy and propa- ganda, for which Kuwait was always part of Iraq because Iraqi invasion the border between the two countries was not established Iraq began its invasion of Kuwait by about 120.000 sol- at that time after Kuwait gained its independence. diers, supported by about two thousand tanks and ar- The Iraqis based on the invasion of Kuwait on the fact mored vehicles, and the Iraqi air force seized the Kuwaiti that the British Ottoman agreement of 1913, which pro- air force, and the Iraqi commandoes controlled the Ku- vided for Kuwait’s independence, was not officially rati- waiti naval borders. fied, and despite the Iraqi president’s official approval of The main target of the Iraqi army was to destroy the Ku- Kuwait’s independence in 1932, Iraq said that the presi- waiti Armed Forces, control the prince, Crown Prince dent’s approval is not taken because he was a puppet of and other main ministers, and toward the fast missions Britain. and organized tactics of the Iraqi forces, the Kuwaiti at- Iraqi diplomats accused Kuwait of “slant drilling” that is, tackers retreated, and by 4:00 a.m. the next day, Iraq con- building oil wells just inside Kuwaiti territory that angled trolled Kuwait, and killed sheikh Fahd Al Ahmad, the down, across the border to steal oil from beneath Iraq, ruling family member, the prince›s younger brother. This is what the Iraqis considered a sufficient justification At 2:00 pm, Iraq completely controlled Kuwait, and re- for the war on Kuwait. deployed the Iraqi ground forces along the Saudi borders Iraq also accused Kuwait of violating OPEC›s internal in preparation for the next target, which is to control the

The History of Kuwait November 2019 Issue 1 13 Stratigic

Saudi oil fields and oil stations along the Arab Gulf. the Iraqi occupation forces, and carried out a number of The Kuwaiti government urgently asked the United Na- successful operations that provoked the madness of the tions to condemn the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, so that Iraqi forces and caused grave human and material losses. the Security Council would issue resolution No. 660, de- The Operation “Desert Storm” was the lifeline for Ku- manding an immediate withdrawal from Kuwait. wait and the restoration of its legitimate government. On Aug. 6, the U.N. Security Council passed resolution 661, which imposed economic sanctions on Iraq in the form of restrictions on financial and commercial transactions. At the beginning of its war with Iraq, Kuwait and other Chapter 7 Gulf Cooperation Council members hoped that their Liberation (1991) common military capabilities would be sufficient to deter neighbors› aggression, such as Iraq and Iran, in an opera- The United States of America has drawn up a plan to tion called «Desert Shield», and all Arab League countries keep Iraqi forces away from Kuwait in Operation Desert supported attempts to defeat the Iraqi aggression. Storm, with a standby plan in case Iraqi forces refuse to withdraw, which was represented in destroying Iraqi At that time, Kuwait had a small part of its financial re- forces, taking into consideration the minimum civilian sources after Iraq controlled oil, and Kuwait donated 16 casualties and maintaining Kuwait’s infrastructure. billion dollars of its remaining resources to the United States and 6 billion dollars to Egypt to cover the expenses The United States of America has drawn up a plan to of «Desert Shield» and «Desert Storm» operations. keep Iraqi forces away from Kuwait in Operation Desert Storm, with a standby plan in case Iraqi forces refuse The US naval forces besieged the Arabian Gulf by Secu- to withdraw, which was represented in destroying Iraqi rity Council resolution 661, and on August 17, the US forces, taking into consideration the minimum civilian navy ships intercepted three oil tankers raising the Iraqi casualties and maintaining Kuwait’s infrastructure. flag in a strong strike against Iraq. Bush ordered the army to return the Kuwaiti prince to The naval blockade that started during Operation Desert power and to eliminate the Iraqi Republican Guards as Shield and ended with Operation Desert Storm continued, a fighting force, in addition to destroying the repressive during which 13 countries offered more than two hundred tools of the Iraqi president Saddam Hussein like the au- warships to the alliance fleet in and around the Arab Gulf, thority services and the Iraqi intelligence service. which affected the national product of Iraq and fell to half, and closed its exports with no way to sell Kuwait oil, in ad- dition to the lack of logistic support for its forces. Future vision From August 4 to August 8, Iraq›s Alaa Hussein was the On the diplomatic level, the political front focused on ruler of Kuwait, and he was founded the Iraqi Baath Party building an alliance between several countries, topped the «Joint Arab Renaissance Party», then appointed a new by Britain and America, in addition to the Kingdom of ruler of Kuwait, the Iraqi Aziz Saleh Nouman, and held the Saudi Arabia, Egypt and Syria. position until February 27, 1991, at the moment when the During the period of the Iraqi occupation, Saddam Hus- coalition forces arrived in the center of Kuwait City. sein worked on explained the war against Israel and not By January 1991, after six months of occupation, Iraq Kuwait, exploiting that the United States of America is had almost complete control of Kuwait, the homes of the the leader of the coalition one of its biggest supporters. wealthy were arbitrarily confiscated and the property of On January 18, 1991, US President Bush issued an order the Kuwaiti people was documented in the name of Iraq. to transfer 40 thousand US soldiers from reserve to ac- The resistance to the Iraqi invasion tual service, whether in the army or the air force, as part as with any occupied country that refuses the invasion of the plan of forcing Iraq to leave Kuwait. formed a group of the Kuwaiti nation a resistance move- ment, including former military officers who helped in plan- Military plan ning and executing a number of successful strikes against The military plan for Operation Desert Storm included

14 Issue 1 November 2019 The History of Kuwait a number of phases, the first phase consisted of 25% of wait, which led to the leakage of millions of gallons of oil the coalition air force, with occasional flights to attack on the sand of the Kuwaiti Arab Gulf. a number of Iraqi targets daily, while the second phase The oil spill caused fires, the rise of pollution and the for- included “Long Range Attack”, consisting of long-range mation of black clouds in the sky of Kuwait, in addition missiles, such as Tomahawk, to hit important Iraqi tar- to the black rain due to the evaporation of petroleum gets, such as communication centers, airports, and air materials in the air, which caused the injury of a large defense forces. number of Kuwaiti citizens to acute respiratory diseases. The third phase was the coalition planes’ focus on hit- The war between the coalition forces and the Iraqi forces ting the Iraqi supplies and ammunition, in addition to resulted in the death of 113 Kuwaiti civilians and 118 destroying highways, railways, and bridges between Iraq Kuwaiti soldiers, in addition to 439 soldiers of different and Kuwait. nationalities from the coalition. “Desert Storm” 60 took part in Operation Desert Storm 60,000, 7,000 Kuwaiti soldiers, 20,000 from Saudi Arabia and 3,000 from the . The rest were Chapter 8 from Britain, France, Bahrain, , Syria, and Egypt. Reconstruction (1992–1999) The largest of the coalition forces, the commander of the coalition was the American general, Norman Schwarz- By the end of 1991, the atmosphere of war had stabilized, kopf, and the headquarters of the coalition in Riyadh, and more than 700 oil fires were extinguished by the Iraqis. Saudi Arabia in cooperation with General Khalid bin The country’s ability to defend and rebuild its sovereignty, Sultan bin Abdul Aziz Al Saud, a member of the Saudi as well as the social fabric of Kuwait, had to be repaired in royal family. a comprehensive reconstruction process. Country. The coalition forces were divided into two forces: “The Northern Joint Forces”, known as “JFCN”, and included Infrastructure the forces of Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Syria and Kuwait, and A survey of Kuwait’s oil infrastructure showed a grim the second force included the United States, Britain and reality for those planning to recover after the war in the rest of the countries. Kuwait as a result of coalition bombing, especially Iraqi The air alliance forces planned to prevent the Iraqi sup- sabotage, where oil pipelines were cut, pumping stations ply lines along the way from Baghdad to Kuwait City and demolished, refineries stripped of machinery, and nearly to restrict the Iraqi units, and at the same time, the dip- all oil-related physical assets were severely damaged. lomatic efforts are pressing Saddam Hussein to persuade The 700 oil fires were extinguished in several months at him to withdraw his forces from Kuwait in return for the a cost of more than $ 1 billion. The estimated cost of ad- coalition stop. ditional damage to the war to Kuwait’s oil facilities was estimated at more than $ 5 billion because once the oil Actual military operations infrastructure was restored, Kuwaitis took the opportu- The coalition forces launched massive offensive air raids nity to modernize many of the existing ones. in the early morning of January 17, 1991, and achieved While most of the money went to repairs and some paid a total victory for the coalition forces, after a number for improvement, new oil wells had to be drilled to replace of important Iraqi targets were hit, and after weeks of 19 old wells that were either completely destroyed, or after airstrikes, the forces began a ground offensive to destroy the engineering survey was considered irreparable. Iraqi forces, and on February 24, 1991, victory for Ku- Specific figures are hard to find, with the then Kuwaiti oil wait was achieved and Iraqi forces withdrew. minister announcing that $ 1.5 billion of the country’s bud- On the morning of February 27, 1991, the Kuwaiti flag get was spent to extinguish the fires.NBK estimated oil infra- was officially lifted in the center of Kuwait City, after 42 structure repairs at $ 6.5 billion until 1995. The same is true days of military operations by the coalition. In an at- when discussing the total costs of reconstruction. Kuwait. tempt to revenge, the withdrawing Iraqi forces opened Some estimates of all reconstruction, including oil, amount- the oil valves in the undamaged oil facilities all over Ku- ed to $ 100 billion, but few were between $ 20 billion and

The History of Kuwait November 2019 Issue 1 15 Stratigic

$ 25 billion, regardless of the final cost. The government’s new ministers in foreign and financial affairs. task was to determine where the money would come from. Kuwait had already used its cash reserves to help pay Social developments for government administration while in exile during the The Kuwaiti government has decided to reduce Kuwait’s Iraqi occupation, especially to cover war-related expens- dependence on foreigners, especially Palestinians and es for coalition partners in Kuwait. The solution was to others who cannot be counted on to remain loyal to their restore oil facilities and operate a gas pump to drive as countries in the event of another crisis such as the Iraqi much reconstruction as possible. crisis. Kuwait worked to refine about seven hundred thousand In March 1992, NBK estimated the total population of barrels and produced more than three hundred thousand the country at just over 1.1 million, which was nearly barrels per day in its three refineries in 1993 until the half of Kuwait’s pre-war population of 2.3 million. level of production rose to two million barrels per day. By 1993, oil was again nine-tenths of Kuwait’s exports, In 1992, the government allocated more than $ 8 million and the country’s economy showed a 35% growth rate to cover termination payments to non-Kuwaitis who lost their jobs during the Iraqi invasion. Exports exceeded $ 11 billion, and Kuwait spent more than $ 6.5 billion on food, construction, materials, equip- ment, personal cars, and clothing. National defense In 1992 Kuwait began planning to re-establish its na- Reconstruction of transport and communi- tional defense, signed defense agreements in 1991 with cations infrastructure the United States and Great Britain, then in 1992 with The transfer was a priority in the post-war reconstruc- France, and offered in the agreements a vital image of the tion phase, and Kuwait decided to make major repairs ports and the location of equipment and parts to Kuwait International Airport before it was ready to Spare parts in advance for the countries that contracted resume international flights, and was started in 1992. with them. The focus was on rebuilding roads in the city and south Based on defense agreements, the United States estab- of Kuwait, which made the state accelerate the restora- lished the Military Cooperative Office in Kuwait City to tion of contacts with industrial and marine facilities. manage foreign military sales of US agencies and track Repairs to most telecommunication cables were also defense-related sales from US commercial sources. completed by the end of 1992. By 1993, final repairs to the Kuwaiti air and naval bases Kuwait had four satellite stations linked to “Arabsat” and had taken place, and the Kuwaiti Defense Forces had a “Entelsat”, and the four satellites became ineffective af- defensive capability based on military equipment and ter the coalition attacks, and it took more than a year trained personnel to use them. to make these systems work completely, which means that the regional television signals and international tele- phone calls were disrupted in the meantime. Chapter 9 The entire Kuwaiti banking system came at the top of Kuwait Today (2000) the list of reforms, and in late 1991 Kuwait took steps to In the first years of the twenty-first century, there have mitigate the negative effects of what the war had done, been several major developments that affected Kuwait including a cash payment to every Kuwaiti family that and its people, the most important of which was the top- remained in the state during the Iraqi occupation. pling of Iraqi authority by US President George Bush in 2003. Political developments About local agriculture, Kuwait has invested much mon- Elections were held in Kuwait to choose a new ruler, and ey in expensive research expenditure, including long- Jaber III was settled in October 1992, which appointed term investment in water agriculture, where Kuwait has only 1% of arable land and a shortage of fresh water, so

16 Issue 1 November 2019 The History of Kuwait Kuwait imports most of its food from abroad. The main export partners in Kuwait, in descending or- Kuwait was also characterized by fiber optic cable linking der, are Japan, South Korea, the United States, Singapore, the country with Bahrain, Qatar and the United Arab and Taiwan. Emirates, as well as a wide range of satellite-based satel- Kuwait’s imports of food, clothing, and cars are mainly lite-link stations linking Kuwait to the world’s economic from the United States, Germany, and Japan, although and political capitals, including three satellite systems: the United Kingdom, Saudi Arabia, France, and China INTELSAT, an international satellite system (INMAR- have sent an increasing quantity of goods to Kuwait in SAT), one Arabsat station, 18 local radio stations and 13 recent years. local television stations. Society Economy In 2005, Kuwait’s population stood at more than 2.3 mil- The dynamic Kuwaiti economy continues to grow at an lion people, although about 1.3 million people do not impressive rate, with estimates ranging from 5 to 7% in have Kuwaiti nationality. recent years, and inflation estimated at 2% annually. The government annually invests a fixed amount of 8% of The 2006 estimates are approximately 2.9 million people, GDP, and annual purchasing power amounts to more the country’s 3.4% population growth rate does not ad- than $22,000 per person. equately reflect the country’s birth rate, because this fig- ure also includes many non-Kuwaitis who continue to Among the world’s highest employment is about 1.5 mil- flow into the country in search of work, generally male lion people, but about 80% of these workers are not Ku- females at about 3:2, infant mortality is below 1%, and waiti citizens, supported by the service industry, which life expectancy is 77 years, with males at 76 years and employs about 40% of the labor force, and the tourism females at 78 years. industry. Kuwaitis make up 45 percent of the total population, More than 60% of Kuwait’s workforce is employed in oil- other Arabs 35 percent, Asians 9 percent, and the rest related work, on which the country’s economy is almost from a wide range of ethnic groups. entirely dependent, which provides at least half of Ku- wait’s annual income, and the rest comes from strategic Politics foreign investment. The Kuwaiti dinar is still closely linked to the fluctuating Kuwait is still a constitutional monarchy governed by values of the US dollar and several other international an Amir, and since the mid-18th century, the rulers of currencies, one of the highest-rated currencies in the Kuwait came from the Al-Sabah family, which has since world. ruled in consultation with other powerful trading fami- Kuwait’s oil industry is government-owned and generally lies. adheres to OPEC’s production limits, with daily oil pro- His Highness Prince Sheikh Sabah al-Ahmad al-Jaber duction accounting for nearly 2 million barrels, Kuwait’s al-Sabah, may God protect him, has been the emir of proven oil reserves of more than 95 billion barrels, with Kuwait since January 2006, and his assumption was due 77 billion barrels considered fully recoverable, and an- to the Crown Prince’s poor health condition as stipulated nual natural gas production and domestic consumption in the 1962 Kuwaiti Constitution, which stipulates the estimated at 9 million cubic meters, with proven reserves rights of Kuwaiti citizens and the obligations of the gov- of more than 1.5 trillion cubic meters. ernment, as well as the provisions of the Prince to sus- The Kuwaiti national oil industry is managed by the pend the constitution, in whole or in part, and dissolve parent company KPC, which directly supervises inter- the National Assembly under certain circumstances. national marketing, and KPC is divided into dedicated The emir appoints the prime minister and appoints a units, such as Kuwait Oil Company, which undertakes cabinet to oversee Kuwait’s vast bureaucracy, which runs exploration operations, Kuwait National Petroleum the country’s oil industry, as well as Kuwait’s comprehen- Company (KNPC), which manages the refining opera- sive social welfare system, and appoints and dismisses tions, and PIC, which covers petrochemical production. military officers at his discretion.

The History of Kuwait November 2019 Issue 1 17 Stratigic

Kuwait is divided into six regional regions or govern- Kuwaitis know that if Iran is capable of reinforcing the ments, and popular elections of the National Assembly civil war in Iraq in the hope of establishing an indepen- for such governorates are held every four years. dent Shiite state, then oil-rich Kuwait is likely to be on the list of easy Iranian targets. Civil rights Kuwaitis also fear Iran’s concerted research efforts to de- In May 2005, the National Assembly for the first time velop long-range missiles and nuclear weapons, and the legally awarded Kuwaiti women the right to vote to begin Kuwaiti government believes that Tehran hopes to im- with municipal elections and leading to the expected Na- pose hegemony over the entire Arab Gulf, a traditional tional Assembly elections slated at the time to be held in goal dating back to the Persian Empire, which Kuwaitis 2007. Though Islamic and tribal politicians, who filled 21 fear will happen. of 50 total seats in the 2003 National Assembly. When a Kuwaiti woman was nominated in 2005 to join Conclusion the cabinet in the emirate and to work as Minister of Ad- With the beginning of the new century, Kuwait remains ministrative Development in Kuwait, there was no public a unique country in some respects, and the country has uproar, but a mere ambiguity from the opposition. not changed much over the last two and a half centu- When charges are brought in ordinary criminal cases, ries, a Muslim state that preserves religious traditions, if the penalty shall be three years or more, and charges a traveler from the 18th century enters a Kuwaiti house shall be brought within four days, trial or release within today, it is unlikely that this individual will notice any three weeks. differences at all. In cases of terrorism and other state security cases, sus- Contemporary Kuwaitis still embody strong Islamic val- pects can be detained indefinitely in such cases, as well ues and a strong sense of hospitality that has character- as cases referred directly by the Cabinet, which are tried ized them since their nomadic days, while Kuwait has by a special security court and usually in a closed session, contributed over years and perhaps decades before its although records are published shortly thereafter, the US neighbors to democracy and liberation. State Department promises that these courts meet the The Kuwaiti ordinary citizen has an increasing opinion justice standards set by the international community. in the government, and there is no reason to expect to reverse the same trend, although it may slow down, also, Continuing regional instability Kuwaiti women represent in many respects an example of the progress that still has to be seen elsewhere across Although Kuwait is not the only Arab country that sup- the Arab and Islamic world. ported the U.S.-led coalition that invaded Iraq to topple Saddam Hussein, Kuwait was one of the few Arab coun- That is why Kuwait deserved detailed consideration, and tries to do so publicly. it is even more important to understand Kuwait, which is second in the world in terms of oil reserves known to As a staging area and a security warehouse, Kuwait was be at the heart of the world’s most volatile and valuable a strong contributor to the coalition, and Kuwait’s subse- continent. quent logistical support for British military efforts to sta- bilize the Iraqi Basra area was equally critical to success. The small State of Kuwait is intricately and irreversibly linked to international events. It is time for this small The more the Arab Gulf stabilizes, the better it is for the Arab nation - which is of critical importance - to receive people of Kuwait and the oil industry, so the government the close attention that characterizes its rich history and continues to actively support the United States in spite of promising future potential. the vocal criticism from many in the Islamic world. Kuwait continues to watch Iran cautiously; Tehran’s provocation of sectarian violence inside Iraq is troubling for the Kuwaiti government, even when Iranian terror- ism is exported elsewhere than Kuwait.

18 Issue 1 November 2019 The History of Kuwait