Psychological Inquiry An International Journal for the Advancement of Psychological Theory 2003, Vol. 14, No. 1

The Insatiable Quest for Self-Worth

Jennifer Crocker Department of Psychology University of Michigan

Noah Nuer Learning as Leadership, Inc.

What is optimal self-esteem? Ryan, 2000). Paradoxically, from this According to Kernis (this volume), perspective self-esteem is optimal when optimal self-esteem is best thought of as we are not pursuing it, not trying to get an individual difference variable-- it, protect it, or increase it—when it is something that some people have and not on the radar screen or the ultimate others do not. Ironically, even framing goal of our current activity. This the issue of optimal self-esteem in this perspective leads us to ask how we can way creates a sense of competition and shift from pursuing self-esteem to scarcity, threatening the self-esteem of pursing goals that are more likely to lead those who are deemed not to have to the satisfaction of our fundamental optimal self-esteem. Is your self-esteem human needs, and what we can do to more optimal than mine? How can I get support ourselves and others to make optimal self-esteem for my children? this shift. Viewing optimal self-esteem in this way In our view, it is misguided to make can trigger an anxious and self-centered achieving high self-esteem, or even focus on getting something for the self. optimal self-esteem, the ultimate goal. In contrast, inspired by the We see self-esteem as a means, not an distinction between having and doing end. There may be some minimum level personality (Cantor, 1990), we suggest of self-esteem that is required to have that it is more useful to think of optimal enough confidence in ourselves to self-esteem in terms of momentary achieve our goals, to believe that we pursuit of goals, specifically whether our have a chance to make them happen. current thoughts and behavior serve a Beyond that minimum, increasing the higher-order goal of maintaining, level of self-esteem people have does not protecting, or enhancing self-esteem. seem to increase the chances that they We argue that self-regulation guided by will achieve their goals (Baumeister, higher-order self-esteem goals interferes 1998; Dawes, 1994). with satisfaction of our fundamental human needs for competence, relatedness, and autonomy (Deci &

1 Psychological Inquiry An International Journal for the Advancement of Psychological Theory 2003, Vol. 14, No. 1

The Costs of Pursuing Self-Esteem whose self-worth is based on their academic performance experience more This pursuit of self-esteem comes at time pressure, struggle to meet their own a high price (Crocker, in press-b). The and others’ academic standards, and price may be difficult to see, because in report more conflicts with professors and the short term there are significant teaching assistants, but do not get higher emotional benefits to the pursuit of self- grades (controlling for SAT and ACT esteem—when we are successful, we scores) than students who score feel worthy, which leads to positive relatively low in this contingency affect and a sense that we are safe, (Crocker & Luhtanen, 2002). secure, and superior. As terror Consequently, one major cost of management theory argues, self-esteem pursuing self-esteem is learning is a great anxiety reliever (Solomon, (Crocker & Park, in press). When our Greenberg, & Pyszczynski, 1991). But goal is self-esteem, we are focused on the “high” or feeling of safety that what we are now, not what we need to accompanies a boost in self-esteem is become. And because we want to feel short-lived (Crocker, Sommers, & worthy, we are not realistic about our Luhtanen, in press). Consequently, the strengths and weaknesses, where we pursuit of self-esteem becomes a never- need to improve, what we have ending quest. When we take a long-term accomplished and what we still need to and more global perspective, the costs of accomplish; instead, we cling to positive pursuing self-esteem are clear. illusions about the self (Taylor & When the superordinate goal is Brown, 1988). When our goal is to proving one’s worth by achieving succeed or avoid diagnostic failure to success or avoiding diagnostic failure in protect self-esteem, we do not learn from domains in which self-worth is mistakes, criticism, or feedback. We contingent, difficulty in accomplishing focus on performance rather than subordinate goals (e.g., getting good learning (Dweck, 2000). We direct our grades or making a scientific efforts to ensuring that, should failure contribution) raises fears of becoming a occur, blame will be placed somewhere failure, a worthless nothing (Crocker & other than our lack of ability (Blaine & Wolfe, 2001). Driven by these fears, Crocker, 1993; Crocker & Park, in people will go to many lengths to press). Consequently, when succeed, including arguing, scheming, maintaining, protecting, and enhancing and cheating (Covington, 1984; self-esteem is the superordinate goal, Covington, 2000; Dweck, 2000). people avoid focusing on their own Confronted with difficulty, the main goal responsibility for their outcomes, and becomes avoiding failure that is avoid looking carefully at what they diagnostic. Consequently, people will could have done differently to achieve a protect self-esteem by finding excuses better outcome. Defense of self-esteem for failure, self-handicapping, blaming draws attention away from realistic others, or dismissing the importance of appraisals of the areas in which we need the task, even if these strategies decrease to improve. the chances of accomplishing A second major cost of pursuing subordinate goals (Covington, 1984; self-esteem is the ability to forge Covington, 2000; Crocker & Park, in mutually supportive relationships with press). For example, college students

2 Psychological Inquiry An International Journal for the Advancement of Psychological Theory 2003, Vol. 14, No. 1 others (Crocker & Park, in press). person rather than looking at how our Pursuing self-esteem requires self-focus, help could have been more effective, or which interferes with awareness of and more responsive to the other’s needs. responsiveness to others’ needs (Carver Seeking self-esteem becomes a diversion & Scheier, 1998). In seeking self-esteem from addressing the real issues in our we not only need to be competent, right, lives. It diverts us from asking, “Where or good—we need to be more competent do I need to improve so I can better than others, right “over” them, or more accomplish the goals that reflect my core good than they are (Brown, 1986; Taylor values?” & Brown, 1988). Life becomes a zero- The ultimate long-term cost of the sum game, with things that bolster my pursuit of self-esteem is the damage it self-worth coming at the expense of your does to the satisfaction of the self-worth, and vice versa. In pursuing fundamental human needs for true self-esteem, we want to be admired by (rather than illusory) competence, others, yet they become a danger to us. relatedness, and autonomy (Deci & It is not surprising, then, that people Ryan, 2000). When self-esteem is the engaged in the pursuit of self-esteem superordinate goal, we prefer the illusion respond to self-threats with avoidance, of competence, and current success over distancing, and withdrawal, or with learning from failure. We prefer being blame, excuses, anger, antagonism, and better than others to being nonperfect but aggression (Crocker & Park, in press). mutually supportive of them. We prefer All of these responses take a tremendous feeling worthy to learning how we can toll on meaningful, authentic, and better accomplish goals that emanate supportive connections with others from our core self. The cost of all of this (Pyszczynski, Greenberg, & Goldenberg, is isolation and disconnection from in press). When our superordinate goal is others, limitations to our ability to learn demonstrating our worth or value as a and grow from our experience, and person, we become isolated and being diverted from pursuing goals that disconnected from others. reflect our core values. A third cost of pursuing self-esteem is self-regulation. When our actions Implications for Optimal Self-Esteem have the higher-order goal of and Authenticity maintaining, protecting, or enhancing self-esteem, we are quickly and easily In this view, optimal self-esteem is diverted from the subordinate goal, paradoxically achieved when we are not whether it is making a scientific pursuing self-esteem—when our goals contribution or helping another person, emanate from our inner values, are into goals concerning our own self- larger than the self, and do not have the esteem. Rather than welcoming superordinate goal of self-worth. The critiques of our work as opportunities for features of nonoptimal self-esteem learning, we see them as threats to our identified by Kernis are, I argue, a worth or value, and focus our energy on consequence of pursuing self-esteem, counter-arguing them, rather than using not an inevitable consequence of the them as leverage to make our work type of self-esteem one has. better. When attempts to help others are Defensiveness is a common response to rebuffed, we focus on blaming the other actual or perceived threats in domains of

3 Psychological Inquiry An International Journal for the Advancement of Psychological Theory 2003, Vol. 14, No. 1 contingency—when self-esteem is the and larger than the self. Openness and superordinate goal, we vigorously truthfulness in close relationships is defend our self-views in these domains made possible when our superordinate because our worth as a person is at stake goals do not concern our self-esteem or (Crocker & Park, in press). Instability of self-worth. It is the pursuit of self- self-esteem is the result of experiencing esteem, rather than the type of self- successes and failures we cannot esteem we have, that blocks us from successfully defend against when the achieving authenticity. superordinate goal is being a person of worth (Crocker et al., in press). And Person Characteristic or Momentary discrepancies between explicit and Experience implicit self-esteem may also result from the pursuit of contingent self-esteem. Although people differ in the The causes of discrepancies between situations that trigger their pursuit of implicit and explicit self-esteem are not self-esteem, and also how frequently this well understood, but research shows that happens, the pursuit of self-esteem is implicit attitudes are shaped by exposure something that virtually all of us do. To to associations in the environment, be sure, some people are more whether or not we endorse or believe in frequently and consistently engaged in the accuracy of those associations the pursuit of self-esteem than others. (Karpinski & Hilton, 2001). When The crucial difference among people people are engaged in the pursuit of self- seems to be not whether they have esteem, they may frequently consider the contingencies of self-worth, but what possibility of being worthless if they do those contingencies are. For example, not satisfy their contingencies of self- almost all (96%) University of Michigan worth. For example, a student whose freshmen report that their self-esteem self-worth is based on academic depends on their success in at least one performance may think a lot about the of seven contingencies of self-worth we possibility of failure (and consequently have measured: appearance, approval, being worthless) to motivate herself to outdoing others in competition, study (Norem & Cantor, 1986). Even if academic performance, love from she successfully maintains a straight-A family, virtue, or God’s love (Crocker, average, the frequency of these thoughts in press-a). Some of these contingencies may lead such a student to are activated in more situations, and nonconsciously associate the self with consequently trigger the pursuit of self- failure and worthlessness. esteem more often than others. Authenticity, in this view, is a state that results from pursuing goals that are The Advantages of Focusing on the consistent with core values and Costs of Pursuing Self-esteem encompass more than the self. Awareness of our strengths and The claim that optimal self-esteem weaknesses, unbiased processing of self- occurs at those moments when the relevant information, and acting in higher-order goal of our actions is not accord with the true self are all self-esteem, does not contradict of consequences of having superordinate Kernis’ analysis of optimal self-esteem; goals that are consistent with core values rather, it differs in emphasis and focus.

4 Psychological Inquiry An International Journal for the Advancement of Psychological Theory 2003, Vol. 14, No. 1

Kernis’ analysis of optimal self-esteem and enhance self-esteem, since that is includes both what we have our ultimate goal. Consequently, we (noncontingent, stable, and nondefensive need to be satisfied with having the self-esteem) and our goals (not having minimum of self-esteem that is required self-esteem as the “prime directive”). It to function, and say “so what?” to self- should be obvious that the view I offer doubt, fears of failure, or suspicions of here is not intended as a criticism of worthlessness. If our self-esteem should Kernis’ proposals, but more a suggestion happen to become higher, more stable, regarding how they may be further less defensive, and less contingent as a sharpened. result, that is a bonus, but it cannot be There is an important advantage to the goal. viewing optimal self-esteem in terms of This perspective also has the momentary goal pursuits, rather than advantage of focusing attention on what individual differences. Although we we can do to encourage others to shift have relatively little choice about having from superordinate goals concerned with contingencies of self-worth, or self- self-worth to goals based on core values. esteem that is high both implicitly and Scarcity, competition, social explicitly, we each can choose whether comparison, and regard for others that is or not we are engaged in the pursuit of conditional on their performance or self-esteem. We can consider our other extrinsic qualities all are likely to superordinate goal in any situation, at trigger the pursuit of self-esteem in those any moment, and shift, if we choose, we interact with, whereas affirming the from having a superordinate goal of worth and value of others, valuing them being a person of worth to another unconditionally or based on their superordinate goal that emanates from intrinsic qualities, and creating contexts our core values. The result, in which each person is encouraged to paradoxically, might be more stable, reach his or her own next level are likely noncontingent, and nondefensive self- to create a feeling of safety for others, esteem (Deci & Ryan, 1995; Kernis, in and encourage their pursuit of intrinsic press). goals (Covington, 1984; Deci & Ryan, It is tempting to think that we have 1995; Deci & Ryan, 2000; Dweck, 2000; now identified a more effective, if Pyszczynski et al., in press; Steele, indirect, route to having optimal self- 1988). esteem—substituting the pursuit of self- esteem with the pursuit of goals that are Conclusion larger than the self and emanate from our core values (Deci & Ryan, 1995). To achieve optimal self-esteem, we But if we pursue these new goals with do not need to become a different the ultimate aim of achieving optimal person, lose our contingencies of self- self-esteem, we fall into the familiar trap worth, or bring our explicit and implicit of pursuing self-esteem and the high cost self-esteem into alignment. We simply it entails. As soon as we encounter need to identify a higher-order goal in difficulty in pursing these intrinsic goals, each situation, a goal that is about what we will avoid realistically confronting we can create or contribute, that is larger our shortcomings and mistakes, and than the self and consistent with our core instead maneuver to maintain, protect values, and choose it. It is as simple as

5 Psychological Inquiry An International Journal for the Advancement of Psychological Theory 2003, Vol. 14, No. 1 that, but by no means easy. Letting go Blaine, B., & Crocker, J. (1993). Self- of our goal to maintain, enhance, or esteem and self-serving biases in reactions to positive and negative events: An integrative protect self-esteem requires that we review. In R. F. Baumeister (Ed.), Self-esteem: become clear about our values and what The puzzle of low self-regard (pp. 55-85). we want to create or contribute in each Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. situation, and it requires that we face our Brown, J. D. (1986). Evaluations of self fears of being worthless, and act on and others: Self-enhancement biases in social judgments. Social Cognition, 4, 353-376. another goal in spite of them. Although Cantor, N. (1990). From thought to giving up the pursuit of self-esteem is behavior: "Having" and "doing" in the study of not easy, it is ultimately where true personality and cognition. American connection and the possibility of real Psychologist, 45, 735-750. learning lie. Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1998). On the self-regulation of behavior. New York: Cambridge University Press. Covington, M. V. (1984). The self- Author’s Note worth theory of achievement motivation: Findings and implications. Elementary School Jennifer Crocker, Research Journal, 85, 5-20. Covington, M. V. (2000). Goal theory, Center for Group Dynamics, Institute for motivation, and school achievement: An Social Research, and Department of integrative review. Annual Review of Psychology, University of Michigan, and Psychology, 51, 171-200. Noah Nuer, Learning as Leadership, San Crocker, J. (in press-a). Contingencies Raphael, California. of self-worth: Implications for self-regulation and psychological vulnerability. Self and Preparation of this manuscript Identity. was supported by National Institute of Crocker, J. (in press-b). The costs of Mental Health grants 1 R01 MH58869- seeking self-esteem. Journal of Social Issues. 01, and 1 K02 MH01747-01. We are Crocker, J., & Luhtanen, R. K. (2002). grateful to Charles Behling for his Contingencies of self-worth and level of self- esteem: Unique effects on academic and social thoughtful comments on an earlier draft outcomes. Ann Arbor. of this article. Crocker, J., & Park, L. E. (in press). Correspondence concerning this Seeking self-esteem: Maintenance, enhancement, article should be addressed to Jennifer and protection of self-worth. In M. R. L. J. Crocker, Research Center for Group Tangney (Ed.), Handbook of self and identity.: Psychology Press. Dynamics, Institute for Social Research, Crocker, J., Sommers, S. R., & 426 Thompson Street, Ann Arbor, Luhtanen, R. K. (in press). Hopes dashed and Michigan 48106. Electronic mail dreams fulfilled: Contingencies of self-worth and should be addressed to: admissions to graduate school. Personality and [email protected] Social Psychology Bulletin. Dawes, R. M. (1994). House of cards: or [email protected] Psychology and psychotherapy built on myth. New York: Free Press. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1995). Human autonomy: The basis for true self-esteem. References In M. H. Kernis (Ed.), Efficacy, agency, and self-esteem (pp. 31-49). New York: Plenum. Baumeister, R. F. (1998). The self. In Deci, E. M., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), "what" and "why" of goal pursuits: Human needs Handbook of social psychology (4 ed., Vol. 2, and the self-determination of behavior. pp. 680-740). New York: McGraw-Hill. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 227-268.

6 Psychological Inquiry An International Journal for the Advancement of Psychological Theory 2003, Vol. 14, No. 1

Dweck, C. (2000). Self-theories: Their role in motivation, personality, and development. Philadelphia: Psychology Press. Karpinski, A., & Hilton, J. L. (2001). Attitudes and the implicit association test. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 81, 774-788. Kernis, M. H. (in press). Toward a conceptualization of optimal self-esteem. Psychological Inquiry. Norem, J. K., & Cantor, N. (1986). Defensive pessimism: Harnessing anxiety as motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1208-1217. Pyszczynski, T., Greenberg, J., & Goldenberg, J. (in press). Freedom in the Balance: On the Defense, Growth, and Expansion of the Self. In M. L. a. J. Tangney (Ed.), Handbook of self and identity.: Psychology Press. Solomon, S., Greenberg, J., & Pyszczynski, T. (1991). A terror-management theory of social behavior: The psychological functions of self-esteem and cultural worldviews. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 24, pp. 91-159). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Steele, C. (1988). The psychology of self-affirmation: Sustaining the integrity of the self. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 21, pp. 261-302). New York: Academic Press. Taylor, S. E., & Brown, J. D. (1988). Illusion and well-being: A social-psychological perspective on mental health. Psychological Bulletin, 103, 193-210.

7