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Electronic Theses, Treatises and Dissertations The Graduate School
2015 The Internationalization in Student Affairs in the United States from 1951 to 1996 Kathleen M. Callahan
Follow this and additional works at the FSU Digital Library. For more information, please contact [email protected] FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
THE INTERNATIONALIZATION IN STUDENT AFFAIRS IN THE
UNITED STATES FROM 1951 TO 1996
By
KATHLEEN M. CALLAHAN
A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Educational Leadership and Policy Studies in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
2015
Kathleen M. Callahan defended this dissertation on July 10, 2015.
The members of the supervisory committee were:
Robert Schwartz
Professor Directing Dissertation
Kristine C. Harper
University Representative
Kathy Guthrie
Committee Member
Lara Perez-Felkner
Committee Member
The Graduate School has verified and approved the above-named committee members, and certifies that the dissertation has been approved in accordance with university requirements.
ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am grateful for the support and encouragement from my committee members: Drs. Bob
Schwartz, Kathy Guthrie, Kris Harper, and Lara Perez-Felkner. Dr. Guthrie encouraged me to apply for the doctorate program the first time I met her, and I was won over by her commitment to her students, the program, and especially her work with the Undergraduate Leadership
Certificate. She pulled me into teaching, advising, and exploring leadership at a deeper level, and I have her to credit for my next professional step into the leadership education field. Dr.
Schwartz gave me my first job at Florida State and convinced me it was the place for me after running into him at a historical committee meeting at NASPA. Schwartz's commitment to history pushed me to find my true niche within higher education and the field of student affairs-- studying the legacies of those who have come before me in the field. Drs. Schwartz and Guthrie shaped my time at FSU and my path as a teacher, scholar, and lifelong learner.
Since starting at FSU, I have had the honor and privilege of working with all of the higher education faculty and am appreciative of everything they have taught me professionally and personally through faculty meetings, one-on-one interactions, and simply observing their interactions with other faculty and students. I feel better prepared to succeed in academia due to their influence.
This dissertation would not have been possible without the vast network within student affairs and specifically my NASPA family. My oral history participants were beyond helpful, and hearing their stories made me thankful to be a part of student affairs and to be in the same field as these amazing individuals. Thank you to: Roger Ludeman, Denny Roberts, Susan
Komives, Ken Osfield, Liz Nuss, Carmen Neuberger, Kevin Kruger, John Lowery, John Thelin,
Mike Coomes, Lynn Gangone, Gail Hanson, Bill Bryan, Peggy Barr, Greg Roberts, Paul Oliaro,
iii and Sherrill Ragans. A special thanks to Jon Dalton who helped to get my research off the ground by providing guidance on internationalization through multiple conversations.
Additionally, without Ann Bowers and the Bowling Green State University archives staff, I would not have been able to find all of the exciting documents included in this research. Ann went above and beyond after her retirement to ensure my success in finding documents. Finally, to all of those student affairs professionals that have shaped the profession and were never able to truly tell their story; I thank them for making strides in the field when it wasn't popular; these individuals are the ones who have made this the field what it is today.
My doctoral career would not have been possible without my friends and family. The support and encouragement from everyone over the past four years has been humbling. My parents have gone above and beyond to encourage and help me to meet my goals. My mom's love for the field of student affairs and my father's love for history helped drive me as I progressed through my dissertation. Additionally, my friends have pushed me to be a better person and academic, especially Sally Watkins and Vivechkanand Chunoo, who have served as my sounding board for the past two years. In the past year, two places in particular have gotten me through the day: CrossFit, BlackBox, and Lucky Goat Coffee. With my CrossFit family, I was able to achieve a healthy balance of writing and wellness. They encouraged me and made me a stronger person, both literally and figuratively. And finally, I wrote the majority of this dissertation at Lucky Goat Coffee in Tallahassee and over the months, everyone who worked there became my friend and some of my biggest supporters. I cannot thank them enough for all of the caffeine, tough love, and support they provided.
iv TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ...... v
1. INTRODUCTION ...... 1
2. HISTORICAL AND SOCIAL CONTEXT ...... 11
3. METHODOLOGY ...... 24
4. INTERNATIONALIZATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION ...... 32
5. STUDENT AFFAIRS IN THE US AND INTERNATIONALIZATION ...... 43
6. CONCURRENT AND GRASSROOTS MOVEMENTS ...... 64
7. PIONEERING PROFESSIONALS ...... 95
8. INTERNATIONALIZATION AT THE INSTUTIONAL LEVEL ...... 112
9. INTERNATIONALIZATION AT THE ASSOCIATION LEVEL ...... 126
10. THE TIPPING POINT ...... 167
11. A NEW OUTLOOK: CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS ...... 183
12. EPILOGUE ...... 192
APPENDIX ...... 198
A. ORAL HISTORY QUESTIONS ...... 198
REFERENCES ...... 202
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH ...... 214
v ABSTRACT
After World War II, globalization impacted both, higher education and student affairs.
As a result, both increased efforts to internationalize campuses, academics, and student services.
The purpose of this research is to examine how student affairs responded to the
internationalization in higher education during 1951 to 1996 in the United States (US).
Documents and oral histories provided a narrative of how professionals, institutions, and professional associations, specifically the major student affairs associations, ACPA: College
Student Educators International; NASPA: Student Affairs Administrators in Higher Education; and the National Association of Women Educators (NAWE), evolved over this 45 year time period. This research highlights the importance of concurrent and grassroots movements, professional experience, and institutional and associational influence that led to a "tipping point" in 1995 and 1996. Each of these main themes contributes to the larger story of the internationalization in student affairs in the US. Post 1996 student affairs has continued to internationalize as literature and collaborative relationships among professional associations worldwide highlight differences and similarities of student affairs and services across the globe.
This research provides a horizontal history for the internationalization in student affairs in the US until 1996; however, it highlights a need for further research in the history of student affairs, student affairs and services around the world, and the current state of internationalization of student affairs and services.
vi CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
In 1999, Jon Dalton edited a New Directions in Student Services monograph entitled
Beyond Borders: How International Developments are Changing Student Affairs Practice. He and his colleagues wrote about a topic that seemed to have been uncharted before the late 1990s.
Today, the term "internationalization" is used extensively in our institutions, professional associations, and in student affairs work. How did internationalization and the international dimension come to be such a significant topic over time? Why did it take until the mid-1990s to become a part of the student affairs literature?
Philip Altbach (2004) notes that "From the beginning, universities represented global institutions - in that they functioned with a common language, Latin, and served an international clientele of students" (p. 4). He continues by saying that "Students have always traveled abroad to study, and scholars have always worked outside their home countries" (p. 5). The privileged and often wealthy students from the United States (US) had been traveling to Europe for education and etiquette training since the Colonial period. Faculty often traveled around the world for their research and until the mid- to late-1800s, many American scholars traveled to
Germany for their Ph.D. degrees. The point is that an international exchange of individuals and ideas in academia is not new. The exchange of students and faculty coupled with the emergence of globalization, defined by Altbach (2004) as "the broad economic, technological, and scientific trends" (p. 5), in the early 20th century caused higher education's purpose to shift with the needs of society and to internationalize its nature.
Globalization gained momentum at the same time the US became a major player in the post-World War II era. The US was positioned as the new center of higher education in the
1 world and became a global marketplace for scholars and ideas. English became the dominant
global language. The internationalization of the curriculum occurred during this time, with an
increase in federal funding and national grants as well as an increase in enrollment and student
diversity, and the expansion of higher education by institutional type and in the number of degree
offerings (Altbach & Knight, 2004; Thelin, 2011; Trow, 2005). Unlike globalization, however,
internationalization of higher education was controlled by how institutions responded to larger
issues of globalization (Altbach & Knight, 2004). In 2008, NAFSA: Association of International
Educators defined internationalization as "the conscious effort to integrate and infuse
international, intercultural, and global dimensions into the ethos and outcomes of postsecondary
education" (p. 1).
The Student Personnel Point of View (SPPV) of 1937, and an updated version in 1949,
were pivotal documents in the emerging field of student affairs (American Council on Education
[ACE], 1937, 1949). The original document outlined the purpose of higher education as the
"preservation, transmission, and enrichment of the important elements of culture: the product of
scholarship, research, creative imagination, and human experience" (ACE, 1937, p. 39). In 1949,
the authors added new goals to the purpose of higher education and student personnel work in
which they highlighted three key issues no doubt prompted by World War II and used wording pulled straight from the Truman Commission of 1947:
1. Education for a fuller realization of democracy in every phase of living;
2. Education directly and explicitly for international understanding and cooperation;
3. Education for the application of creative imagination and trained intelligence to the
solution of social problems and to the administration of public affairs. (Williamson, 1949,
p. 2)
2 The authors further stated that these new goals for higher education, in essence, must address the
development of the whole student and that this effort was the foundation of student personnel
work (Williamson, 1949). The updated document also added content as to how student personnel, and the document itself, was focused on the development of the student as a whole by providing a brief history on the global context of higher education. These two additions to the
SPPV began to highlight a new-found importance for globalization and internationalization
within higher education and student affairs as well as in the US as a nation.
In addition to what was happening outside of higher education after World War II
(WWII), within institutions the student populations were growing both in diversity and numbers
due to a shift from elite to mass access, which included a growth in international students,
veterans, and first generation students (Trow, 2006). Furthermore, a series of initiatives in
higher education, including the Truman Commission of 1947, the enactment of the Marshall
Plan, the passing of the US Education and Educational Exchange Act, the formation of the
National Association of Foreign Student Advisers (NAFSA), and the first Fulbright Scholars
going abroad in 1948 signaled a shift in focus for US higher education and in turn, student affairs
(NAFSA, 2008).
Later, the establishment of the Peace Corps during the Kennedy administration in 1961,
the passing of the International Education Act in 1966, and technological development increased
communication and exchange among scholars and students globally strengthened the
internationalization movement in higher education in the US (Dalton, 1999; NAFSA, 2008).
Institutions, faculty, and student affairs professionals were charged with accommodating and
increasing services for new students and implementing new policies in this changing climate of
higher education.
3 Statement of the Problem
The changing climate in higher education led to governmental policy changes and
legislation that will be discussed in Chapters 2 and 6, as well as an increase in awareness on
college and university campuses of the international dimension in higher education. However,
Knight and de Wit (1995) point out that "Little research has been done on the historical roots of
the present wave of internationalization of higher education, in reaction to the globalization of
our societies" (p. 5). Further still, even though the internationalization of higher education has been examined over the years, it is rare to find much literature, prior to 1999, on the topic of
internationalization in student affairs in the US.
Purpose of the Study
In the late 1990s and early 2000s, publications by scholars on this topic began to focus on
the internationalization of student affairs by looking at student affairs and services in other
countries (Dalton, 1999; Osfield, 2008; UNESCO, 2002, 2009); however, the lack of historical
understanding of internationalization of student affairs within the US prior to this shift by
scholars limits both current and future research. Yet, the notion of internationalization of student
affairs consists of global student affairs and services looking to one another to engage in practice
is defined by Osfield (2008) as: “The process by which a university changes the infrastructure or
the campus ecology to keep up with the changing demand for more direct links to higher
education outside their own country of origin” (p. 3). Therefore, the purpose of this research is
to fill a gap in the literature of the internationalization in student affairs in the US from 1951 to
1996.
It is clear that globalization impacted higher education after WWII. It is through the lens
of the larger internationalization of higher education that this research examines how student
4 affairs internationalized its purposes. Intuitively, student affairs was tied to the larger higher
education movement, that was motivated by globalization and marked historical events. Since
the foundation of student affairs was centered on the student, it would follow that student affairs
was motivated by students and the students awareness of pertinent international and global
issues on campus. The question remains: how much did higher education and/or student affairs
initiate this movement? Rather was it mandated by other, external entities and a shift in the
overall global understanding of higher education?
Internationalization takes on numerous definitions and can be applied to multiple fields of
study. However, this research is focused on how student affairs responded to the international dimension and the narrative that led to a call to internationalize by looking to student affairs in other countries after the tipping point. For the purposes of this study, internationalization in
student affairs in the US prior to 1996 was explored. However, the original study was to
examine until 2001; however, after the data was explored, it showed not much change after the
identified tipping point in 1995 and 1996. The exploration consisted of identifying specific
topics within the definition of internationalization, factors that student affairs professionals perceived to be important in this area, and how those topics and factors influenced the field of
student affairs at both the institutional and the professional association level.
This study examines the internationalization movement in student affairs is examined
through the relevant professional associations and the perceptions of student affairs professionals
with a focus on a 45 year period after World War II. By using professional association
documents as a focal point for this research, the focus of the search was narrowed and gave the
study a defined but flexible scope. NASPA: Student Affairs Administrators in Higher
Education, ACPA: College Student Educators International, and NAWE: the National
5 Association of Women Educators were used as the three central student affairs associations in
the US. In 1951, the National Association of Deans of Men (NADM) became NASPA, the
National Association of Student Personnel Administrators. Accordingly, the time period for this particular historical analysis begins with NASPA’s name change in 1951 and ends in 1996. The
creation of NAFSA, post-WWII policy changes, and the change in the SPPV in 1949, influenced by the Truman Commission made 1951 a natural starting point. After a shift, later termed the
tipping point, occurred in student affairs in 1995, the study concludes in 1996.
All three student affairs professional associations were established around the same time period. ACPA began in 1924, NASPA (NADM) in 1918, and NAWE (NADW) in 1916. These
associations have interacted over the years and still do, though NAWE disbanded in 2000. Yet,
to ensure that all the major association histories are recognized, the internationalization within
each was researched separately and explored through document analysis and interviews.
This study fills a gap in the literature, provides a foundation for additional research, and
contributes perspective of how professional associations and student affairs addressed the call to
action by the second SPPV of 1949 and the international dimension within higher education. In
2008 Ken Osfield’s Internationalization of Student Affairs and Services, he issued a call to action
to student affairs and services professionals to “begin to look outside their respective institutions
and find ways to continue the internationalization of student affairs and services in higher
education” (p. 214). In the epilogue, Doris Ching, Vice President of Student Affairs at the
University of Hawaii at the time, advanced this idea by stating, “the internationalization of
student affairs and services is a concept whose time has come” (Osfield, 2008, p. 217).
Yet, the acknowledgement that internationalization is still an emerging issue and one that
hasn’t taken hold within the profession is revealing. Ten years prior, Jon Dalton (1999) was
6 putting out a similar call, encouraging his colleagues to recognize the importance of international
issues within the field of student affairs. It is important to identify what happened prior to the
mid-1990s that pushed this topic from professional awareness to consciousness.
Research Question(s)
Why and how did student affairs become more internationalized in the United States
from 1951 to 1996? What factors led to the internationalization of the profession? What roles
did institutions, professionals, and professional associations (specifically ACPA, NASPA, and
NAWE) play in this process of internationalization?
Assumptions and Limitations
A common assumption with this topic of research is that globalization and
internationalization are inevitable and would eventually influence higher education and student affairs. Similarly, many may believe that the only topics that made waves over these 45 years were international students and study abroad. The inevitability of globalization and internationalization is coupled with national policies that encouraged awareness of the international dimension, an increase in international mobility of US citizens, technological advances, and the student development movement in student affairs.
The student development movement was invigorated by the two SPPV documents in
1937 and 1949 that focused on the 'whole student.' The increase in international students underscored for student affairs professionals that these students were different and had diverse needs. Their needs were not always the same as domestic students and this fact demanded changes at the institutional level. Institutional change was an assumption that individual professionals at different institutions were beginning to acknowledge: the internationalization of their campuses and the need for the internationalization of their services.
7 Limitations. There are multiple limitations in doing document analysis, archival research,
oral histories, and studying historical events and activities in general. The research study is
limited to what the researcher could find in institutional and associational archives, which in turn
depended on how well records were kept (or not kept) over the years, a reality that can either
help or hinder the process. The National Student Affairs archives at Bowling Green State
University are well organized, but the documents from 1951 to 1996 were spotty at times and
overwhelming at others. Archives depend on people and the associations donating their
documents over the years. In the early years, many of the leaders of these associations were
volunteers and did not save or donate their documents to the archives. However, NASPA,
ACPA, and NAWE had a good many documents that were useful in this research. The main
limitation with the documents was consistency in the early years of the time frame and
committee documents, and that inconsistency limited some initial findings about the beginning
interest in the topic of this research.
Oral histories are also very helpful, but can likewise be limiting. Over the years, people begin to forget their own experiences and follow the "party line" of a topic. In other words, they begin to repeat common literature and common experiences rather than deeply reflecting on their
own personal experiences over the years. In addition, some of the participants admittedly could
not remember all the details of their own experiences after 40 or more years of working in the
field. Many respondents are now in retirement and have reduced or ended their active professional lives. These omissions are understandable but can also limit full understanding and
exploration of the topic.
Finally, studying history is also limited by the fact there is little control of who provides
history. As many historians have argued before, history is often told by the "winners" and the
8 privileged. Therefore, this researcher acknowledges that certain voices may not be represented
as they were not a part of the archives and, in some cases, they were not a part of the associations
in the early years of this research.
Terms
Globalization according to Altbach (2004) is "defined as the broad economic,
technological, and scientific trends that directly affect higher education and are largely
inevitable" (p. 5).
Internationalization according to NAFSA (2008) is defined as "the conscious effort to
integrate and infuse international, intercultural, and global dimensions into the ethos and
outcomes of postsecondary education" (p. 1).
International dimension according to de Wit (2002) is defined as process driven and "a generic term to cover all aspects of higher education that have an international aspect or dimension, regardless of whether they are programmatically or strategically organized" (p. 119).
International education is summarized by de Wit (2002) as ethos driven and "covers the fragmented but organized state of development in the international dimension of higher education as it emerged in the United States" (p. 110).
Conclusion
The internationalization of student affairs did not happen overnight. Just as global events impacted the process of globalization, certain events and progressive movements helped student affairs move forward in this process of internationalization. Oral histories and document analysis collected in this research studied in the context of what was happening in higher education and the society around them, provide a larger picture of how student affairs became internationalized over some forty five years. This larger picture is a missing piece of student
9 affairs history and a chapter in a larger story of the profession. In the next chapter, the historical and social context is discussed including global and national events, societal events and social movements that had the potential to influence higher education and student affairs.
10 CHAPTER 2
HISTORICAL AND SOCIAL CONTEXT
To fully understand the internationalization of student affairs, it is important to understand what was happening in the United States (US) and higher education before and during the time period of this study. Therefore, this chapter is focused on the US and the world from the late 19th century until 1996 to create a necessary historical context for understanding and expanding the analysis of the history of student affairs in the US. The impact of the turn of the 20th century, two world wars, higher education's Golden Age including the Cold War, the civil rights and women's movements, the Vietnam War, and the decades of the 1970s, '80s, and
'90s will be discussed briefly in relation to their influence on higher education and student affairs. As these social events shaped individuals, changes in policy were shaping higher education. Chapter 6 will, in turn, provide a deeper understanding of social and political movements that may have influenced internationalization specific to the research.
The Turn of the 20th Century in US Higher Education (Late 1800s to Early 1900s)
The late 1800s and early 1900s saw significant change in higher education in the US.
"The campus was complex, characterized by multiple personalities" (Thelin, 2011, p. 155).
Increases in enrollment and the slow diversification of colleges and universities became a trend in of the late 1800s and early 1900s. Major changes included the expansion of the Morrill Act of
1890, the creation of women's colleges, and the rapid expansion of historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs), junior colleges, and land grant institutions (Thelin, 2011).
Diversification of types of institutions was not the only change; diversity of the student body increased with the rise in immigrants coming to the US and the expansion of racial and gender diversity (Thelin, 2011). Extracurricular activities also expanded in variety and niche appeal.
11 Athletics, musical groups, journalism, and honor clubs were just the tip of activities that students
could become involved in on campus. Higher education transitioned from serving only the elite
to serving a wider variety of students and their interests, and opening the door for change in
higher education before the First World War.
Two World Wars
As the US entered World War I (WWI) in the early 20th century, President Woodrow
Wilson implemented the Student Army Training Corps (SATC) funded by the federal
government (Thelin, 2011). Federal funds were given to the colleges that participated in this program, and many male cadets were trained on college campuses. "What had begun as a good-
faith attempt at national service, a promising partnership that would fuse military training with
liberal education and simultaneously keep colleges operating financially, turned into yet another
necessary evil for academics" (Thelin, 2011, p. 201). Over time, the SATC became a disaster,
largely because it was a clash of two cultures—the college campus and the military bureaucracy.
This necessary evil was just the beginning for institutions during wartime. After the First World
War, Rudolph (1990) writes, students began protesting against compulsory chapel or military
training and even the very basics of adult supervision of any kind. After the atrocites of WWI
and the mass slaughter of men on both sides of the war, students wanted peace.
In the years between the two world wars, the "massification" of higher education
continued—enrollments increased from 250,000 to 1.3 million in a comparatively short time
(Thelin, 2011; Trow, 2005). Trow (2005) explains this transition of higher education as a
movement from elite to mass to universal access. Luckily for the US, higher education was
ready for the increase in enrollment due to the early movement to diversify institutions around
the turn of the 20th century (Trow, 2005). Post WWI, enrollment increased from 5% to 15% of
12 the relevant age population. This trend continued to grow after World War II (WWII). As
enrollments climbed, campuses built athletic stadiums, campus classroom buildings, and
residence halls, often with elaborate architecture. Higher education and its popularity were
growing. In addition, the increased presence of college life in the media put it in the public eye
through movies and print (Thelin, 2011).
During WWII, higher education faculties were engaged in academic and research
initiatives, both during and after the war, and many became subject-matter experts for different
governmental agencies. Faculty from many disciplines, such as languages, geography, history, biology, and the physical sciences contributed to the success of the war. It was the ability of higher education to rally quickly during the war that ensured later partnerships with the government and opportunities through the federal government in the decades that followed
(Thelin, 2011). These partnerships included through new philanthropies, outside of the government, and external funding, federal grant funding especially in science and technology, the expansion of graduate degree programs, and increased enrollment due to legislation such as the Serviceman's Readjustment Act of 1944, better known as the "GI Bill" (Thelin, 2011). Each of these factors boosted public recognition of the importance of higher education and validated the efficacy of higher education institutions in the US.
After two world wars, the US government emerged as a top world power, and with it the recognition that it needed to become more involved internationally. To do so, citizens needed to better understand other nations and cultures, and a need for an increased education pertaining to these topics was important to maintaining a democracy. This recognition led President Harry
Truman to appoint the 1947 President's Commission on Higher Education. Hutcheson (2007) summarizes:
13 The objectives of general education in the commission's view, were, not surprisingly,
multiple, and they included students' development of 'ethical principles consistent with
democratic ideals; as well as the ability to act as 'an informed and responsible citizen' in
a democracy and to recognize the need for international understanding. (p. 109)
The Commission also recognized the need for higher education to be accessible to more of the population, encouraging higher education to achieve a more universal state of access in the
future (Hutcheson, 2007; Trow, 2005).
In addition to making institutions of higher education more accessible, it was necessary to prepare higher education faculty and administrators to work on international issues. National programs and organizations were developed to address the importance of globalization and its
impact on higher education. In 1948, the National Association of Foreign Student Advisers
(NAFSA) was established, the first participants in the US Fulbright Program went abroad, the
Marshall Plan was enacted, and Congress passed the US Education and Educational Exchange
Act, which promoted international understanding through the exchange of ideas and people
(NAFSA, 2008). Each of these would help fulfill the desire for increased international
understanding and higher education’s larger role in society. The underlying theme: increased
international cooperation and understanding might prevent another global war. After two world
wars, the demand for peace was paramount. These factors set the stage for a shift in focus to the
internationalization of higher education that is addressed further in Chapter 4.
Higher Education's Golden Age (1945-1970)
John Thelin's (2011) A History of Higher Education, describes the years between 1945
and 1970 as "the Golden Age of higher education." Post-WWII, with the addition of the GI Bill
and the Truman Commission, higher education shifted focus. As enrollments increased
14 nationally to 2.7 million by 1950, 3.6 million by 1960, and 7.9 million by 1970, US higher education was growing rapidly. At the same time, the nation was experiencing the societal effects of the Cold War, the Vietnam War, the civil rights and women's rights movements, as well as other social changes .
Cold War. The Cold War impacted higher education and the US in subtle, and not so subtle, ways. The constant fear of communism, non-democratic forms of government, and other, non-Western cultures, was a central domestic outcome of the Cold War. The Truman
Commission's report didn't just advocate for understanding of others and democracy; there were definite undertones to increase global awareness to higher education's new goals. Altbach
(2004) highlights how world powers influenced others, within and outside their spheres of influence, through education: "The Soviet Union, the United States, and others spent lavishly on student exchanges, textbook subsidies, book translations, institution building, and other activities to influence the world's academic leaders, intellectuals, and policy makers" (p. 9). These actions were evidence of nations not just recognizing the possible effects of globalization and internationalization, but also seeing and taking the opportunity to educate students visiting their countries about their ways of thinking. Importantly, all of this focus on education and its importance in society helped higher education grow and develop.
In the early 1950s, Senator Joseph McCarthy (R-WI) and those like him hyped the dangers of communism and convinced many citizens to fear “communists.” Not only were the ideas behind communism discouraged on college and university campuses around the country, so were discussions of those ideas (Urban & Wagoner, 2009). The Soviet’s 1957 launch of
Sputnik, the world’s first artificial Earth satellite combined with America’s failure to launch its own satellite, sparked concern in the US about its own technological advances and fear that the
15 Soviets would be able to land a nuclear-tipped missile on US territory. Eventually, this concern
led to federal funding and action in US education including the National Defense Education Act
(NDEA), which sought to improve and expand educational opportunities in mathematics, the
sciences, and foreign languages.
Over the years, political tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union, North
Korea, Cuba, and other communist nations, caught Americans’ attention, perpetuated Cold War
fears of communism. The Korean War (1950-53), the Cuban missile crisis (October 1962), and
the Vietnam War (1955-1975) all shaped US politics and influenced US social commentary
during this time. While the “red scare” became less scary after the fall of Joseph McCarthy from
US Senate leadership, it continued to consume the public imagination until the Soviet Union
collapsed and the Cold War ended in 1991.
Civil rights movement, black education, and affirmative action. Racial inequality has
always been an issue in US policy, but after World War II it seems that racial inequity for
individuals, especially in education, came to the forefront. Brown v. Board of Education of
Topeka, Kansas, highlighted how discrimination infiltrated every level of education (Thelin,
2011). The Truman Commission report had addressed some of these issues of inequality in education in 1947, and President Truman issued an executive order in 1948 that ended segregation in the military, but full racial equality was not adopted by everyone right away.
Over the next few decades, a cascade of different events—legal cases, the work of private foundations on social justice issues, and demonstrations and media coverage—set the stage for change. Integration of grade and high schools, particularly in the US South, took place during the Eisenhower Administration, while higher education moved toward integration during the
1960s under the influence of the Kennedy and Johnson administrations. This included an
16 Executive Order from Kennedy in 1961 incorporating affirmative action which mandated
nondiscrimination for governmental employers. Over the years affirmative action impacted
higher education as institutions implemented different forms of affirmative action in hiring and
admissions practices which indirectly influenced financial aid, recruiting, and other diversity on
campus (Thelin, 2011).
Historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs) educated most of the black college
students during this time period. In addition, they served as the hub for organizing progressive
civil rights demonstrations in surrounding communities. Many of these students led the way in
sit-ins, marches, and demonstrations in the South (Thelin, 2011). The civil rights movement
along with parallel movements such as those supporting women's rights and those protesting
against the Vietnam War, demonstrated higher education's role in societal change at the time.
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 included Title VI, which addressed segregation in education
(Thelin, 2011), and the 1965 Voting Rights Act set the stage for progressive motion in the civil
rights movement. Higher education and its role in educating college students about American
democracy, encouraged by the Truman Commission, helped move each of these grassroots
movements forward. How could a college student study democracy and the American dream
without questioning why, at this point in time, it was a primarily the privilege of elite, white
males?
Women's rights. Women also began standing up against discrimination during this time period and demanding equality. Women had been attending college in increasing (although still
small) numbers in the late 1800s, and their numbers continued to swell during World War II
(when universities needed to fill class seats with women), and after a dip in enrollment after the
war, continued to fill more class seats starting in the 1960s. The goals of women's protests in the
17 1960s came to fruition in 1972, with gender equity addressed in colleges and universities through
Title IX of the Higher Education Act (Thelin, 2011). This rise of feminist awareness led to a
change in how women were perceived on campus as well in the '60s and early '70s (Hutcheson,
2007). "Not only was there an increased emphasis on career options for women, but professors
and administrators began to address how women were viewed in the curriculum and pedagogy"
(Hutcheson, 2007, p. 11).
The Vietnam War. On top of everything else happening in the 1960s, college-aged men
were being drafted by the US government to serve in the Vietnam War. The draft threat
encouraged more men to go to college, since they could get a deferment by attending, and thus
avoid military service in Vietnam, a war that many in the country disagreed with and had no
desire to be involved in. Disagreements with US foreign policy led to protests and
demonstrations. But media coverage made it seem more ubiquitous than it actually was,
according to Thelin (2011), until the protests that occurred at Kent State University, Ohio, and
Jackson State College (now University), in Mississippi, resulted in students being shot to death by National Guard troops in 1969 and 1970, respectively.
Social trends and societal events. Social trends and societal events shape a person's life
and it is important to acknowledge some of the little things happening in each time period and
their influence on individuals over time. Athletics, music, and fashion characterized this time period on college campuses (Thelin, 2011; Urban & Wagoner, 2009). As college sports became
more popular, athletics took center stage at many colleges and universities in the late 1940s and
in the '50s. College football and basketball gave students something to bond over and relate to
across race, gender, or nationality. In the 1960s, the stereotypical college student was listening
to the Beatles, the Rolling Stones, or Bob Dylan, and later to anti-war music from the likes of
18 Credence Clearwater Revival or Jefferson Airplane, speaking about peace, using recreational
drugs such as marijuana and LSD, and making fashion statements through their clothing. But
this “turn on, tune in, drop out” culture was in not adopted by all college students although
music and “hippie” fashions were widespread at the time. As continues to be true today,
athletics, music, and fashion served as a common ground for college students.
It is also essential to recall a few other events that influenced the public during this time.
In the 1950s, a decade of civil unrest saw African-American seamstress Rosa Parks refuse to
give up her seat on a city bus, and her arrest triggered the Montgomery, Alabama, bus boycott.
The decade also saw the introduction of the first color television, the invention of seat belts for
cars, and the creation of the Salk polio vaccine. The 1960s saw a string of political
assassinations including John F. Kennedy (1963), Malcolm X (1965), Martin Luther King Jr.,
and Robert Kennedy (1968). The same decade saw the first man land on the moon, music
changed forever after Woodstock, the introduction of Star Trek, the first Super Bowl, and the death of Marilyn Monroe. Each of these events influenced a whole generation of young people in different ways.
Summary. The 'Golden Age' of US colleges and universities, as defined by Thelin
(2011), was a period of increased enrollment that coincided with an awareness of social justice
issues, the importance of higher education's purpose in society, and the acknowledgement of
college campuses as places for challenging government and voicing dissent. World War II,
followed by decades of the Cold War, the Korean War, the civil rights movement, the women's
movement, and the Vietnam War set the US up for a decade of recovery and adjustment in the
1970s. These events, in conjunction with social trends and societal events, brought a new
19 perspective to upcoming generations of college students about what the US was and what it
should be in the future.
The 1970s
The 1970s saw increases in federal funding for students (growth of financial aid),
increased student services, and increased enrollment in and growth of community colleges
(Thelin, 2011). St. John (2003) labels this decade as the one that equalized educational
opportunity by expanding financial aid to middle- and lower-class students (St. John, 2003). On-
campus services for students also expanded. After the 1960s, students were no longer satisfied
with campus life, and parents and students demanded more services, such as career offices,
recreation centers, and upgraded housing facilities, which became more popular (Thelin, 2011).
At the same time, more and more students were headed to college. Community colleges and
technical degrees became popular due to their open admissions policies, low costs, and the
opportunities they provided for students to be prepared for entry-level jobs (Thelin, 2011).
These trends were signs that the United States was moving toward universal college
access for students (Thelin, 2011; Trow, 2005). However, increased access combined with the
arrival of baby boomers and a lack of planning on the part of higher education in prior decades
led to budget issues from community colleges to Ivy League institutions (Thelin, 2011). The
1972 Amendments to the Higher Education Act of 1965 sought to encourage higher education to
organize state coordinating or governing bodies. The federal government planned to give
funding to states to create these entities to serve as liaisons. The combination of budget
shortfalls and states attempting to coordinate higher education systems led to a decade of
organization and future planning for higher education.
20 Social trends and societal events. The decade of the 1970s included the Watergate
scandal and subsequent resignation of President Richard M. Nixon, and the Roe v. Wade case
that legalized abortion. It was the decade of movies like Star Wars, Back to the Future, and the television miniseries, Roots, and it saw the introduction of the VCR and the Sony Walkman. The
music of the decade was still played on vinyl records and featured new forms of music including
disco, funk, soul, and punk rock.
The '80s and '90s
The movement toward universal access for college students affected higher education in
the 1980s and 1990s, as more students attended and the demographics of the student population
continued to shift. In the '80s, conversations about equity and minorities, beyond the civil rights
and women’s movements, began to take hold. The conversation shifted from just black and
white to include Asian Americans, Hispanics, Native Americans, gay, lesbian, and later included
the bi- and trans-sexual communities during these decades. The two decades incorporated a
growing awareness of diversity in higher education and society as seen in the documents and oral
histories discussed in Chapter 9.
Funding and financial aid shifted during this time period as well. On one hand, in the
1980s, the Middle Income Student Assistance Act (MISAA) enacted during the Carter
administration was helpful in subsidizing college for the middle class (St. John, 2003). But on
the other hand, federal funding began to lag during the Reagan administration. By the mid-
1980s, institutions were under attack for being inefficient, and by the end of the '90s, state
colleges and universities felt as if they were no longer state supported, going first to "state
assisted," and finally to "state located" (Thelin, 2011). The increase in diversity and a concurrent
21 decline in funding characterized these decades in higher education and influenced policy in these
areas.
Social trends and societal events. In the 1980s, John Lennon, the former Beatle, was
assassinated; AIDS was identified; the Berlin wall fell in Germany; and the Tiananmen Square
student massacre occurred in China. The '80s was the decade of E.T. (the movie about a friendly
extraterrestrial), and the invention of the World Wide Web. In the 1990s, the Soviet Union
collapsed; Operation Desert Storm began in the Middle East; the Columbine (CO) shooting took place at a high school; and the World Trade Center was bombed in New York City. The '90s
was the decade of Harry Potter, fear of Y2K (the programming problem expected as the new
millennium dawned), and the wide use of the internet.
Conclusion
The twentieth century was a time of tremendous societal and political changes that
influenced American higher education, and events that influenced the generations that followed.
In an interview, historian John Thelin highlighted the importance of how people connected with
each other at a basic level during this time. His best example was the story of what happened
when the Beatles met some officials in the Soviet Union. The Beatles—John, Paul, George, and
Ringo—assumed they would not have anything in common with these government officials, only
to discover that the officials loved the Beatles’s music (J. Thelin, personal communication,
November, 21, 2014). Thelin's point was that no matter what people's political motivations,
culture, or religion, everyone can somehow connect through intangibles like music and sports.
This chapter thus provides historical context for Chapter 4, which includes a discussion about the
internationalization of higher education, and for Chapter 6, which provides a deeper analysis of
22 some of these events as well as a few other concurrent movements and how they influenced the internationalization in student affairs.
23 CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
This chapter explores the methods used for the current study. It discusses the use of historical research in education and student affairs, evaluation of sources, and the process of analysis used in the current research.
Historical Research in Education
Johnson and Christensen (2008) explain that historical research is a process in which the historian examines past events and attempts to establish an account of the past. Gall, Gall, and
Borg (2003) defined historical research in education as "a process of systematically searching for data to answer questions about a past phenomenon for the purpose of gaining a better understanding of present institutions, practices, trends, and issues in education" (p. 514). This approach can be done by examining multiple points of view and other sources to construct a dynamic and fluid account of the past (Johnson & Christensen, 2008). Constructing this past does more than simply restate facts, rather it gives a narrative account and analysis of past events.
One purpose of historical research is to discover a relationship between what happened in the past with current trends (Johnson & Christensen, 2008). Specifically for this research project, that connection is a primary goal. After this research on internationalization of student
affairs, I will be able to put into context a new wave of interest in internationalization in student
affairs based on a narrative of its past in the US. By researching internationalization in student
affairs in the US in the past, the results should shed light on both current trends and possibilities
for future research.
24 Historical methods in student affairs. In 2014, Kimbell and Ryder highlighted a major
issue concerning history in current (student affairs) graduate programs by observing that
"Though history has long been a part of graduate preparation in higher education administration,
new student affairs professionals often struggle to see its relevance to their work" (p. 298). This
can be observed by the lack of historical programs at student affairs conferences or by the little
research produced that incorporates the history of student affairs. Schwartz (1992) goes one step
further to encourage historical research by saying that "it is imperative that members of the
higher education and student affairs fields make better use of educational history, historical
research, and historical interpretation" (p. 59). All too often professionals in student affairs can
explain the significance of an individual theorist of identity development or explain the historical
significance of their institution's mascot or athletic program, but many cannot identify the professions' historical lineage.
Evaluation of Sources
This study used document analysis and oral histories as the primary forms for analysis.
The research was emergent and interpretive. Initial sources were identified and each step
forward revealed new documents to examine or new names of individuals to contact until
saturation occurred. However, the researcher must satisfy both external and internal criticism of
sources to verify their authenticity and validity.
External criticism refers to the authenticity or trustworthiness of the evidence and/or
sources. In essence, it determines if the sources and evidence is truthful or in error. Validity of
documents can come from signatures, archival records, age of paper, and so on (Johnson &
Christensen, 2008). Documents examined in this research were retrieved from the National
25 Student Affairs Archives at Bowling Green State University. The documents came from private
collections or were donated from professional associations.
Internal criticism occurs only after authenticity is established. This process refers to how
reliable or accurate information is in sources collected. Different types of documents can have
unintentional meanings based on the audience, the time period, and the role of the document
itself. For example, a published, edited document is typically straightforward in intentions, like a
set of meeting minutes; however, memos, notes, and written comments on a document could be
distorted if not validated. Johnson and Christensen (2008) suggest that historians first employ positive criticism. "We mean that the educational historian must be sure that he or she
understands the statements made or the meaning conveyed in the various sources" (p. 431).
As this research study examined events and documents collected over 45 years, terms and phrases, as well as certain intentions, procedures, and people impacted, evolve over time. This process of evolution can cause problems in the research if one is not careful in analysis. For
example, today practitioners use the term, "international students"; however, in the 1950s, the
same students were referred to as "foreign students." Another example is how a certain federal
or state policy may have been interpreted in 1951 versus in 1996.
The next criterion for the reliability of information after satisfying positive criticism is
negative criticism. Establishing negative criticism consists of ascertaining the reliability of the
actual content of the sources (Johnson & Christensen, 2008). The process can be more difficult
as it entails the historian judging a source's accuracy. Johnson and Christensen (2008) give light
to three procedures used by Wineburg in 1991, in how historians establish negative criticism in
document review: corroboration, sourcing, and contextualization. The procedures were used in
the current research for both documents and oral histories. Corroboration is achieved by
26 comparing both documents against each other as well as integrating oral histories from around the same time period into the mix to observe if individual perceptions align with association documents. Sourcing refers to understanding the who, what, when, and where a source was established. All documents collected from the Bowling Green Archives were official, authored documents by the associations; therefore, the sourcing of the documents was considered prior to exploring documents. The contextualization of this research is placed chronologically and with an understanding of the social and historical context of higher education in the US and other factors that might influence the topic. Although these heuristics were used only in document analysis, I found that I could strengthen the overall internal criticism by applying the same techniques to oral histories in conjunction with the documents.
However, it is important that the researcher question each source appropriately and has a healthy sense of skepticism to ensure that external and internal criticism are satisfied. Gerda
(2004) encourages the following questions when researching, adapted from Shafer's work in
1974, that can be tailored for documents and oral histories:
Is the real meaning different from the literal meaning? Were these words used in the
same ways then as they are today? Was the statement meant to be ironic or sarcastic?
Does the speaker have background on this topic? Was she or he present for the event
described? Might she or he have been intimidated into (or out of) saying something?
What was the intent? When was it said, and in what temporal relation to key events?
What was the intention of saying this? To who was it directed? What overt and implicit
clues to veracity did the speaker include? Understanding the context, do the statements
and explanations seem reasonable? Are there internal contradictions? How are my own
preconceived expectations influencing my reading of the document? (pp. 38-39)
27 But as Howell and Prevenier (2001) point out, "no source, and no interpretation of it, is perfectly
reliable, if by that one means that it provides certain knowledge about the past" (p. 2). Keeping
these things in mind doing while doing archival or historical research allows the researcher do
their best to ensure reliability without having unrealistic goals of perfection.
Process of Analysis
This research study is a horizontal history as described by historian John Thelin. By
doing horizontal research, one is able to observe a more "complete ecology of higher education
that includes the roles of foundations, consortia, associations, accrediting bodies, state bureaus,
and federal agencies" (Thelin, 2010, p. 71). Sometimes researchers look too narrowly at
institutions or specific phenomena so that other possible influences are ignored or pushed to the
side. By taking a look at a topic through the horizontal lens, a researcher can begin to look at the big picture and how different factors influence the phenomena. Thelin (2010) points out that
"The roots of 'horizontal institutions' run deep in American higher education in part because of a
tradition of institutional autonomy and decentralization, best characterized by the absence of a
central federal ministry of education" (p. 72). This circumstance sets American education apart
from most other educational systems around the world.
As historical research is often emergent, an initial analysis of certain sources was
conducted to then identify other sources or individuals that may contribute to the topic at hand.
Documents and individuals were sought out for their relevance to the topic of
internationalization and/or their relevance to the different professional associations. The process
of identifying new documents and individuals continued throughout the entire study.
As the research began, 45 years of NASPA conference programs were identified and
collected to shed light on how often the topic of internationalization and the international
28 dimension was presented at national conferences. In fact, NASPA printed full conference proceedings from 1919 to 1966, which provided great insight on a variety of topics as there were
verbatim transcripts on what topic was talked about or referenced in major sessions or keynote
addresses. Unfortunately, after 1966, this transcript of meetings was no longer an option. After
the collection of relevant documents and an initial analysis of the first 45 years of conference programs, each year's analysis was uploaded to NVivo to keep track of notes and memos
collected.
NVivo software was created to assist qualitative researchers in data analysis through
many different features. For the purposes of this research, the 45 years of programs were
uploaded, the memo feature was used for reflections, and basic coding was used to put a loose
structure on what happened from year to year at conferences related to internationalization and
the international dimension. Notes were also taken by hand for each year from 1951 to 1996.
Programs were identified in title, abstract, and any other information included, as to whether they
covered the international dimension.
The 45 years of programs led to other documents that might be of assistance including
references to committees in each identified association that specifically addressed international
education. These documents were located in the archives at Bowling Green State University and
collected for further review. Upon review, these committees provided leads to specific names of
other individuals who might have been important in the internationalization movement or other
documents.
With the work I conducted along with the Bowling Green archivist, we were able to keep
a focus on the organized efforts within the professional associations to address
internationalization in student affairs. Notes were taken on these documents and their
29 connections with the professional associations, conferences, and/or committee work. The
documents laid the foundation for a structure of how internationalization developed over time
and assisted in formulating certain questions for the oral histories. The use of individual perceptions and reflections from both their institutional life and their professional organization provided a more horizontal view of the internationalization of student affairs.
The 17 individuals selected to be interviewed for oral histories were identified based on
their knowledge of internationalization within the organization or their knowledge and
involvement in the association itself. I also attempted to balance the number of oral histories for
NASPA: Student Affairs Administrators in Higher Education, and ACPA: College Student
Educators International, as well as identifying important figures in the National Association of
Women Educators (NAWE) to include since NAWE disbanded in 2000. Oral histories were
recorded and meticulous notes were taken throughout each interview.
In addition to interviews with student affairs professionals, I also interviewed a historian
of higher education to obtain a different perspective and insight both into the topic of
internationalization as well as context of what was happening in higher education during the time period. A total of 17 individual oral histories were conducted. Six participants represented
NASPA including current President Kevin Kruger, past president Jon Dalton, past Executive
Director Elizabeth "Liz" Nuss, and members Roger Ludeman, Ken Osfield, and John Lowery.
Seven represented ACPA including past executive directors Carmen Neuberger and Gregory
Roberts, past Presidents Susan Komives, William "Bill" Bryan, Dennis "Denny" Roberts, and
Margaret "Peggy" Barr, and member Michael "Mike" Coomes. Two represented NAWE including past President Gail Hanson and past Executive Director Lynn Gangone. John Thelin
represented the perspective of larger picture of higher education as a historian. And Sherrill
30 Ragans who identified mainly with a different organization (ACUHO-I: Association of College
and University Housing Officers - International) but also provided insight to her institutional
experience and perceptions of NASPA and ACPA over the years. Overall, these 17 individuals
were affiliated with over 15 different professional associations including membership in the
Association for the Study of Higher Education (ASHE), Council of Advanced Standards (CAS),
National Orientation Directors Association (NODA), Association of College and University
Housing Officers - International (ACUHO-I), and other functional area associations within
student affairs as well as sometimes two or all three of the major student affairs associations
during their careers. Often the oral histories provided perspective on one or more of the three
student affairs associations. After six or so oral histories, a story was developing on its own.
The oral histories began with the collection of biographical information to gain background
information on the interviewees, then questions focused on personal and institutional experience,
and later professional association experiences.
The use of historical methods through document analysis and oral histories corroborates
sources and contextualizes a story within the research and data. Themes were established,
synthesized, and organized to create continuity between the sources and the timeline.
Conclusion
This study employed historical methods to describe the internationalization of student
affairs in the US from 1951 to 1996 by utilizing primary and secondary sources. Documents and
oral histories were considered for both internal and external validity. The examination of
sources created a horizontal historical timeline for the internationalization of student affairs and a
narrative for the use of the student affairs profession.
31 CHAPTER 4
INTERNATIONALIZATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION
This chapter focuses on the internationalization of higher education in the United States
(US). Different events and movements helped to shift perspective in higher education. In
Chapter 2, the historical context of the time period was discussed. Each of these events and movements pushed higher education to seek new purposes in the 20th century. In this chapter, some historical context will be discussed followed by sections on why, what, and how to internationalize, and finally, provides a brief description of the advance of internationalization of higher education since 1996, and discusses issues in the internationalization of higher education.
Current literature explores this topic in depth and will be highlighted but is not re-examined in depth (see Altbach, 2004; de Wit, 2002; Kerr, 1990; Knight & de Wit, 1995; Trow, 2005).
Historical Context
Higher education's history is international in its nature. Phillip Altbach (2004) notes that,
From the beginning, universities represented global institutions - in that they functioned
in a common language, Latin, and served an international clientele of students.
Professors, too, came from many countries, and the knowledge imparted reflected
scholarly learning in the Western world at the time. (p. 4)
This "academic pilgrimage" has been around for centuries (de Wit, 2002, p. 5). When looking at academic mobility in the US, it was upper class US students and scholars who went east to
Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries. For the elite class, this was the final piece of their education often coined the "Grand Tour" (de Wit, 2002). For centuries, universities around the world rooted their institutional systems on the medieval model of the European university, models such as the University of Paris later followed by Oxford and Cambridge (Altbach, 2004).
32 The US and the diversity of institutional types were also borrowed from Europe. The first institutions in the US, sometimes referred to as the "Colonial Nine," had their roots in the residential institutions of Cambridge and Oxford (Rudolph, 1990).
In the early 1800s, the German model of higher education, where the concept of current graduate education began, was introduced at US institutions with the necessary intensive research focus of German-trained faculty (Rudolph, 1990). Today, pieces of the German and
British models can be seen co-existing with other influences to form different and unique institutional types around the US. Higher education in the US borrowed freely from academic systems from other nations, most often based on individual faculty or benefactors who were familiar with those systems. Individuals who had attended those institutions or had traveled to those locations often helped set the standards for US institutions. The simple idea of individuals transferring their own experiences to create new standards for colleges and universities is a theme seen often in the current study and discussed further in the following chapters.
From the beginning, institutions in the US used global models for higher education, but this was just the beginning of the internationalization of higher education and was by no means very structured. Knight and de Wit (1995) point out that between the 18th century and World
War II (WWII), "The most important international element of higher education... was probably the export of systems of higher education" (p. 7). Yet, other things were added along the way including an international dimension in research and scholarship, along with the mobility of elite students and scholars internationally (Knight & de Wit, 1995). After World War I (WWI), veterans who had fought the Axis powers in Europe came home with new international experiences and exposures. The US government realized it could not ignore or continue the isolation that had kept the United States out of global events any longer. As the popular song of
33 the 1920s reflected on the changes caused by World War I, "how you gonna keep them down on the farm once they [young men] have seen Paree [Paris]?" (Lewis & Young, 1919). The Institute of International Education (IIE) was created in 1919 to help assist with the increased demand for international cooperation and exchange (Knight & de Wit, 1995).
International efforts increased during and after WWII as the US became a world power.
Directly after the war, policies and efforts put together were mainly focused on creating "peace and mutual understanding" (Knight & de Wit, 1995, p. 9). One example of this, seen in the documents, included US efforts to re-build Japan's education system after the second World War.
Additional efforts included added studies in curriculum, foreign language, interdisciplinary studies, and programs that focused on cultural understanding such as international studies or affairs. Courses such as these would help train a new generation of students about the world and democracy that furthered the "peace and mutual understanding" effort. Higher education was seen as the driving force for this new focus. Other policies and efforts such as the Truman
Commission, the creation of the National Association of Foreign Student Advisers (NAFSA), the
Fulbright Act, and UNESCO influenced an increased internationalization movement.
As the world wars ended, many new international graduate students came to the US for an education. The extensions to the previous and predominantly homogenous population impacted certain institutions more than others, but made a major impact on higher education in the US. Behind much of the post-war focus on peace was the idea of national security. It was firmly believed that with an increased emphasis on area studies, academic opportunities, and greater government funding would come certain regulations and greater international commitments (de Wit, 2002).
34 However, other than a continued interest in the exchange of students and scholars,
relatively little happened until the 1960s and 1970s (Knight & de Wit, 1995). Up until this point,
most international efforts were haphazard and unstructured. It was in the 1960s and 1970s that programs and other activities became more organized due to the expansion of higher education
and economic competition (Kerr, 1990).
The end of the Cold War in the early 1990s created an improved environment that
allowed for a stronger emphasis on globalization and, vicariously, the internationalization of
higher education as there was no longer two dominant world powers. Rather, global economies
and diplomatic relationships began to encourage more international cooperation and exchange
(Knight & de Wit, 1995). US higher education could rationalize internationalization for an
economic edge. The creation of international business centers at universities and educating
students to succeed in a global economy became the focus during these final decades of the 20th
century. By the end of the century, economic competitiveness became a key rationale for the
internationalization of higher education in the eyes of many of the stakeholders.
Why Internationalize (Rationales)
The literature gives many reasons for the steady increase in the internationalization of
higher education over the years (see de Wit, 2002; Knight & de Wit, 2002). Some reasons are
more obvious than others, such as national security, peace and mutual understanding, and
economic competitiveness, each of which were touched on in the prior section. Nevertheless, de
Wit (2002) attempts to synthesize reasoning into four rationales: political, economic, social-
cultural, and academic:
Political (foreign policy, national security, technical assistance, peace and mutual
understanding, national identity, and regional identity), economic (economic growth and
35 competitiveness, the labor market, national educational demand, and financial incentives
for institutions and governments), social-cultural, and academic rationales (providing an
international dimension to research and teaching, extension of the academic horizon,
institutional building, profile-status, enhancement of quality, and international academic
standards). (p. 85)
Each of these rationales was further supported by stakeholders including governments, the private sector including foundations and associations, institutions, faculty, and students (de Wit,
2002; Knight & de Wit, 1995). For each stakeholder, the internationalization process looks
different and has a different motivation.
Understanding Internationalization of Higher Education (Terminology)
Terminology is difficult when discussing any global topic. de Wit (2002) notes that the
US tends to use 'international education' and non-US sources tend to use 'internationalization' of
higher education and often they are used interchangeably. The difference between the two seems like not much. Yet, the literature does point to differences in the two and the confusion found in using one in place of the other. On one hand, the term internationalization has less structure and may be seen as chaotic with no one simple definition; it describes a process. On the other hand, international education seems more structured with a connection to administration and programming. International dimension has also been added to the list of terminology in this area but is mainly used in a generic way to refer to a certain international aspect that may not be organized. Each of these terms (as defined in Chapter 1) can be used to describe movements in higher education but each term is different and cannot be used interchangeably (de Wit, 2002).
Knight and de Wit (1995) address four different approaches when defining the above terms (internationalization, international education, international dimension): activity,
36 competency, ethos, and process approaches. With so many definitions and understandings of
terminology, to understand the approach is useful. The activity approach focuses on academic
initiatives and describes internationalization by different academic or extra-curricular activities
such as "curricular development and innovation; scholar, student, and faculty exchange; area
studies; technical assistance; intercultural training; international students; joint research
initiatives" (Knight & de Wit, 1995, p. 16). Competency approaches address the development of
student, faculty, and staff knowledge, skills, and values (competencies; Knight & de Wit, 2002).
The ethos approach looks more at the culture or environment at the institutional level. How does
the institution incorporate and value cultural competence and international perspectives, and so
on. The process approach is focusing on internationalization throughout every level of the
institution, from mission and vision down to policies and procedures of the institution.
Strategies and Organizational Models to Internationalize
The process approach described above truly serves to initiate internationalization at an
institution. Other approaches may haphazardly address a concern, but only change at the
foundational level can begin to achieve true internationalization. Over the years, several
strategies have been implemented at the department, institutional, state, and federal levels to
internationalize through the process approach. Knight and de Wit (1995) synthesize strategies
into two strands: program and organization.
Program strategies fall into four categories: academic programs, research and scholarly
collaboration, external relations and services, and extracurricular activities. Organizational
strategies fall into four categories: governance, operations, support services, and human resource
development (de Wit, 2002; Knight & de Wit, 1995). Higher education has lots of moving pieces and these strategies are useful to break down to see how the parts fit within the whole.
37 Student affairs is a part of the whole of higher education and each of these strategies impacts the field.
Program and organizational strategies help break down the bigger picture of the process- oriented internationalization effort; however, several organizational models were also established to help comprehend institutional efforts of internationalization in the literature (see de Wit, 2002;
Knight, 2004). These models take different approaches and include different factors that impact or demonstrate internationalization. However, for the purposes of this research, expansion on these approaches is not imperative, rather this section aims to provide a foundation of knowledge concerning the internationalization of higher education.
Post-1996 Internationalization
The paths and collaboration between organizations and individuals did cross and set higher education in the direction of a more streamlined focus for internationalization as seen in the next chapter, specifically in the field of student affairs. However, this study concludes after
1996 due to a visible change in professional associations, institutions, and professionals' focus on internationalization.
Another way institutions are internationalizing can be seen in partnerships with institutions around the world. Altbach (2004) refers to the multi-nationalism and
'McDonaldization' of higher education in describing how programs or branch campuses "pop up" in different countries. Multi-nationalism refers to partnerships and collaborations with institutions in different countries, whereas the "McDonaldization" analogy refers to a "one size fits all" program in a different location or country. A clear example of multi-nationalism is
Education City in Qatar where multiple well-known US institutions have branch departments that create a small city in the Middle East. The branch campuses work with local government
38 and culture to create a completely new experience for students studying in Qatar. Having branch
campuses around the world benefits the home institution for many of the above rationales: political, economic, social-cultural, and academic, reasons (de Wit, 2002) as long as institutions
are working within the country and culture to integrate appropriately. When institutions or programs do not integrate appropriately, it is seen more through the lens of "McDonaldization."
The Bologna process in Europe provides another example of the trend of working with
other countries in higher education. The process is designed to make studying in one country to
the next in the European Union (EU) states seamless for EU students. The effort benefits all
countries involved by making it easier for students to travel and study. It also sets a precedent
for international agreements and frameworks (Altbach, 2004). Relationships like these may be
the future of higher education. Even today, countries like Germany are making college free to
non-German citizens. Arrangements such as these have the potential to compete with systems of
higher education around the world and bring students to their country instead of others.
September 11, 2001. An event that cannot be forgotten within the scope of the
international dimension is September 11, 2001 and multiple bombings on US soil. Immigration policies, international students, and US institutions were all impacted by this event. Muslim and
Middle Eastern students were harassed, and many international students Visas were impacted.
One cannot look past how this event influenced US policy and the fear that increased towards
certain populations as well as within the scope of national security. September 11th also
influenced North American border laws. Each of these policies and laws put in place in response
to this event impacted the international dimension in critical ways especially when considering
the mobility of international students and scholars, as well as establishing a fear of US citizens to
39 travel to certain locations abroad. Keeping this in mind, since 1996, the internationalization of both higher education and student affairs has not always been easy and smooth.
Issues with Internationalization in Higher Education Around the World
Internationalization of higher education doesn't come without costs, both monetary and policy. Issues of equity from nation to nation impact higher education as a whole. The idea of
"brain drain" still has relevance in today's society. Brain drain occurs when students or scholars
come from other countries to study or do research, and end up staying in that country, mainly
South [hemisphere] to North (Altbach, 2004). Often these are third world nations losing their best and brightest to the Western world but in some cases, the reverse can occur.
Another factor that benefits some countries over others is the use and access to
technology. Technology and use of the worldwide web may come naturally to many children in
the US and other Westernized countries but may not be the same around the world.
Additionally, English is often the dominant language in scholarship and research. However,
those students or scholars who are not proficient in English are at a distinct disadvantage. The
acknowledgement that the US is at an advantage in their strength of educational system, diversity
of institutions, access to technology, and English as primary language is absolutely
acknowledged in the literature and here in this study (see Altbach, 2004).
Conclusion
Over the centuries, some countries have shared their efforts in higher education with each
other. Before Oxford and Cambridge, the University of Paris was seen as the model European
university. Young English boys and men were sent to Paris to study but over time, the delights
and temptation of Paris proved to be too tempting. In response, Oxford and Cambridge were built in rural districts outside of London with large walls to keep students in, a very non-Parisian
40 response. In more modern times, the United States built colleges along the same lines as the
"Oxbridge" model with some Scottish influence thrown in for good measure (Lucas, 1994).
After World War I and most certainly after World War II, the desperate search for peace and a reduction in conflict led to a demand for common educational efforts and a shared curriculum. In much of the internationalization of higher education literature (see Altbach, 2004; de Wit, 2002; Knight & de Wit, 1995), it took until the 1990s to bring together decades of unorganized, unstructured, and individual programs and projects, attempting to internationalize higher education. The current research study and the internationalization of student affairs also establishes a similar timeline. The decade ushered in the new hope for the 21st century; a hope for strategic and integrated internationalization of institutions of higher education.
The current study's timeframe is 1951 to 1996. The expansion of internationalization of higher education has evolved and become more sophisticated since 1996 including multi- nationalism. Some of those items were touched on in this chapter while others will be addressed in a later chapter. However, it does make a difference when considering what research and scholarship were available (and what wasn't) to professionals during the forty-five years addressed in the study.
In short, as de Wit (2002) describes it,
American higher education has been developing a broad variety of activities, programs,
and projects in international education, mainly at the undergraduate level: international
curriculum development, area studies, foreign language training, study abroad,
exchanges, foreign student recruitment and advising, and development cooperation and
assistance. At the same time, however, most institutions of higher education do not have
an internationalization strategy for the whole of the institution. (p. 218)
41 de Wit (2002) acknowledges other stakeholders in international education including scholarly and professional associations. These stakeholders, for example, ACPA, NASPA, and NAWE, are discussed in the next chapter.
42 CHAPTER 5
STUDENT AFFAIRS IN THE US AND INTERNATIONALIZATION
After understanding the context of the internationalization of higher education, it is important to address the field of student affairs including its origins, the history of professional associations, the development of student services, student development, and student affairs, and finally discussing the term internationalization in the context of student affairs. This chapter addresses each of these as well as providing some insight into how professionals came to the field of student affairs through narratives from individual oral histories provided for this study.
Each of these narratives speaks to the diversity within the field of student affairs as well as providing a foundation for the story of the internationalization in the field of student affairs in the
US.
History of Student Affairs and the Professional Associations (ACPA, NASPA, NAWE)
With the first colonial colleges, faculty took on in loco parentis roles by providing
discipline, and moral and intellectual guidance for students (Nuss, 2003). By the late 1700s,
extracurricular activities including literary clubs that often became Greek-letter organizations
(e.g., Phi Beta Kappa), athletic clubs, and debate clubs were often a part of campus life (Nuss,
2003). Student affairs and services in the US was established from a "felt" need in the late 1800s
and early 1900s, as students out-numbered faculty, and supervision became a full-time job.
As enrollments increased including more co-education, student services grew as well, and
early on, faculty began to take on additional roles as deans of men and women (Schwartz, 1997a,
2010). Different student populations, each with their own unique needs were coming to
campuses in the US and necessitated the establishment of a new profession to accommodate for
these demands. Deans of men and deans of women were appointed more and more by the early
43 1900s. As student involvement on campus evolved, so did the services to oversee them and as
the diversity of students coming to college expanded, so too did the need for student affairs and
services became more and more evident (Schwartz, 1997a, 2010).
The deans of women and NADW (later NAWDAC, NAWE). The first deans of
women can be credited for the start of professional associations in the field of student services,
the first graduate programs and some of the earliest, published research on students. The deans
of women initiated many, if not most, of the earliest discussions concerning issues such as
housing, career services, and counseling (Gangone, 2008; Gerda, 2006; Nidiffer, 2002;
Schwartz, 1997a, 1997b). In the beginning, the deans of women were on their own, attempting
to network and strike alliances with male counterparts where they could. Prior to the
appointment of deans of women, colleges and universities had Lady Principals and other matrons
whose job it was to oversee the female students and their activities (Nidiffer, 2000) but as the
needs of students increased, so did the expansion of the position.
Gerda (2004) found that Swarthmore College appointed the first Dean of Women in 1890
when it appointed Elizabeth Powell Bond. But because the role had a new title, but not
completely unique job duties, the University of Chicago is often credited with making the position popular and noteworthy with the hiring of Alice Freeman Palmer by Chicago President
William Rainey Harper, just prior to the University's opening in 1892 (Gerda, 2004). Palmer's
appointment convinced other universities to create a similar position on their campuses. Alice
Freeman Palmer persuaded Harper to hire her friend, Marion Talbot, to be her Assistant Dean as
well (Schwartz, 1997a).
After three years, Palmer stepped down to return to Boston and Talbot took over in the
role. It was the newly appointed Dean Talbot who called the first meeting of the Deans of
44 Women in 1901 at which 18 women attended. They discussed topics such as housing,
leadership, athletics, and social skills (Schwartz, 1997a). The group would later become the
National Association of Deans of Women (NADW) in 1916. Additional name changes over time included National Association of Women Deans and Counselors (NAWDC) in 1956,
National Association of Women Deans, Administrators, and Counselors (NAWDAC) in 1973 and finally the National Association of Women in Education (NAWE) in 1991 before disbanding the organization all together in 2000 (Bowling Green State University Archives, n.d.).
The deans of men and NADM (later NADAM, NASPA). The deans of men followed a similar pattern. Similar to the deans of women, not long after the earliest appointment, often cited as Thomas Arkle Clark at the University of Illinois in 1901, a small group of deans of men from the Big Ten conference were called together by Scott Goodnight, Dean of Men at the
University of Wisconsin, to discuss their pressing issues such as discipline (Schwartz, 2010).
The initial meeting consisted of six men in 1919 and continued annually with the participants calling themselves the National Association of Deans of Men (NADM). In 1951, the NADM renamed themselves the National Association of Student Personnel Administrators (NASPA).
Along with the name change to NASPA, the organization began to include women. This research study begins in 1951, just after the name change and inclusion of others at these conferences.
The early meetings after World War II (WWII) became a place for colleagues to come together to discuss solutions and best practices on different issues. When the NADM became
NASPA in 1951, it took several years to involve women and even longer to brand the organization as NASPA. Interestingly, in 1964, NASPA voted to change their name to drop the word, "national," as they had included Canadian members. They also considered dropping
45 "student personnel" as student affairs fit better with their purposes and considered bringing the
term "dean" back into the organizational title. These changes in name were debated and the
members voted to keep the acronym but added a more descriptive term, leaving the final product
NASPA: The Association of Deans and Administrators of Student Affairs (NASPA Proceedings,
1964). However, by 1967, the name was back to NASPA: National Association of Student
Personnel Administrators as seen on the 1967 national conference program. Unfortunately, the
former name which put NASPA ahead of the curve by dropping national and including student
affairs, did not catch on with the membership and it was either forgotten or voted back to the
former name. Surviving documents from the time period are not clear as to why the name
changed back; however, the change showed interest in conversation and importance of the topic.
ACPA. In 1924, the National Association of Appointment Secretaries (NAAS), the
earliest version of what would now be called "career services," was founded and later changed
their named to the National Association of Placement and Personnel Officers (NAPPO)
reflecting a broader group of professionals before changing to American College Personnel
Association (ACPA) in 1931. The organization helped establish the American Personnel and
Guidance Association (APGA) in 1952 as an umbrella organization that included all student
service professionals but later disaffiliated with the group in 1991 (Nuss, 2003). ACPA has been
led by well recognized student affairs practitioners and graduate program faculty over the years
(Cilente, 2011).
The Student Personnel Point of View (SPPV). In 1936, the American Council on
Education (ACE) and their executive council sponsored a conference to address 'personnel work'
(SPPV, 1937). In 1937, the Student Personnel Point of View (SPPV) became a seminal
document for the field by defining and providing a working philosophy to student personnel
46 workers around the US. The SPPV indicated 23 services that should be included in a college or university's student personnel services as well as demanding a greater focus on the individual student and their holistic development. In 1949, E. G. Williamson of the University of
Minnesota led another committee to revise the original report. The updated version included new goals and objectives for higher education that came directly from the Truman Commission of 1947:
1. Education for a fuller realization of democracy in every phase of living;
2. Education directly and explicitly for international understanding and cooperation;
3. Education for the application of creative imagination and trained intelligence to the
solution of social problems and to the administration of public affairs. (SPPV, 1949, p. 2)
Over the course of 12 years and a second world war, higher education and specifically, student affairs and services, were tasked with educating for "international understanding and cooperation," that was not a part of the first edition in 1937. The new goals and attention to higher education's role in society demonstrated a marked shift. The inclusion of these new goals encouraged the authors of the 1949 version and their philosophy of "the student as a whole"
(SPPV, 1949, p. 2), as well as outlining the elements of a student personnel program, its administration, and an emphasis on the importance of research. The documents helped to shape the history and philosophy of student affairs today. In his oral history, Dennis "Denny" Roberts,
ACPA past president, reflected on the documents as catalyst for student affairs to begin to think about international understanding.
People talk about them as if they are the same document and while they have overlap in
terms of their content, the 1949 statement clearly reinforced what the 1937 point of view
was taking, but in 1949 version, you were following WWII, they used the word
47 "international," and do talk, not a lot, about the critical importance of there being greater
international understanding and of course they talk about all in the context of spreading
democracy to save humanity, I mean that's the way they were talking about it in 1949, but
they were talking about it seriously. You asking that question, drew me back to it -
because that really was a part of what they were saying in 1949, was 'Look we are
missing something here and we just came out of two world wars as a result to the fact that
we can't figure out how to get along, and what are we going to do in higher education in
order to fix that?' So the 1949 point of view did put that out there, it didn't articulate it in
a very deep and detailed sort of form, but it put it out there, the wars had to be at least a
catalyst for an increase in terms of international understanding. (D. Roberts, personal
communication, December 5, 2014)
Another oral history participant viewed the 1949 version of the SPPV was to think about how prevalent the document is in the field of student affairs but how many may not think of its
wording in the larger context of internationalization. Faculty member at Bowling Green State
University and ACPA member, Michael Coomes reflected,
But if you go back to the SPPV, the preamble in the Student Personnel Point of View of
1949, is all based on the Truman commission report, and the Truman commission report
is all about internationalization and spread of democracy post in World War II. I don't
think you find anything in the 1937 document but you do in the 1949 document. So it's
been there for a long time, I would have read those documents, I would have made the
intellectual connection to that 'oh we just came out of a second world war', Europe was
very concerned about never getting in that situation again, the Truman commission report
uses that kind of foundational set of values and expectations as a way of framing that
48 [belief]. The SPPV picks up on that, so I would have known that, but I would have never
cast it in the consciousness of internationalization. (M. Coomes, personal communication,
October 27, 2014)
Consciousness is an important factor when considering the prevalence of the international
dimension within the field of student affairs in the US during this time. A majority of the professionals in the field of student affairs have read both of the Student Personnel Point of View documents in their graduate preparation, but how many have reflected on the importance of the inclusion of goals from the Truman Commission in the 1949 version and associated them with the international dimension?
Student development and student affairs. A large amount of federal involvement, legal and policy changes, the lessening of in loco parentis, an increase in student activism, and an increase in types of services offered caused student services to shift away from the disciplinarian and towards the role of educator (Nuss, 2003) as well as the SPPV's holistic view of student development. The new role and all that it encompassed led to an increase in use of the term "student affairs" versus student services, and also led to an increase in a theoretical base for the field.
The student development movement within student affairs focused on the development of the whole student through theory and served as the foundation for the current student affairs graduate programs around the US. However, globally, student services is often used rather than student affairs due to the relationship with institutions or lack thereof. Even today, the literature
refers to international student affairs and services rather than one or the other to be inclusive; as
every country identifies the terms differently (Osfield, 2008).
49 Becoming a Student Affairs Professional in the US
Professionals in the field of student affairs come from a variety of backgrounds.
Individuals don't take one path to student affairs as there is no undergraduate major or early intervention methods other than experiences and mentors. Early on, there were a few strong graduate preparation programs, mostly located in the Midwest as well as the earliest efforts to educate women, as deans of women, at Teachers College at Columbia University in New York, as seen in the development of the professional associations earlier in this chapter. However, today there are countless graduate preparation programs for student affairs and higher education administration. Yet, there is still no single path to become involved in the field.
After conducting oral histories with 16 noted individuals in student affairs, there were similar stories, and often some foundational values seen among the 16 student affairs oral histories conducted with these individuals. Each talked about how they chose to become involved in the field as well recounting their undergraduate experiences. When referring to his college chaplain at Yale, past NASPA President Jon Dalton reflected, "I had in my mind that I wanted to be like him, I wanted to be a college chaplain, and save the world and make the world right for justice and goodness" (personal communication, October 9, 2014). Even in searching for his first job, Dalton had a choice between two positions, one in student affairs and one in the corporate world. "They offered me three times the salary that Kentucky did, but I was so idealistic, I said, I'm not going to take this corporate job, I'm going to follow my heart" (Jon
Dalton, personal communication, October 9, 2014).
Past ACPA President Bill Bryan, reflected on one of his first days in college at Florida
State University,
50 I can remember the Vice President walking through the group and he was observing, the
Vice President would walk through and say 'hey Mike, hey Bill,' talking to each student
and you were identified, that was significant thing, as I reflect back later, you need to
know students absolutely on campus. (personal communication, October 22, 2014)
Often individuals would reflect on different experiences from their undergraduate years and later
identifying that as a reason for coming into the field of student affairs, some would call this the
"typical or traditional path" including NASPA leaders Elizabeth "Liz" Nuss and Kevin Kruger,
ACPA leaders Susan Komives and Dennis "Denny" Roberts, and NAWE leaders Lynn Gangone
and Gail Hanson. "I [Elizabeth Nuss, past NASPA executive director] was a student leader and
Resident Assistant and that sort of got me prompted to consider a graduate program in student
affairs, I went directly from undergrad to Penn State for a masters in their student personnel program" (E. Nuss, personal communication, November 5, 2014). NASPA President Kevin
Kruger shared, "I had a fairly traditional student affairs trajectory, I was an Resident Assistant
and an Orientation Advisor" (personal communication, October 31, 2014). ACPA past president, Susan Komives also had a very active undergraduate career.
I was very active in student government, a campus leader, and involved in a lot, I was
asked to be on the president's advisory board, was active in my sorority, and I noticed
the associate dean of women was always there with us and I thought she was really
interesting. I asked her how she got her job and she told me about this whole field of
student affairs. (S. Komives, personal communication, November 6, 2014)
ACPA past President Dennis "Denny" Roberts was set to be a concert pianist when he started his
college career.
51 Then I discovered student involvement, I was involved in a variety of ways, fraternity,
student government, residence halls, and orientation. I was an all around student affairs
overachiever as an undergraduate and in my junior year, I began to think, hmmm I don't
know if this concert pianist career is going to work out. (D. Roberts, personal
communication, December 5, 2014)
Roberts later went to talk with his dean of students and "before I left his office that day, I committed myself to student affairs, and began the process of searching for grad programs" (D.
Roberts, personal communication, December 5, 2014). NAWE past Executive Director, Lynn
Gangone also considered her path traditional.
My involvement began in my undergraduate career, I was a work study student and
ended up spending three years in the dean of students office and then my last year
working in the dean of academic affairs office and I was also deeply involved with
student government, residence life, and had mentors in student affairs who encouraged
me to pursue that as a career. (L. Gangone, personal communication, December 9, 2014)
Having a mentor or someone in student affairs encouraging their path became a theme within student affairs professionals career trajectory. Gail Hanson, past NAWE President, was involved in residence life, Greek life, and senior class council. She worked with the dean and assistant dean of women, "and that is when I bumped into what I wanted to be and when I started working with them, I asked 'how did you get to do this?'" (G. Hanson, personal communication,
December 23, 2014).
Others came from different fields and for some reason fell into student affairs for other reasons such as NASPA leaders Roger Ludeman and Ken Osfield. Roger Ludeman shared that his background was in music including teaching and directing bands. However, he knew he had
52 to make a career change because he didn't have the background in piano to be successful;
therefore, he applied to four Counseling and Guidance Institutes sponsored by the government
(personal communication, October 2, 2014). Ken Osfield was working in special education
when he was injured on the job and could no longer remain in that environment. "A friend of
mine told me about a program at the University of Rhode Island for the masters degree in student personnel, so I said 'oh that's interesting' and I applied, got in, and started going to graduate
school" (K. Osfield, personal communication, October 22, 2014).
Carmen Neuberger, past ACPA executive director, had a mixture of these experiences.
Coming to the US as a 14 year old as an international student from the Philippines having lived
through World War II, she was very involved as an undergraduate in Greek life and women's
student government at the University of Maryland, but also took 15 years to raise five children before coming back to the field.
Student affairs has been such a huge part of my life, it's amazing that we could go into a
profession in the early 1970s, to find out there was a graduate program to study it, and
then become a professional; it was the most wonderful thing that ever happened and that's
where I spent the next 30 years, more like 40, and all my best friends have a student
affairs background... I loved student affairs and had some good mentors. (C. Neuberger,
personal communication, December 17, 2014)
When discussing how individuals got involved with student affairs, there is always a
different narrative for each person. Each story is critical as to why that individual chose the profession and why they remained in student affairs. However, there was an strong trend that ran
through all the oral histories conducted that they had happiness and a sense of purpose within the
field of student affairs. Similarly, many of these individuals, as well as others who were
53 included in the narrative of the internationalization of student affairs, had a story of why they have an interest in the international dimension or why it wasn't on their radar at the time.
Student Affairs Interest in the International Dimension
The oral histories collected specifically to explore the international perspective contained stories about working with international students to traveling abroad and learning about international higher education systems that sparked an interest in the international dimension.
The involvement of individual professionals is important in the narrative for the internationalization of student affairs and will be explored more in depth in Chapter 7. However, over the years each of the professional associations noted earlier, NASPA, NAWE, ACPA, had a committee, commission, or task force dedicated to work on the topic of international education or included the international dimension.
The groups were made up of individuals who had interest in the topic and some were very influential in making change at the association level. Archival documents found in the archives at Bowling Green State University dated from 1951 to 1996. Unfortunately, the archives are somewhat incomplete and there is no definitive date to when each of these committees first formed and no definitive data that indicates which of the associations started their international committee first, but discussions began as early as the 1930s.
In ACPA, the first mention of an international committee was in the archives under
Motions made for committees. In 1956, there was a motion to discharge their current
International Relations committee (ACPA, 1956). No other mentions of this committee were found in the archives. Later, ACPA formed the Standing Committee on International Education in 1961 as well as the formation of Commission X: Advising Foreign Students, changing the name immediately to International Dimensions of Student Personnel Work. Other name changes
54 to Commission X were in 1984 which created International Dimensions of Student Development
and finally to Global Dimensions of Student Development in March 2001.
In NASPA, the first mention of a committee (in this research) was in the 1959
Proceedings when Fred Turner discussed the history of NASPA and,
In 1933, Mr. Charles D. Hussey, Secretary of the Committee on Friendly Relations with
Foreign Students, made the first formal presentation to the Association. Since then, we
have had the subject before us repeatedly and in cooperation with other associations.
(NASPA Proceedings, 1959, p. 36)
Additionally, in the 1956 Proceedings the Cooperating Committee with NAFSA was listed
(NASPA Proceedings, 1956). The committee went from a cooperation with NAFSA to a
NASPA specific committee addressing other issues in the international dimension. The
committee changed names multiple times over the years. In 1960, NASPA's committee was
called Foreign Student Advising Committee; in 1961 it was the committee on International
Exchange of Students; in 1964 the Committee on International Student Programs; then the
committee disappears from NASPA documents for a few years. In 1981, the International Task
Force was put into place and remains through the early 1990s when the International Education
Network was established in 1995.
In NAWE, the first mention to a committee was in 1968 as the International Students and
Programs Committee is established and then changed to Intercultural Education and
Communication Committee in 1977, and finally to the Intercultural and International Education
and Global Concerns Committee in 1987. NAWE also had a Task Force on International
Students and Programs from 1971 to 1973. It is uncertain when this committee was first
established but as the association itself was not only for women in higher education but also for
55 primary and secondary schooling, the committee addressed international students and programs
at all levels, from K-12 and beyond.
Over the years, these committees provided guidance and programming to their professional association and its leadership. Much of the international dimension seen in the
document analysis originated from these committees as well as open dialogue from individuals
talking about their own international experiences. Even though the origin of these committees
cannot be verified via document analysis, the important conclusion is that the professional
associations were thinking about and discussing the international dimension in higher education
and student affairs from the beginning of this research's time period and seen as early as 1933
according to Turner's history from the NASPA 1959 Proceedings. Other annual information and
themes from the committee and conference programming will be discussed in Chapter 9.
Understanding the Term, "Internationalization" in Student Affairs
The use of the term "internationalization," is not often used in the field of student affairs,
or in conference programs, major documents, or committee minutes until late 1990s and beyond.
For the purposes of this study, when reviewing documents, anything that was related to or
relevant to the international dimension were noted and coded. As discussed in Chapters 1 and 4,
the international dimension was viewed from a very broad perspective as something that was
international in nature but not necessarily organized for internationalization purposes. The term
"internationalization" is often misunderstood or misinterpreted even among professionals in the
field. As a basis for understanding this research, as stated in Chapter 1, NAFSA: Association of
International Educators defined internationalization as "the conscious effort to integrate and
infuse international, intercultural, and global dimensions into the ethos and outcomes of postsecondary education" (p. 1). However, each individual interviewed for an oral history
56 offered their own understanding of internationalization and those responses are offered as a means of explaining and demonstrating how different individuals in the field of student affairs interpreted the term.
Defining Internationalization in the Context of Student Affairs
The oral history participants defined internationalization differently. The differences highlight a general struggle of defining terms in higher education but is important emphasize the diversity of understanding. The following section will provide further consideration to
"internationalization."
Not to complicate it... It's a term that refers to the growing awareness and commitment to
international issues and developments, especially that effect the profession - so if I say
that the student affairs field is "internationalizing," that means there is growing awareness
in the profession about the importance of things going on in other countries, and it is our
responsibility to some of that, and our ability to learn from things that are happening
internationally. (J. Dalton, personal communication, October 9, 2014)
As Barr noted in her reflection,
A change in perspective through contact, through experience, and through curriculum of
looking at problems and issues not in a country centered way but on a world-wide basis...
It's kind of like the Ebola, yeah, it's happening in Africa but its gonna happen all over the
world, and we are foolish if we don't think it will. (M. Barr, personal communication,
October 13, 2014)
Ludeman said:
I always go back and forth from internationalization and globalization. It's often through
lessons you learn from other people. When you are thinking about internationalization,
57 you need to think it can start small that it also could be big, when you talk about
globalization you are talking about something that effects the entire planet, that can take
on all kinds of different forms, United Nations isn't an international organization...
internationalization is often used more in academic circles, talking about academic
programming, coursework, internationalizing the curriculum, what that means is not
making sure every country in the world is involved in your curriculum, but when it's
appropriate to internationalize your course, so that is often in an international context,
international education versus global education - I would say as long as are aware of how
you are using the term, it doesn't make that much difference. (R. Ludeman, personal
communication, October 20, 2014)
Ken Osfield reflected,
Well... if you look at what everyone seems to have a different understanding of it... to me
true internationalization, somewhere where it isn't just another buzz word people are
using, it's got to be more than that, it's gotta be something where it takes over the whole
campus and the faculty all the way down from the president down to everybody else
believe in what we call internationalization. (K. Osfield, personal communication,
October 22, 2014)
And Michael "Mike" Coomes states,
Well, I think the way it's being used now is a desire by, and I'm going to put it in the
context of colleges and universities, but I think colleges and universities is just one
cultural institution in our culture and you would find people in different frameworks it
may be different... I think it means an awareness of and a desire to see the world more
holistically and more, you see greater inter-sectionality across countries, but it frequently
58 gets cast in economic terms, often in competitive economic terms, internationalization is
something a culture must do if they want to stay economically competitive, and that's
certainly how I hear leaders in higher education talking about it, if they don't say it out
right, they say students need to become citizens of the world. (M. Coomes, personal
communication, October 27, 2014)
Nuss stated,
I think its developing, understanding, moving beyond our own cross cultural or
multicultural in a domestic sense. Beginning to understand the cultures of the world and
how they address a variety of issues and the history of different cultures and how we as
Americans understand those cultures and what can we learn from those cultures and what
can we bring to those cultures. (E. Nuss, personal communication, November 5, 2014)
Kevin Kruger takes a larger look by defining two dimensions, saying,
In relation to higher education, for me it has two dimensions - the two worlds that are
important, one is the campus world and the other is the association world. 1.
Internationalization from the campus perspective is embedded in the notion that we are a
global society and as a global society we are served by the opportunities that our students
have to develop intercultural skills and develop an understanding of others and that can
happen by one of two ways, either by a. a rich campus environment that celebrates and
provides opportunities for interactions with people from different cultures on campus and
b. for some students who are lucky enough to have this opportunity for them to be able to
have an international experience, where they may go to study in a different place and
learn that kind, those kinds of lessons in a more intense environment - but since that's
only a small number of students that get to do that overall, I think the more important
59 thing is how we create campus environments that really celebrate that international
diversity, the richness of that and prepare students to work in the world of work which is
going to be global; 2. from the associational standpoint of course I have a whole different
sense of that and that is connecting student affair professionals and higher education
professionals to student affairs professionals who are not from the US. And higher
education rises globally, with that is some beginning infrastructures of the student
services and student affairs area and the opportunity for us to find common grounds to
discuss issues, solutions, and then that can happen through an associational lens. (K.
Kruger, personal communication, October 31, 2014)
Ragan reflected,
I don't know the term very well, but my understanding is the commitment of an
institution to become international in its view and have systems and services in place to
accommodate that. (S. Ragans, personal communication, November 6, 2014)
Dennis "Denny" Roberts reflects on others definitions as he thought about the term and said,
I really rely on Jane Knight's definitions, the difference between globalization and
internationalization I think is very important and again, the student affairs people are
being really sloppy with those two words, they use those two words in the same sentence
but they are different words. Globalization as an economic phenomenon which has
potential to perpetuate much of the negative baggage of colonialism versus
internationalization which is the understanding of valuing of and the integration of
international perspectives in the entire higher education experience and Jane [Knight]
does a wonderful job of talking about comprehensiveness that internationalization needs
60 to pop up in lots of different places in the institution. (D. Roberts, personal
communication, December 5, 2014)
Finally, Carmen Neurberger examines her own life as she reflected,
My personal understanding would probably be more personal, having lived through it, is
really opening doors here in the US because people during WWII were obviously, a lot of
sons and daughters were sent abroad and their eyes were opened up, but many US people
who stayed were not exposed to too many international people except for people from
Europe, but to me internationalization is the whole entire planet; so after and when US
higher education started opening up to international students. (C. Neurberger, personal
communication, December 17, 2014)
Each of these definitions are unique to individual experiences and perspective.
Highlighting their definitions provides context for how differently this topic is discussed in
general and in this research. Regardless of their personal understanding of "internationalization,"
the same overall themes came out in their oral histories and are seen in the next five chapters.
Interest in the International Dimension From the Larger Perspective
Often, it is easy to identify why a professional became interested in the international
dimension based on their personal experiences or to identify a date when institutions began to
implement policies and practices. In trying to understand this topic from a larger perspective,
one of the oral histories conducted was with higher education historian, John Thelin. His
knowledge of the history of higher education but not specifically student affairs allows him to provide a "big picture" point of view when exploring this topic within the field of student affairs.
He expands on his thoughts of why student affairs might have become interested in the
international dimension,
61 All of student affairs changed around 1970 where there is recognition, and I think that
was a natural extension that you have a responsibility if you are sending a student
somewhere or bringing students from somewhere, you've got to have in place a fair array
of good services as a safety net, because if you don't, all kinds of bad things are going to
happen. So I think starting in the early '70s, wise vice presidents of student affairs
started to heed this. I think they would get invited to go on a trip and then they would
come back, and over time they start to implement some measures that make sense, and
then they may hook up with their national organizations; it's kind of an interesting
interplay between campus and organization. (J. Thelin, personal communication,
November 21, 2014)
Thelin's reflection touches on a few of the major themes found in this study including
student affairs exchanges, the interplay between institutions and associations, individual professional experience, and the importance of the student at the core of all of these. Each of
these topics are explored further in later chapters. But even as this research was emerging, these
themes were evident from the beginning. Thelin's observation, along with the higher education
literature discussed in Chapter 4, sets the stage for a more comprehensive understanding of the
evolution of the international dimension during this time period within student affairs in the US.
Setting the Stage
Previous chapters provide understanding of internationalization and the international
dimension in both higher education and student affairs, as well as shedding light on the field of
student affairs and how professionals understand and define internationalization. The next five
chapters help to outline the narrative of the internationalization of student affairs from 1951 to
1996. Each chapter consolidates different themes found in the document analysis and oral
62 histories to provide context for the process over the forty five years. In addition to exploring the
historical and social context of the time period seen in Chapter 2, Chapter 6 goes a step further to
acknowledge concurrent movements seen both in document analysis and in the oral history participants exploration of their own experiences over the years. These are movements that run parallel to internationalization. From top down policies and national movements to grassroots
initiatives from students and professionals.
In Chapter 7, the importance of individual professionals, their experiences, and their
encouragement of others to be involved in the international dimension is explored and discussed
as one of the largest factors to the internationalization of student affairs. Chapters 8 and 9
examine the influence of institutions and the professional associations over the years. Next, in
Chapter 10 and Chapter 11, the tipping point of the internationalization of student affairs and a
new outlook for the internationalization of student affairs in the US is discussed. In the final
chapter, the researcher explores the topic since 1996 and the progress already seen in the field of
student affairs and offers some tips on how to further this topic in the future.
63 CHAPTER 6
CONCURRENT AND GRASSROOTS MOVEMENTS
Chapter 2 touched on the historical and social contexts of the period between 1951 and
1996 in the US, while this chapter expands on the different concurrent and grassroots movements revealed in the research that were running parallel with the internationalization of both higher education and student affairs, and their possible influences on one another. After two world wars in 30 years, the US attempted to establish "peace and mutual understanding" through foreign and domestic policies, initiatives, and partnerships with higher education, private foundations, and other countries. Dennis "Denny" Roberts, ACPA past President, for example, reflected on the
Marshall Plan as one such governmental initiative with a goal of reaching peace and mutual understanding.
The Marshall Plan is a way of understanding with others and the fact that Germany
and Japan ended up being two of the strongest economies in the 20th century was a direct
result of appropriate responses to helping rebuild those countries after World War II and
it was brilliant, and we ended up have two great friends. (D. Roberts, personal
communication, December 5, 2014)
Likewise, efforts such as these helped to guide the direction of the internationalization of higher education, which was influenced along the way by a variety of government and private initiatives, the Cold War, the 1960s diversity movements, the evolution of international higher education, and a world made smaller by faster communications. Additionally, there were grassroots movements happening through students and professionals in institutions and associations. A combination of all of these events and efforts led to the internationalization of student affairs.
64 Initiatives Affecting the Internationalization of Higher Education in the US in the 20th
Century
During the first two decades after WWII, many American programs and projects were
established to promote "peace and mutual understanding." They were just as important to the
internationalization of higher education as those discussed in Chapter 2, however, they are not
as well known.
The Institute of International Education. The Institute of International Education (IIE) was formed post-WWI in 1919 by three men, including two Nobel peace prize winners, Nicholas
Murray Butler, President of Columbia University, and Elihu Root, former Secretary of State, and the first president of IIE, Stephen Duggan, Sr., Professor of Political Science at the College of the City of New York, who believed that the world "could not achieve lasting peace without greater understanding between nations—and that international educational exchange formed the strongest basis for fostering such understanding" (IIE, 2015, para 1). IIE's mission was to increase access to education around the world and to advance international education, and it still does this through multiple initiatives including exchange and leadership programs.
One of these programs is hosted through IIE's scholar division, the Council for
International Exchange of Scholars (CIES). CIES oversees the Fulbright program, a well-known exchange program for students and scholars (see below). In addition, it manages scholarships, conducts research, promotes international development, and protects scholarship worldwide (IIE,
2015). The IIE is still thriving after almost 100 years, and serves as one of the strongest voices in the international education policy arena in the US.
International Houses. In the 1920s, with the support of philanthropists, a YMCA
initiative to provide inclusive experiences for international students, was able to get off the
65 ground after Harry Edmonds, of the YMCA, met a Chinese student in 1909 who had not had
anyone speak to him in the few weeks he had been in the country (International House New
York, n.d.). After years of planning, Edmonds gained the support of oil magnate and philanthropist John D. Rockefeller and New York philanthropist, Cleveland H. Dodge, to create
the first International House opened in New York in 1924. In John Thelin's oral history, he
reflected on how this initiative influenced the international movement during this time period:
They [the organizers] picked five campuses for International Houses, if you visit there,
the students loved it and it’s beautiful, with a mix of international students as well as US
students living there. They would have speakers, events, folk dancing, and what you
find, is it was a prestigious place to live. It was really this place where future leaders
lived. They were very potent places that were way ahead of the game in terms of
understanding where the future was going. (J. Thelin, personal communication,
November 21, 2014)
These individuals saw the need to support international students, and they created a solution that
is still relevant today. The International Houses (I-Houses) exist around the world, mainly in
large cities, and serve as a space for international and domestic engagement. With over 16 I-
Houses around the world, they are noted to have many famous graduates and provide programming for students to interact and engage with one another (International House New
York, n.d.).
Fulbright Act. Passed by the US Congress in 1946, the Fulbright-Hayes Act encourages academic exchanges around the world:
With the support of the United States government and through bi-national partnerships
with foreign governments, the Fulbright Scholarship Program sponsors US and foreign
66 participants for exchanges in all areas of endeavor, including the sciences, business,
academe, public service, government, and the arts and continues to increase mutual
understanding between the people of the United States and the people of other countries.
(Fulbright Program, 2015, 2nd para)
Senator J. William Fulbright's (D-Arkansas) Act was, in essence, meant to encourage a focus on
"peace and mutual understanding" in the post-WWII era through educational and cultural
exchange (de Wit, 2002). The Fulbright program is under the control of IIE and CIES. Over the
years, the Fulbright program has evolved, and sends not only faculty and students abroad, but
other professionals including student affairs staff. This program, and its influence on individuals
and the student affairs profession, will be discussed more in the next chapter.
NAFSA. In 1948, the National Association of Foreign Students Advisers (NAFSA) was
formed as another initiative of the IIE to help support advisers and professionals who worked with the large number of students coming to the US after WWII (de Wit, 2002; NAFSA, 2015).
Depending on the college or university, foreign student advisers were placed in different administrative chains. Some reported to Deans of Students or Vice Presidents for Student
Personnel, some to the Deans of Men or Women, and others reported through the academic administration via a college dean or the provost. Today, many of the international offices that oversee study abroad and international students are housed in the academic affairs branch of the university, and many student affairs practitioners, who work directly with international students or have international programs under their purview, may not be a part of NAFSA.
NAFSA's relationship with student affairs has varied over the years, a topic that will be highlighted in the next chapter. However, it is important to touch on the importance of NAFSA's work within the internationalization of higher education, study abroad, and international students
67 since their inception in 1948. NAFSA has served as a voice for international education within
the US as they were organized by institutions, government agencies, and private foundations to
support the thousands of international students.
The Truman Commission. The 1947 Report of the President's Commission on Higher
Education for Democracy is an oft discussed document in the literature due because it
established specific goals for education. As mentioned earlier, this document outlines the role of
higher education in the post WWII period. As noted by the Truman Commission:
Education for a fuller realization of democracy in every phase of living. Education
directly and explicitly for international understanding and cooperation. Education for the
application of creative imagination and trained intelligence to the solution of social
problems and to the administration of public affairs. (The President's Commission on
Higher Education, 1947, p. 8)
The report didn't just realign and refocus goals for higher education, it went further by expanding
on the need for higher education to have more access to diverse populations and examine its role
in society. As discussed in Chapter 2, higher education was called upon to assist the federal
government during and after WWII in many ways, a relationship born of necessity that benefited both parties, and increased funding, prestige, and confidence in higher education. The
Commission's Report thrust higher education into the larger picture of society and challenged it
to re-examine its own institutions and missions to serve the public good.
Title VI. Title VI of the Higher Education Act of 1965, helped to develop specialty areas
of study; international studies, international affairs, foreign language centers, and other
interdisciplinary studies programs helped to develop a new generation of students that could become part of a future global society (de Wit, 2002). All of these programs were critical for
68 national security during the Cold War, and funding remained steady. Title VI increased the
visibility of international education, and the importance of graduating "global" students.
Summary. These organizations, programs, and initiatives helped to set the stage for
much of the internationalization of higher education. Smithee (2012) notes the post-WWII
efforts to create programs and internationalize higher education did not have immediate effects
and were not necessarily undertaken for the purposes for internationalization, but the
combination of efforts did set the stage internationalization in higher education circles. The
increase in government attention and the formation of organizations, and a general goal of
understanding the world, did indeed create an environment ripe for internationalization. Over
the years, these programs and initiatives paved a path for collaborations for student affairs in
higher education.
The Cold War and the 'Red Scare'
As discussed in Chapter 2, conflicts between the United States and its allies and the
Soviet Union, Korea, Cuba, and other Eastern Bloc affiliated states, exacerbated by
McCarthyism in the US Senate, perpetuated fear of communism and of communists, leading to a pervasive feeling of fear dubbed the “Red Scare.” The NASPA: Student Affairs Administrators in Higher Education proceedings and national conference programs reflected some of the thinking about the 'Red Scare' and provide evidence of how prevalent this issue was within higher education, both at the professional and student levels.
Communism and Sputnik would appear as anecdotes or were mentioned in passing during conference sessions over the years, sometimes in light of the Cold War and sometimes in reference to McCarthyism. However, they may also be seen as related to de Wit's (2002) political rationale of internationalization in higher education.
69 In 1959, the president of the National Students Association (NSA) gave a report that
called attention to the "World Festival for Peace and Friendship," which was sponsored by two
world student organizations and was taking place in Vienna under communist auspices. One of
the host student organizations, International Union of Students (IUS), was aligned with the
Communist bloc and seventy to ninety known students from the US were participating in this
festival (Johnston, 2012; NASPA Proceedings, 1959). Because the IUS was seen as a
Communist organization, US governmental agencies began to look at any student organizations
as a possible threat.
In the early '50s, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) began to work with and fund
NSA at the international level at the same time leaving many NSA members in the dark
(Johnston, 2012). In the wake of not knowing about the governmental involvement, NSA itself was sometimes characterized as a communist organization by administrators, faculty, students, and outside parties. As Angus Johnston (2012), United States Student Association (USSA; formerly NSA) historian, writes: "Such cautious liberalism drew harsh criticism from both the right and the left, with conservatives accusing NSA of being a Communist front while the
Communist Party denounced it as fascist" (para. 5). But they did whatever they could to make sure higher education leaders know that they did not stand for these principles such as delivering reports to administrators at higher education conferences.
I think it exemplifies one of the things which the NSA faces on the international level,
and that is that the 'Cold War' is not restricted merely to the diplomatic round tables and it
is going on throughout society, and it particularly has an impact in terms of communist
aims on the student level. (NASPA Proceedings, 1959, p. 183)
70 Thus, the report provides evidence of communism influencing the work of those in higher
education.
The final keynote address of this 1959 conference was made by Lyman Kirkpatrick,
assistant director and inspector general for the Central Intelligence Agency. Entitled An
Intelligence Career and the National Security, Kirkpatrick spoke of challenges for US security
including the issue of communism and world interests in the future (NASPA Proceedings, 1959).
"Fear often weakens resolution,” Kirkpatrick said, “and weakness of resolution in turn may lead
to neutrality; and neutrality in turn leads to an uncommitted area which becomes a prime target
for the Soviets to operate against" (NASPA Proceedings, 1959, p. 220).
This type of highly political address was atypical for NASPA. During the 15 years of
NASPA proceedings spanning from 1951 to 1966, conference presentations covered many
topics, however, every once in a while, a topic posed by an outside speaker would appear almost
as if it was a requirement imposed by an outside influence. Kirkpatrick spoke about the type of
student that the Intelligence Service wanted and how NASPA could help to identify those
students (NASPA Proceedings, 1959). He then discussed the history of the CIA and other
intelligence agencies, such as the FBI. The Proceedings of the 1959 meeting were unique due to
the multiple mentions of communism and its impact at the institutional level.
At the 1963 NASPA meeting, Dr. Barry Farrell, Associate Professor at Northwestern
University gave a keynote address entitled Student and Student Personnel Administration Behind the Iron Curtain. His experiences included teaching and research in Western Europe and Canada as well as traveling to all but one country in Eastern Europe 'behind the iron curtain' (NASPA
Proceedings, 1963). He was able to research systems of higher education and student, faculty, and administrative roles in the that political system (NASPA Proceedings, 1963). He discussed
71 higher education organization and student personnel work in communist countries as well as the
student influence through an association called the 'Party' (NASPA Proceedings, 1963). This
association conducted much of that work that student personnel workers in the US do including providing academic guidance, adjudicating judicial concerns, planning social events, and assisting with job placement (NASPA Proceedings, 1963). For the first time, experiences discussed from behind the Iron Curtain weren't discussed in fear, but rather as a matter of fact.
Regardless, the Cold War and communism over the years influenced how international issues were examined and discussed, and could have possibly influenced internationalization within both higher education and student affairs.
The Importance of the 1960s for Individuals, Institutions, and Associations
In conversations with the student affairs professionals about important events that affected their lives over the years, a majority pointed to the 1960s as a crucial decade for change.
They included the Kennedy assassination, the civil rights movement, and the women's movement as events that changed their perspectives and helped to define their lives. The NASPA conference documents also revealed the extent of the influx of initiatives and programs (see above) that began in the 1960s that had a global context and affected institutional work.
NASPA conference documents. In 1961, NAFSA President James M. Davis, Director of the International Center and Associate Professor of Higher Education at the University of
Michigan, presented a seminar entitled Trends in Campus Provisions for International Students
(NASPA Proceedings, 1961). Davis discussed the political nature of the international dimension by discussing the Kennedy Task Force, the Peace Corps, the new Fulbright bill, and other influences such as a recent Ford Foundation report, and other NAFSA projects such as funding individuals to do research abroad (NASPA Proceedings, 1961). The time was ripe for
72 international efforts through governmental and private support. Davis quoted the 1961 Ford
Foundation report entitled The University and World Affairs:
Despite many fine efforts by administrative and academic staffs of universities and
colleges and by other interested institutions and community groups, to provide foreign
students a satisfactory educational and personal experience, administrative arrangements
by and large remain inadequate at most institutions. At some, scarcely anything is done
to meet their needs. (NASPA Proceedings, 1961, p. 113)
Statements like this one supported the internationalization of higher education literature and the claim that student services for international students and international efforts at the institutional level were very scattered at this time as seen in Chapter 4. Similarly, the Kennedy Task Force on
Education report of 1960 encouraged more funding for international programs, like the Peace
Corps, at the campus level, along with English language training and other support services
(NASPA Proceedings, 1961).
During the annual banquet in the same year, Albert G. Sims, Vice President of IIE and
Director of University Training Programs for the Peace Corps, gave an address entitled The Role of the University in World Affairs through the Peace Corps (NASPA Proceedings, 1961). Sims spoke of how quickly institutions had been organizing Peace Corps student organizations since its inception due to the overwhelming interest of US students who wanted to be involved in this work around the world. Sims listed three reasons for this interest: a 'great awakening' of youth to the world around them, a dissatisfaction with how world relations had been handled in the past, and youths pursuing the "American dream" that anything is possible (NASPA Proceedings,
1961, pp. 259-260). He highlighted the Peace Corps and the role of the higher education as a training ground for future volunteers, and as an institution that could help with research and
73 evaluation of the program, and help administer study abroad experiences (NASPA Proceedings,
1961). The fact that NASPA had a representative speak specifically about the Peace Corps
shows the significance of this program and the need for student affairs professionals to have a
role in its delivery. It is also possible that this session took place due to outside influences due to
its importance to the current federal government.
The next year, in 1962, John B. Netherton of the University of Chicago and chairman of
NASPA's Committee on International Exchange of Students gave a report to the membership
addressing US programs like the Fulbright and Peace Corps. He also issued a call to NASPA to
take action to be involved in the Morrill committee recommendation of 1959 (NASPA
Proceedings, 1962), which included new initiatives on the part of institutions of higher
education, foundations, and the government related to world relations and the need to develop an
organization made up of these groups to strengthen educational leadership in global affairs.
Netherton's point was that NASPA should be a strong voice if this were to come to
fruition. "To put it briefly and bluntly, we believe that such an organization will probably be
formed, and that the Student Personnel Point of View should be taken explicitly into account in
the way it is planned, organized, and operated" (NASPA Proceedings, 1962, p. 153). The early
'60s had a small influx of governmental programs and initiatives addressing the international
dimension such as the Peace Corps and Fulbright Act. Student affairs professionals believed that
if these programs and initiatives were going to be successful at the campus level, then NASPA
members should be leading those efforts (NASPA Proceedings, 1962).
1960s events and their impact on student affairs professionals. During oral histories
with participants, a majority of them mentioned events in the 1960s that impacted their lives.
Eight of the participants included John F. Kennedy's assassination, reciting where they were at
74 the time they heard the news and its impact on their lives and in their memory. Five participants
listed World War II and their memories of how things changed or how their family was impacted by the end of the war. Another five listed the war in Vietnam due to the political nature
including two participants who shared that it influenced their decision to go to college. Five
more participants talked about the Civil Rights Movement and three participants talked about the
women's movement and their participation in the movement as well as how it helped to define
their own identity and sense of purpose.
When asked what political or historical events she considered to be most important or
impactful in her life, past NAWE President, Gail Hanson, recalled,
For sure the black student movement; the Vietnam movement moved you, but the black
student movement was about seeing the world differently and at the University of
Wisconsin it was big and educational, confrontational and uncomfortable. Having been
21 years old in the middle of all of that was formative for the way I think about race and
how your life experience is shaped by the color of your skin. (G. Hanson, personal
communication, December 23, 2014)
Often times it did seem like as individuals were recalling certain events, they recognized the
significance of when something happened in their lives. Kevin Kruger acknowledged this as
well,
When things happen ends up being a big deal, because it was my junior or senior year of
high school, the combination of Vietnam and Watergate wrapped up a healthy sense of
what government can do, what its capable of, some of the darker sides of the government
and a little bit of embedded mistrust that stays with you for life. (K. Kruger, personal
communication, October 31, 2014)
75 Jon Dalton shared his views on the 1960s and how things were seen at the campus level.
The Vietnam War and the Civil Rights Movement events were two historical types of
events or periods that I was very caught up in, the only reason I wasn't in Vietnam was
because of lottery and I lucked out I guess you would say, that's how I felt at the time,
many of us objected to the war and I didn't want to go anyway. The '60s were the high
point of protests, the March on Selma and the Civil Rights Movement was going on at the
same time as the Vietnam War and even when I graduated in Kentucky there was lots of
campus protests, some I was participating in, it shaped my views about the world and
values and of course the women's movement was also going on during this time, it was a
very intense time for social change. (J. Dalton, personal communication, October 9,
2014)
Dalton summed up the 1960s in the best way possible by reflecting on the social change during that decade. This decade along with the many events happening that encouraged social change, equality, and peace also impacted a generation of individuals. To not acknowledge how much these events influenced the individuals that were a part of them is to neglect how certain events or movements can impact one person and their work. Lynn Gangone, past executive director of NAWE, articulates her reflection on the question that "the women's movement, the
Civil Rights Movement, and the gay and lesbian movement were very powerful for me in terms of defining who I am and the sensibilities I bring to the profession" (personal communication,
December 9, 2014). The next chapter highlights the impact of one person can in fact change a culture, an institution, an association, or a profession.
76 Diversity and Multicultural Movements
The diversity and multicultural movement that began after the Civil Rights Movement
and gained momentum in the late 1970s and early 1980s occurred in parallel with the
internationalization of higher education. In the 1970s, sessions at the national NASPA
conferences focused on more diverse topics including women, sexuality, financing higher
education, and underrepresented minorities. However, it was in the 1980s when the sessions
around specific populations became consistent rather than simply as "international students."
One major trend in the 1980s was this discussion of diversity, multiculturalism, or human
awareness; however, often times in the abstracts these terms were used differently.
For example, if two sessions had titles including the word diversity or multicultural, the
abstracts would define those differently: one would include international students or world
cultures, while the other only included domestic diversity or black and white issues only. At
times, it would be very unclear whether a session would include the international dimension at
all. Sessions listed below are included with the understanding that regardless of whether the
international dimension was mentioned or not, this overall trend included different populations
and addressed awareness, skills, and values of these differences.
In 1980, the very first session on Hispanic-American students intended to provide "an
overview of the Hispanic population of the US focusing on the socio-cultural differences between the Caribbean and Mexican components" (NASPA Proceedings, 1980). In the past,
there would have been sessions about the entire population of international students; however,
this is the first session that spoke directly to one specific student subculture instead of being
combined with all international or all minority students, and it began a trend in sessions about
different subpopulations within the student body.
77 Later in the 1980 conference, there was a session held as a part of the NASPA
Management Series entitled Human Awareness. The session intended to help participants become more self aware of behavior, attitudes, values, and assumptions when interacting with
others from, for example, different cultures, genders, races, and environments (NASPA
Conference Program, 1980). Similarly in 1984, there was a session on human relations
awareness through simulation games covering racism, sexism, sexual preference, class, and
culture.
As mentioned previously, this was the beginning of a trend of addressing awareness,
skills, and values about different populations. While not specifically aimed at the international
dimension, the inclusion of culture and environments spoke to diversity and could influence a participant’s future experience with international students and colleagues. Human awareness sessions allowed for participants to explore their own views and expands their skills sets when working with all students.
The first session that was part of the NASPA Management Series in 1981 entitled
Reorganization During Retrenchment: New Delivery System for Special Student Services
discussed collaboration around campus to assist special student populations including
"minorities, disabled, international, and older returning students" (NASPA National Conference
Program, 1981, p. 15). This was one of the first times that international students were included
in other sessions not specifically addressing only international students. The inclusion of
international students with different populations could signify one of two things: one, the
understanding of the needs and differences of many student populations outside the 'majority,' or
two, it may have been easier to have put them in one session to connect their similarities as well
as point out the differences. Either way, there were many times when international students
78 weren't included at all in the sessions addressing student populations, so this inclusion signified
the acknowledgment of their differences.
It is in the mid-1980s that program sessions and individuals began to use language like
“pluralism” and “intercultural” to describe their understanding and thinking around these topics
of diversity and multicultural. In 1985, there were two sessions, one entitled Pluralism in Higher
Education: Cultural Awareness Workshop and another entitled Intercultural Perspectives:
Ethnic Insights from the American West, which discussed the importance of valuing different cultures and perspectives (NASPA National Conference Program, 1985). These types of sessions became typical through the mid-1990s and addressed diversity, civility, minority students, and multi-cultural education, and at times would also address the international dimension.
The diversity movement was evident both in the documents as seen above, but also in the oral histories with student affairs professionals when they were reflecting on the international dimension. Past NASPA President, Jon Dalton, was very interested in these two parallel movements and how they influenced one another.
Another really big and important trend going on in higher education and society, in which
these two really do overlap at certain points, whenever I think about international
development, it's not very far to when one begins to think about internal diversity in our
own country because some of the dynamics are the same understanding culture, needs,
and so forth. I would say particularly in the '70s, '80s, and '90s there was a
tremendous push to address minority issues and it was powerful. You might even
argue that that had an indirect effect on helping us to give more attention and awareness
to international issues because of the similar dynamics of understanding. I would say
79 NASPA became interested and intensely concerned about and addressing pluralism and
diversity on campus; international issues were never that compelling because it's not a
domestic kind of crisis in the same way that minority issues were but I do think they
overlap at certain points. (J. Dalton, personal communication, October 9, 2014)
Likewise, Dennis "Denny" Roberts discussed the similarity between the diversity and women's
movements and the internationalization of student affairs associations.
Organizations becoming truly international, in many ways in the same way when cultural
minority groups started pushing the associations to stop using marginalized language or
when women started saying 'stop referring to everyone as if they are male, and start
recognizing the experience of female professionals,' it is the same thing. It is something
that international representatives are probably going to have to go through, they first have
to draw attention to it, then organizations will begin to have the opportunity to be truly
integrated rather than to tokenize it. (D. Roberts, personal communication, December 5,
2014)
A Shrinking World
The world is shrinking due to media, technology, and global travel. The ease of turning
on world news, searching the internet, and booking a one way flight in a matter of seconds have both made life easier as well as more complex. Studying abroad became something that more
college students aspired to do, and many more families traveled abroad before their children
attended college. Such experiences and opportunities provided the upcoming generations with a
more global context and desire to understand the world.
80 Past National Association of Women Educators (NAWE) Executive Director, Lynn
Gangone talked about her personal experiences and how they influenced her thoughts about internationalization.
I think about the ways in which the European Union and some of the conflicts in
Czechoslovakia, so much has been happening around the world has required us to think
more broadly, I think the exposure we have, probably through the media, to more of what
is literally happening and be able to see that, I think has pushed some of this too. (L.
Gangone, personal communication, December 9, 2014)
International higher education evolution. Higher education around the world was evolving at the same time as American higher education. As colleagues and institutions around the world were evolving, and technology and world travel improved their connections, these changes were discussed worldwide. But even before some of these changes, international systems of higher education, such as that of Japan after WWII, used the United States as an example. Other international events such as the end of apartheid in South Africa, an increase in student and scholar exchanges, and The Bologna Process to reform European Higher Education also contributed to internationalization of higher education around the world. Many of these events came from a top down approach through policy, government initiative, or larger collaborations; however, many grassroots movements also contributed to and ran parallel with the internationalization of student affairs.
Grassroots Movements
Grassroots movements start from the bottom up, often single individuals or small groups that take the initiative to make a change. Concurrent movements like the Civil Rights and
81 women's rights movements, as discussed previously in the chapter, started from grassroots.
Higher education historian, John Thelin (2010), explained:
Perhaps the most crucial juncture in the horizontal history of American higher education
has been the transformation of individual activism into systematic, formal, and enduring
philanthropy. In other words, it is the legal, economic, social, and historical process
whereby individual generosity and priorities become institutionalized. (p. 74)
Similarly, grassroots activism from students and individual professionals helped shape student affairs and services since its inception. This section examines the internationalization of student affairs through the grassroots activism and the influence of students and professionals.
The documents and oral histories expand on the importance of student and professional needs and involvement in the horizontal history of American student affairs.
The Importance of Students and Individual Student Affairs Professionals
Students and student organizations, particularly the United States National Student
Association (NSA) in the 1950s and 1960s, helped give a voice to students both in the US and abroad. The following section details NSAs influence and other student action during NASPA:
Student Affairs Administrators in Higher Education conferences from document analysis over the forty five years. Additionally, it covers oral history participants thoughts on student influence.
NASPA proceedings. Having students present at conferences discussing the international dimension shows a different side of the internationalization of student affairs.
Especially in the early years of this research, other than hearing professionals talking about their own international experiences, students and student associations would discuss the international dimension in some depth. The first appearance of student involvement in the NASPA
82 conferences during this research was in 1952. The United States National Student Association
(NSA) was represented at NASPA in 1952 and established a close bond with student personnel
and student affairs associations during this time as seen in reports at the conferences. NASPA
created a liaison committee with the NSA during that year to build a working relationship between this association and student affairs professionals. Just as any other committee or
commission, they had volunteer or appointed members that would discuss common issues and
topics in conjunction with NSA members.
The NSA was created in 1947 after students from 37 countries met in Czechoslovakia to
establish a network of national student unions; therefore, they had both a national and
international presence (Johnston, 2012). Bill Dentzer, the President of NSA at the time and a
student at the University of Colorado, spoke to NASPA members during a business session in
which he discussed his experiences abroad.
I have been lucky enough to have been in Europe and to have been in South America for
three weeks, at international student meetings where the NSA is taking the lead in
drawing together non-Communist groups across this world to fight, an organization
called the International Union of Students (IUS), which is a communist-dominated
organization and which is fundamentally the youth arm of the Comintern [Communist
International] foreign policy. (NASPA Proceedings, 1952, p. 247)
Dentzer also elaborated on NSA's work with other organizations and ways they worked
to assist foreign students and their experience. For example, the NSA appealed to the State
Department for foreign students who were not learning US culture, rather they learned in the
classroom and left the country with no further understanding. NSA wanted these students to
experience more American culture during their visits (NASPA Proceedings, 1952). The
83 partnership between NASPA and NSA (and other student affairs associations) demonstrated the
commitment of these students towards working with student affairs professionals to make a
difference for their mutual purposes. The students also served as local representation for foreign
students and wanted to establish greater understanding as well as participated in attempts to stop
Communism alongside students from around the world as seen earlier in this chapter (NASPA
Proceedings, 1952).
In the NASPA proceedings from 1951 to 1966, NSA often had time to speak to the
membership and would discuss things that were occurring within their organization, as well as
conveying their purpose to administrators. The support for NSA and their activities within
NASPA was also apparent. In 1954, Robert "Bob" Strozier, President of NASPA and Dean of
Students at the University of Chicago at the time, served on the advisory board for NSA and advocated on their behalf. "I personally have felt since the very beginning that the organization had great possibilities" (Strozier, NASPA Proceedings, 1954, p. 159). Strozier went on to introduce James M. Edwards, President of the US NSA in 1954, who said:
There is a real need for an effective and representative national organization of American
students, just as there is a need for a National Association of Student Personnel
Administrators, a National Association of Deans of Women, American Association of
University Professors, and so on, organizations which allow for the exchange of ideas,
discussion of common problems, and in general for the membership to do things together
which they could not each do alone. I think there is also a very great need for an
organization of this type on the student level. And this is the need which the NSA
attempts to fulfill. (Edwards, NASPA Proceedings, 1954, p. 160)
84 Edwards gave a report that included NSA's work from that year, especially their work with students in other countries and their work against the Communist IUS student organization. As a follow up, Wesley Lloyd, Dean of Students at Brigham Young University, said, "I suppose one day we shall look back on the organization of NSA as a significant chapter in the development of student affairs in higher education than we now look at it..." (NASPA Proceedings, 1954, p.
167).
Lloyd, an early pioneering advocate of the international dimension as seen in the next chapter, proceeded to talk about his experiences and the differences in other countries and with student organizations (NASPA Proceedings, 1954). But Lloyd's statement spoke volumes to the influence that students had both in the US and abroad, and in the following years, NSA had a strong presence at NASPA conferences as demonstrated in the Proceedings. However, after the
Proceedings stopped being published in 1967, it was difficult to see any developments in their relationship with one another.
Prior to 1967, NSA would report on programs and initiatives they were conducting in the
US and around the world for students. NSA reports provided a basis for student affairs administrators at the NASPA conferences, and other conferences they attended, to recognize what was going on at the campus level around the US and beyond. However, NSA wasn't on every campus and not every campus wanted a chapter; but, their involvement beyond the campus level gave some insight as to how students became involved and attempting to influence institutional policy. Specific examples about how students and NSA were involved in advocating for the international dimension to student affairs professionals from the documents follows this section.
85 The president of the US NSA in 1955 reported on their activities including what they
labeled 'the exchange problem' (NASPA Proceedings, 1955, p. 135). NSA put together criteria
which they required to be fulfilled before sponsoring an exchange. They provided a specific
example of a Russian student editor's exchange that did not meet criteria hence why they
described it as a "problem" and the reason for the implementation of these new criteria.
However, he proceeded to share that instead, the organization wanted to sponsor trips to under-
developed areas in the world and working with student leaders. Technical assistance such as this
would bring these student leaders to the US to study and later return to their home country to
assume leadership roles.
In 1957, the Vice President of NSA delivered a report to NASPA about the third annual
conference on foreign student affairs for foreign students, the foreign student leadership project
working with student leaders around the world, and their international student relations seminar
for US students to go to Cambridge for an in depth study of international student relations
(NASPA Proceedings, 1957). Each of these events were a part of NSA's mission to engage with
foreign students and enhance their experiences in the US as well as developing relationships with
students worldwide.
In the first seminar of the conference in 1960, the topic of The Student Role in Higher
Education was led by the chairman of the Committee on Cooperation with US NSA.
Representatives on the panel discussed the history of students around the world and their role in
higher education, especially as the association level. The President of NSA discussed the
importance of US students and their representation at world conferences as well as the training
that students receive before they go to these conferences at their annual International Student
Relations seminar. The panel argued that students have a lot of influence in higher education
86 and student participation in institutional governance is increasing (NASPA Proceedings, 1960).
Conference discussions such as these continue to highlight both the importance of students and a
recurrent dialogue about the international dimension.
In 1961, the final keynote was given by the President of Howard University, Dr. James
M. Nesbitt, on the topic of student rights. In his keynote, he talked about the difference between
US institutions and other countries including the example of Latin American students and their
involvement with political affairs (NASPA Proceedings, 1961). The topic of international
student protests would surface from time to time to put into perspective the influence of students
around the world in higher education.
In 1965, during a seminar on National Association for Student Government, a panel of
students shared their thoughts on student government. NSA members sat on this panel and
talked about their international affairs branch, specifically why it was formed and the
commitment to helping student associations around the world especially developing countries to
help instill democratic ideals. The examples from the documents showed the importance of
students through the presence of NSA at conferences but oral histories also provided some
insight to the significance of students to student affairs and the international dimension.
Student affairs professionals and the importance of grassroots. In the oral histories, participants were asked how they believed the internationalization of student affairs was most
influenced: top down, through government policy or higher education, or bottom up, through
international students and student demand on campus. A majority of participants explained that
students and individual professionals have been the cause of much of the change within the
student affairs profession in the realm of internationalization. The field of student affairs and
services was born out of the need for specific services for students as described in Chapter 5.
87 Faculty were appointed as deans of men and women to oversee these services. At the root of these services was the student and their needs.
ACPA past presidents William "Bill" Bryan and Margaret "Peggy" Barr agreed that often change occurs due to students. Bryan said,
It has always been from bottom up in many campus settings as opposed from top down,
that says really good things about student affairs and not so good about higher level
administration on the campus - that is from limited professional experience on campus
settings but that was an observation. (personal communication, October 22, 2014)
Similarly, Barr simply stated, "Students up, that's me, other people may see it different"
(personal communication, October 13, 2014).
Other association leaders Kevin Kruger, NASPA President, Lynn Gangone, past NAWE executive director, and Susan Komives, past ACPA President, also acknowledged that students were a major factor for the internationalization of student affairs but in different ways. Lynn
Gangone, past NAWE executive director, believes it was students first, and that often student affairs, as a profession, was behind (L. Gangone, personal communication, December 9, 2014).
"I think it's students up [first]. I think student affairs gets caught as more of a reactive profession than proactive profession in a lot of ways. Students defined the need and then we responded to the need" (L. Gangone, personal communication, December 9, 2014).
Similar to Gangone, Komives acknowledged that international students would bring up different issues that later established a need for a policy as one way students influenced student affairs (S. Komives, personal communication, November 6, 2014). "They brought up lots of awareness of how we approach education differently, in student affairs, the student voice is first and then we address it though policy" (S. Komives, personal communication, November 6,
88 2014). Kruger reflected on the bigger picture of the types of student graduating from institutions
and the intercultural understanding they should possess (K. Kruger, personal communication,
October 31, 2014). "Our students have forced us, encouraged us, pushed us, to be inclusive of
our international students and communities that reside on our own campus" (K. Kruger, personal
communication, October 31, 2014).
Roger Ludeman, a NASPA member, agreed that students alongside of other concurrent
movements, were the most influential in the change in student affairs saying,
Definitely students, no question about it. Economy was better, people had more money
to travel, parents were better educated than the previous generation, and as a result of
that, there was more travel and more had been involved with study abroad so they
recruited their kids to do the same thing, so it was a gradual kind of thing along with
other national and international events. (personal communication, October 20, 2014)
Taking a different point of view, former NAWE President, Gail Hanson reflected more on the
specific influence of international students on campus.
I think most institutions began to admit a lot of international students without seeing what
that meant and it was the student people saying wait a minute this isn't working, and we
need to think about how we bring people in, how we prepare the campus community or
we are not going to be successful. (G. Hanson, personal communication, December 23,
2014)
And in addition to students, some of the participants acknowledged specifically student affairs professionals and staff as having some of that grassroots influence over the field of student
affairs.
89 ACPA past President, Dennis "Denny" Roberts, said that a majority of internationalization came from grassroots including "people who had an experience that was catalytic for them and all of a sudden they got a passion for it" (personal communication,
December 5, 2014). Often times it was the student affairs professionals that became passionate and then began to advocate. Michael "Mike" Coomes, ACPA member, gave an example:
It comes from knowing someone, who knows somebody, who says, you ever thought
about this--- you might enjoy that. There are probably programs about 'go do a
Fulbright.' That isn't the professional organization saying we are working with the
Fulbright's to do this, it is someone who had one who said I had a great experience
so you should do it too. (personal communication, October 27, 2014)
Program sessions such as the one Coomes describes began to pop up in 1990 at NASPA conferences (NASPA Conference Program, 1990). Individuals who had gone on a Fulbright
Scholarship or another student affairs type exchange would present a session to talk about how to apply or how to be a part of these types of experiences. Coomes continued by discussing the associations themselves as grassroots organizations.
When you say student affairs, my mind goes to NASPA and ACPA, the profession is
bigger than both of those, NASPA and ACPA are only artifacts of the profession, but
they are such important pieces of professional identity for people so it's hard not to think
of them. When I think of those two organizations, I always think they are grassroots
organizations, they are volunteer organizations, we have central offices and international
offices that do a lot of the day to day, but most of the work that gets done and most of the
initiatives that get floated and adopted come from bottom up. (M. Coomes, personal
communication, October 27, 2014)
90 Similarly, from the association perspective, Kevin Kruger reflected on the whole of student affairs as a profession.
Being in a profession that has equity and inclusion as part of its core values, I think there
is an understanding that we have a diverse student body and those students come to us
from different places and we need to provide learning and supportive environments that
help these students be successful, and that has meant retooling and training and being
creative in programs. (K. Kruger, personal communication, October 31, 2014)
The oral histories confirmed that students and student affairs professionals influenced how the field was shaped as a whole and through the international dimension.
However, not all oral history participants saw individuals as the only reason student affairs developed in the international dimension. Jon Dalton, past NASPA President, argued that it was both top down and grassroots up that influenced the internationalization of student affairs.
I would say when the federal government creates initiates programs and funding... with
an international component, they impact the campus because the people doing active
research want to apply for them. What the federal government does with regard to
financial aid and immigration issues impact local campuses... because they create
regulations but they also provide carrots, funding, and they provide venues for people on
campus to be more engaged with international issues like Fulbright's which is a federal
program. But locally, when I talk about institutions, if the president of a university
believes it's important to develop study abroad programs and do international scholarly
programs, they can change the climate on a campus. And there's a truly grassroots, that
rose out of the presence of international students, the international scholars who are on
your own campus that are sometimes really active, it is the personal travel of
91 administrators, the involvement in professional meetings abroad and all that. (J. Dalton,
personal communication, October 9, 2014)
Dalton continued to talk about the importance of examining the internationalization from each of
these levels as well as what the professional associations determine to be their priorities from
year to year. Dalton's reflection encompasses this chapter and the thinking of the influence of both top down and bottom up efforts in the internationalization of student affairs.
The oral history responses confirmed the importance of students and added the
significance of individual student affairs professionals in the internationalization of the field.
Additionally, it is also important to think about from all levels as Dalton alluded to in his oral
history. This chapter began to look at the concurrent and grassroots movements in society during
the same time frame as the study and the following chapters begin to examine the
internationalization at different levels within student affairs itself. Chapter 7 examines early pioneers in the field, and Chapter 8 and Chapter 9 looks at the institutional and association levels
respectively.
Conclusion
All of these movements paralleled the internationalization of student affairs, and possibly
influenced the way individuals thought about the international dimension of higher education as
well as the international dimension of human relations in general. Without doubt, the Cold War
affected colleges’ and universities’ faculty, staff, and students as the fear of communism and
communist influence ran deep within the institutions of higher education. As Jon Dalton and
others have intimated, the diversity movement allowed individuals to think about domestic
differences in a new way while they were connecting those experiences to the parallel
internationalization movement. John Thelin, higher education historian, examined
92 internationalization outside of higher education through music and sports and how they
connected individuals around the world.
In Yugoslavia most of the kids were multilingual, they know Serbian, Croatian, and they
probably know German or Russian, and all they wanted to do was practice English and
read about rock and roll, they were getting British rock and roll magazines and they
would read with this thirst for information. The other thing was sports, I could see this
coming in the mid 1970s, these countries had no facilities, but they would play basketball
on an asphalt court and play like 14 hours a day, they were fearless, they had no
equipment, they would go on to be NBA players.
You could see the sports revolution as their economies recovered from WWII, this
welling up, they were improving their schools, improving their sports, and it all is a part
of this convergence and they really looked to the US and they also surpassed the US, like
Wimbledon tennis. Who would have predicted that players from Eastern Europe would
be beating American players? So the cross fertilization worked. Music and sports,
because of the mutual interest, they cut across the formal curriculum. (J. Thelin, personal
communication, November 21, 2014)
This final link shows the impact of global commonalities and their influence on day-to-
day thinking around the world as well as establishing individual connections for students and professionals. Combining the influence of these concurrent movements over time helped to
define internationalism for these individuals. And it was these individuals who pushed the topic
at institutions and in the associations. In the field of student affairs, the international dimension
was infrequently discussed in the early years, and yet, when it was discussed, it was by
individuals who had personal or professional experience with travel, exchange, and working with
93 international colleagues and students. Such experiences shaped their lives, and theirs were the early voices who pushed for the internationalization of student affairs. The next chapter expands on these early pioneers advocating for the international dimension in the field of student affairs.
94 CHAPTER 7
PIONEERING PROFESSIONALS
One of the prevalent themes within this research study was the early international
experience and discussion of the international dimension by individual professionals. Whether
they were impacted by their experiences, concurrent movements, or grassroots initiatives, these
individuals helped promote the international dimension with their colleagues at the institution
and association levels. The international dimension is rarely discussed in the early NASPA proceedings (1951-1966); however, in certain keynote addresses, the speakers would mention
their time abroad or provide an anecdotal story involving international experience or an
international student. In the 1950s, sometimes the only mention to the international dimension
was in these moments.
However, after the '50s, more and more individuals begin to talk about their experiences
abroad, from consulting, exchanges, or other personal or professional international opportunities.
It is hard to imagine individuals having a good experience on a Fulbright or personally abroad
and not talking about those experiences with their colleagues at conferences and beyond. This
chapter examines individuals who discussed the international dimension early during these early
years between 1951 and 1966 at NASPA conferences, in early committee work in all three
associations, outside of associations, and the role of faculty.
The Early Years, 1951 to 1966
Robert Strozier, Leo Dowling, E. G. Williamson, and Wesley P. Lloyd are names that came up often when describing the international dimension in student affairs but each for different reasons. Often, it was not just the individual professional's passion about a topic but their ability to verbalize this passion in their reports, keynotes, and sessions during conferences.
95 The document analysis of the NASPA national conference programs conducted for the period,
1951 to 1996, revealed individual professionals who showed a deep commitment to the
international dimension in their sessions or reports.
In these early years, the main topics were international students and student exchange, but in the details of these addresses and debriefs, one could detect issues of concern within the
international dimension. In addition, as the first 15 years of conference programs were full proceedings, meaning that the proceedings offer a complete transcript of the conference, so we
are able to discover the international dimension in greater depth through reports, sessions, and
keynote addresses in a way that after 1966 is lost when full proceedings were no longer
available. The individuals cited above and others were involved in experiences such as
consulting services, exchanges, and personal travel, as well as a general interest in the
international dimension or past academic experience.
Early pioneers in the documents. During the 15 years of NASPA conference proceedings and the ACPA: College Student Educators International, NAWE: National
Association of Women Educators, and NASPA: Student Affairs Administrators in Higher
Education committee work, individuals articulated their experiences and commitment to the
international dimension through reports, sessions, and keynotes. Chapter 9 expands on the
conference sessions that address the international dimension; however, this chapter elaborates on
individuals and how they discussed their experiences in these beginning years.
NASPA conferences (1951-1966). As described in Chapter 5, student affairs associations started as small groups of colleagues discussing common issues and concerns. As a result, the
NASPA attendees established friendships with others at conferences from around the country. In these early meetings, there were fewer than a couple hundred people in attendance and many of
96 them were friends. As different topics are addressed, these are not just new colleagues talking
about their expertise, but these are friends talking passionately about issues, joking, and sharing
anecdotes with one another. Keeping that in mind, these early individual experiences from professionals abroad really did have the potential to influence NASPA members at these
conferences as they not only hear about the experiences in a formal setting but also throughout
the informal setting at the conference which this research cannot address.
Starting in 1952, out of the eight different addresses/sessions at the conference, the
Friday lunch address was given by Robert 'Bob' Strozier, Ben Cherrington, and Wesley P. Lloyd
on the topic of 'foreign students and student exchanges' (NASPA Proceedings, 1952). The
address expands on the initiatives concerning the international dimension involving the
government, academic associations, and foundations outside of student affairs. Each of these
three individuals were involved in different ways but were comfortable in initiating a discussion
about international students, exchanges, and other related topics. Strozier, Dean of Students at
the University of Chicago, was a consultant for the Department of State in 1951 with the
Division of the Exchange of Persons. He visited institutions in the US to assess attitudes of
administration concerning educational exchange. Strozier talked about the Fulbright program,
Congress's Commission on Educational Exchange, issues with organization of services for
incoming international students and financial issues, the need for extensive orientation for these
students, need for foreign student advisers, the work of NAFSA: National Association of Foreign
Student Advisers, and how the Department of State planned to address some of these issues
(NASPA Proceedings, 1952).
The Department of State planned to do the above work through a survey of institutions in
the US, establishing a central information bureau that would keep track of relationships of
97 institutions in the US and abroad, a better presence of the Institute of International Educators
(IIE) to foreign students, a health plan for foreign students through an entity like IIE, academic
assistance to non-degree seeking foreign students, and for institutions to screen foreign students
with greater comprehension as well as finding more funding for these students (NASPA
Proceedings, 1952).
In establishing a central information bureau, it is also mentioned that this would be
discussed by IIE, the American Council on Education (ACE), the US Office of Education, the
Ford Foundation, and other interested parties demonstrating the importance of the topic of
foreign students and the involvement of these entities (NASPA Proceedings, 1952). State
department efforts such as these showed a commitment to addressing common issues with
foreign students and a recognition of services needed for these students.
After Strozier spoke, Ben Cherrington, Director of the Denver and Rocky Mountain
Regional Office of IIE, discussed his involvement with the Cultural Relations Department as a part of the Department of State and the IIE. In working with the Cultural Relations Department
in 1939,
We looked across the country to see what we might find, and we found, apart from the
excellent, the superb International Houses in three or four of the centers, and excellent
advisory work carried on in a few large universities, that by and large the foreign students
were left to shift for themselves. (NASPA Proceedings, 1952, p. 221)
Cherrington elaborated on the IIE expansion into regions to assist with the influx of exchanges post WWII. The expansion was to increase services to institutions and to provide regional
representation and local services to international groups touring the US. Similar to de Wit's
(2002) political rationale, the idea of an increase in "peace and mutual understanding" was a
98 motivator of this purpose. "It is the most natural thing in the world for any normal American to be host to a friend... perhaps one of the most effective indirect ways of developing world- mindedness" (NASPA Proceedings, 1952, p. 223).
Finally, Wesley Lloyd, Dean of Students at Brigham Young University and the General
Director of the Counseling and Guidance Center in Kyoto, Japan, spoke about practical student personnel work he had experienced in Japan with the Army occupation forces. Japanese educators who visited the US wanted help establishing student personnel services and Lloyd and other US faculty were brought in for assistance (NASPA Proceedings, 1952). Student personnel training was done through three month institutes that Japanese faculty would attend to become knowledgeable in this area. His descriptions of the consideration on how to train Japanese faculty concerning the topic of student personnel services was carefully thought out and intentionally designed for the Japanese higher education culture and environment. The expansion of how these professionals were trained in a different international higher education system gave NASPA members a tangible look at higher education systems outside of the US.
However, Lloyd's portrayal didn't just describe the higher education system, but also some cultural perspectives of Japanese education and of the Japanese people. Concluding this presentation, NASPA resolved to draft a greeting to Japanese student personnel associations to encourage a mutually beneficial relationship (NASPA Proceedings, 1952).
The address given by these individuals helped to provide context and raise awareness for
NASPA members about different programs and initiatives happening within the US and the role of student personnel services around the world. During 1952, the proceedings also reveal four
NASPA members serving in foreign duty assignments including, Dean Wesley P. Lloyd in Japan as mentioned above, Dean Wray Congdon from Lehigh University in Germany on a special
99 assignment from the Department of State, Dean Norman Nordstrand from St. Olaf College (MN) in Norway serving as the Cultural Attache at the US Embassy, and Dean Robert 'Bob' Strozier serving the Department of State as described above. The expansion of professional and personal experiences from these individuals outside of the US, with other educational systems, and their discussions with colleagues at NASPA helped to create an international awareness or at least brought attention to a topic that had not been regularly discussed. Undoubtedly, this
international awareness was already present after two world wars, however, to begin to think of
the work of student affairs and services around the world provided a new chapter of conversation
among friends and colleagues.
Over the years, some of the same individuals would give an address or present
information for the NASPA international committee and at the time highlighting the international
dimension in different ways. In 1953, Robert 'Bob' Strozier was involved with the Ford
Foundation and traveled around the US studying the international exchange of students (NASPA
Proceedings, 1953). His involvement and constant participation in the international dimension pushed the topic as Strozier was heavily involved in NASPA and served as President in 1952-
1953.
In 1956, the NASPA conference held in Berkeley, CA, began with an address by the
Chancellor of the University of California, Berkeley, Clark Kerr. Later known for his writing
about the topic of internationalization in the 1990s, as well as a plethora of other publications,
Kerr's keynote, entitled The Individual in the Coming Crowd of Students, included historical
references to the creation of the US higher education model through in depth descriptions of the
English and German models of higher education in the 19th century (NASPA Proceedings,
1956). Even though this was a quick mention, it was often the case that when outside speakers
100 would give an address at NASPA, they would point out the history of higher education and as stated in Chapter 4, higher education's international origin. The continual brief mention, understanding, and/or emphasis on higher education in a global context made certain that members thought about the international dimension and the importance of international influence in higher education from time to time.
Dean Leo R. Dowling, president of NAFSA and Associate Dean of Students at Indiana
University, provided the report on NAFSA's goals of 1956, including newsletters to member institutions, a regional plan of administration, a liaison committee with the US government entities, and a liaison committee with IIE (NASPA Proceedings, 1956). Dowling then shared a comical international student story that involved him, his colleague, Indiana University Dean of
Students Robert 'Bob' Schafer, and the Counseling services (NASPA Proceedings, 1956). As mentioned earlier in this chapter, these anecdotes were common in sessions at NASPA, it provided a side of humor as well as common experience that colleagues could identify with one another. The story, in which a student repeatedly found pancakes in his desk drawer and seeking the dean of students assistance, and its ensuing documented 'laughter' afterwards as noted in the proceedings, demonstrated that others could identify with the international student story as well
as addressing the underlying issue of international students needing services on campus. In
addition to having these reports and stories, having these well-known individuals presenting the
information also provided a face and a name for members to talk to if they needed advice
concerning international students or topics.
From year to year, there was an off and on discussion of the importance of developing
strong relationships with other professional associations which led to an Inter-Association
Coordinating Committee (IACC) and later the Council of Student Personnel Associations in
101 higher education (COSPA). In 1957, NASPA had ten representatives from outside associations give short addresses or updates to show their commitment to creating these relationships. The
National Students Association (NSA) discussed in Chapter 6, NAFSA, the American Friends of the Middle East (AFME), and the National Conference for Christians and Jews (NCCJ) were of particular note that year representing the international dimension and inter-group relations.
Daniel Idzik, the executive Vice President of NSA, gave an update on their associations including a brief history. As discussed in the last chapter, NSA "was founded ten years ago when a group of students returned from Europe and realized there was a need in our country for a national organization of students to represent the student community, nationally, and internationally" (NASPA Proceedings, 1957, p. 64). Idzik discussed NSA's annual Foreign
Student Affairs conference, their Foreign Student Leadership project, International Student
Relations Seminar, and other leadership training for students (NASPA Proceedings, 1957). Each of these initiatives by NSA represented student involvement, grassroots movements, and commitment to the international dimension through the lens of students as described in Chapter
6.
Next, Dr. Edgar J. Fisher, former Assistant Director of IIE, a founding member of
NAFSA, and former Dean of Robert College in Istanbul, Turkey for twenty years, spoke to
NASPA about his role as a consultant to the American Friends of the Middle East (AFME;
NASPA Proceedings, 1957). He described the work he did with different centers across the
Middle East that prepared students to study in the US including English classes and personal assistance for students in the process. The organization also took part in sending one foreign student adviser a year to the Middle East to help advisers better understand the needs and culture of students from the Middle East.
102 Then, Dennis Trueblood, a former counselor at Indiana University, and former Director of Financial Aid at the University of Kansas, and a member of the liaison committee to NAFSA for NASPA, gave his report as the Assistant Director of the National Conference for Christians and Jews (NCCJ). He described the work that NCCJ did with inter-group relations, and specifically working with institutions and staff on inter-religious activities. Student affairs professionals could use this association and training for both domestic and international student relations.
Finally, Leo Dowling, representing NAFSA, gave another international student anecdote, as he had done the year prior, to demonstrate the need for competent foreign student advisers as well as to talk about the phenomenon of a new service office being created at the institutional level called the Office of International Education Services (NASPA Proceedings, 1957). The new phenomena that he discussed indicated the start of more attention to and support of international students as well as other educational exchanges by providing a space for these services rather than just one or more advisors. Nevertheless, it was the relationships between these associations that showed NASPA's early attempts to not only develop relationships with outside associations but also to identify associations that could align with what the members of
NASPA and those in student affairs in general, needed at the institutional or professional level.
Discussions with NASPA members about these different resources and topics hint at common themes and needs on college campuses that necessitated the attention of the national associations and indicated the beginning and then sustaining interest in the international dimension as well as a glimpse of some interest in human relations that became much more evident in the 1960s.
In 1958, Robert 'Bob' Strozier, by then President of Florida State University, gave an address entitled The Dean at Work and Play. Strozier discussed at length what he believed a
103 dean of students was, their role in student services, and more importantly, the student and their needs, both in services and in academics (NASPA Proceedings, 1958). His background as a faculty member in the Romance languages prompted his assertion that all students should be required to know at least one foreign language. He explained how many other countries had this requirement and expressed his desire,
. . . that all our students know well one foreign language, first for its aesthetic values, but
also for its use in understanding better our own language. That there are practical uses
for a foreign language in business and in diplomacy is obvious, yet this is an area of
study that has been increasingly reduced in high schools and colleges. (NASPA
Proceedings, 1958, p. 68)
Strozier also talked about the prevalence of math and science in the light of Sputnik and the passage of the National Defense Education Act (NDEA; NASPA Proceedings, 1958). The topic of curriculum was important in the internationalization of higher education as seen in
Chapter 4; however, this is one of the few direct references to curriculum found in the proceedings of NASPA after 1951 specifically referencing historical and social events that framed the shift in curriculum. Strozier's address was an example of a professional using his experience and opinions to address the international dimension on a larger scale than just the
'normal' discussions around international students and educational exchange. It also provides some context for Strozier's interest in the international dimension. He talked openly to his
"friends" and colleagues about internationalizing the curriculum, addressing the mental health needs of international students, and beginning to think about student services around the world that set the stage in the early years (1951-1966) for further conversation about the internationalization of student affairs.
104 In 1960, NASPA President Dean H. Donald Winbigler, Dean of Students at Stanford
University, gave his presidential address and mentioned curriculum changes in higher education due to competition with Soviet Russia. Of course, during this period of the Cold War, this was a normal reference. However, he then recalled a story from five years prior when someone spoke at NASPA about their experiences in Germany due to his own experience shortly after when a faculty member from the Netherlands visited his university, Stanford University (NASPA
Proceedings, 1960). The Dean from the Netherlands came to see how student affairs worked in the US and was eager to share his experiences with deans he encountered along the way, including Winbigler, as there had never been such a position before at his institution (NASPA
Proceedings, 1960). Intuitively, when a topic becomes widespread at the institutional level, it begins to start a trend or at least starts a conversation at the association level. Chapters 8 and 9 discusses institutions and associations more in depth; however, the relationships between the institutions and the associations does play a role in the evolution of the topic of internationalization in student affairs.
In a unique report in the first business session of the conference in 1961, a report on consulting services was given by Dean John H. Stibbs, Dean of Students at Tulane University.
The committee was temporarily put together to explore the idea of beginning consulting services within NASPA. The action to explore this idea could have been driven by other associations, such as the housing officers and union directors, offering consulting services at the time as mentioned in his report (NASPA Proceedings, 1961). However, the investigation was not aimed only at services abroad, however, they found much more consulting work being done abroad than was expected thanks to NASPA members. Stibbs commented on his own experiences in
Pakistan and Wesley Lloyd's experience in Japan. But a survey to NASPA members found that
105 consulting work for student personnel was also occurring in Burma, Colombia, Canada, the
Congo, Egypt, the Middle East, Korea, Japan, Mexico, Pakistan, Philippines, and Thailand at the time. Stibbs commented "if we ever got called on by the Peace Corps, or if we want to volunteer our services, this is rather an abundance of experience abroad" (NASPA Proceedings, 1961, p.
57).
NASPA had 344 institutional representatives in 1961, so seeing consulting work in the variety of countries represented in the survey showed that members were working on a global scale in student personnel at a much higher rate than thought or even discussed previously.
Beyond the survey, there was no additional information on the individuals who were consulting abroad or to what extent in the NASPA Proceedings, but it was clear that these personal and professional experiences abroad seemed to be increasing and whether a formal part of NASPA or
not, student services and education was changing, growing, or developing around the world.
Two individuals with extensive experience abroad closed the 1962 conference. Reverend
Gustave A. Wiegel, a faculty member at Woodstock College, and John S. Brubacher, a faculty
member at the University of Michigan, wrapped up the conference with a keynote entitled
Institutional Limits Upon Student Freedoms. Wiegel had worked for eleven years as a professor
in Chile and received training in Rome, and Brubacher had worked in Beirut and Japan (NASPA
Proceedings, 1962). Wieglel briefly talked about higher education and how it differed in Europe
and Latin America compared to the US, including how students were treated differently.
Brubacher briefly discussed academic freedom and its roots in German higher education,
aka "lehrfreheit." The two men were able to also address student protests and student freedoms
as they were not new to Wiegel or Brubacher, and they had the ability to address the phenomena
with a different perspective and insight especially as student protests in the US began to increase
106 in the 1960s. Discussions about higher education and students services around the world continued to be addressed at conferences from different perspectives and individuals, and contributed to the consistent references to the international dimension.
International members also provided a new perspective for NASPA. Between 1951 and
1957, there were one to two members noted from two institutions in Puerto Rico and in 1958,
NASPA gained their first Canadian member. In 1963, NASPA hosted a professor and an assistant dean from the University of Nigeria in attendance at the conference. International membership grew over the years, but early on, international membership was constrained to the
US and Canada representatives at NASPA. However, any international member provided a different perspective for the association.
NASPA conferences were a place to discuss issues in the field of student affairs.
International students and student exchanges seemed to be the dominant issue in formal conversation. However, through the stories and keynotes of individual professionals over the years; a different and more global perspective of the international dimension emerged. Early professionals who pushed the international dimension and made their peers aware of different international topics did so because of their passion and concern for a global context as well as stemmed in their experiences and opportunities. Much of this effort seemed to be due to their individual professional experiences, consulting work, and personal travel abroad as well as individual work with international students. It was this passion that drove the topic and provided the initial push for internationalization in the field of student affairs.
Association committee work. As mentioned in Chapter 5, each major student affairs association had an international committee of some sort at different times during the 45 years covered by this research. It was in these association committees that certain individuals did a
107 great deal of the work concerning this topic. The individuals laid the ground work for the tipping point to be discussed in Chapter 10; however, some of these individuals have never been fully
recognized for their work in this area before. Much of the committee work is discussed in
Chapter 9, but names that should be acknowledged beyond 1966 is Williard 'Bill' Blaesser from
NASPA, Dorothy Brickman who was affiliated with both ACPA and NAWDAC (later NAWE),
and Les Carlin from ACPA.
Early pioneers in oral histories. Conference proceedings and committee work
documents wasn't always inclusive of what and how individuals were involved in the
international dimension. John Lowery (personal communication, November 7, 2014) recalled
the involvement of both Wesley Lloyd and E. G. Williamson over the years. As seen in the
conference proceedings and previously in this chapter, Lloyd had experience in Japan after
WWII, but Lowery highlighted the fact that Lloyd also wrote a series of books on the topic of
student counseling in Japan as well as student personnel services at institutions around the world
(personal communication, November 7, 2014). Additionally, E. G. Williamson, former President
of both ACPA and NASPA, had been very involved in the international dimension in the 1940s.
Although it is not noted in the NASPA or ACPA documents found in the Bowling Green State
University archives, Lowery noted that Williamson was also a Fulbright lecturer in 1955 at the
University of Tokyo (J. Lowery, personal communication, November 7, 2014). Williamson was
the first Fulbright recipient recognized during this research study but more Fulbright scholars became a significant trend in the data and is discussed further in Chapter 8.
Faculty. Before student affairs was a profession, faculty conducted international
research. Their knowledge of other cultures, languages, and geography compelled the US
government to ask for their assistance in WWII as discussed in Chapter 2. Although not all
108 fields were involved in the international dimension, at times the faculty were the ones that brought recognition to this issue. Even as the student affairs profession began, the first deans of men and deans of women were faculty members taking on additional duties with students or their background was as faculty as noted in Chapter 5. There were a number of early student affairs professionals who had academic background related to the international dimension, like Robert
"Bob" Strozier, a former Romance language faculty member, who became a dean of men and later, a university president. As mentioned earlier in this chapter, he was an early champion of the international dimension in student affairs and as a faculty member.
Not only did faculty take interest in the international dimension, they were actively developing partnerships around the world in their fields. From engineers developing projects in
Third World countries, to business faculty helping to develop joint programs around the world, faculty were some of the initial promoters of the international dimension as described in the oral histories. Roger Ludeman, NASPA member, highlighted the importance of faculty early on at his campus in Wisconsin.
I have to give my academic colleagues and academic departments a lot of credit for that,
they could see because academics would be out in front of this due to research interests
and so forth, they could see that making connections at business schools in France was
important for our campus at Whitewater and so on. (R. Ludeman, personal
communication, October 20, 2014)
During Sherrill Ragan's oral history, she discussed a couple faculty members who influenced her during her time at Florida State University. One example was a physics faculty member, Elizabeth Lynn, worked with international students and people would go to her when they had issues with international students (S. Ragans, personal communication, November 6,
109 2014). "I bet on every campus, there was someone on campus like Ms. Lynn, that wouldn't let us forget about international students, even on campus where there wasn't many, on my campus there was maybe three [faculty members]" (S. Ragans, personal communication, November 6,
2014). It was these individual faculty members as well as the student affairs professionals on the campuses who led to more awareness and consciousness about the international dimension, whether it be international students on campus, or international issues in specific areas or fields of study. The institutional level issues are discussed more in the next chapter.
Conclusion
Individual experience from student affairs professionals and faculty helped to further discussion about the international dimension in different ways. In Chapter 9, the research shows the many topics and sessions presented over the years at NASPA conferences and through student affairs committee work. This chapter highlighted the importance of early pioneers and their experiences to set the stage for internationalization. "Student affairs practitioners played a significant role, like Lloyd and Williamson, who were involved in Japan after WWII helping to rebuild higher education" (J. Lowery, personal communication, November 7, 2014). The initial pioneers probably didn't know the significance of the discussion of their experiences and how they might influence others but it certainly brought a new perspective of the work they did in student affairs and the shrinking of the world around them.
As these individuals helped others become more aware of the international dimension, they were also having conversations in formal and informal settings about their experiences. As not all professionals had or could travel abroad, these conversations allowed for understanding and awareness about student personnel and education around the world as well as significant topics on their campuses and with their students. The names in this chapter will continue to be
110 seen in Chapter 8 and Chapter 9 as they influence the conversation around the international dimension along the way. The topics addressed at conferences, in committees, and beyond begin to underscore the growing importance of the globalization of US society and the internationalization of higher education and student affairs. The next chapter specifically examines the institutional influence on the internationalization of student affairs followed by the influence of the professional associations.
111 CHAPTER 8
INTERNATIONALIZATION AT THE INSTITUTIONAL LEVEL
Arguably, once the internationalization of higher education was underway, institutions were the initial location of the concurrent and grassroots movements as mentioned in Chapter 6 such as government, foundations, and others, initiating policies, services, and encouraging change at the institutional level. It was at the campus level that faculty did their research, international students and domestic students began demanding services, and staff were developing programs and initiatives to help internationalize their campus. This chapter expands on the document analysis and oral histories conducted for the study and what that analysis revealed including institutional practices, the importance of institutional support as well as how the international dimension entered in day to day work among the oral history participants.
In addition, a short discussion is provided about branch campuses and study abroad, institutional exchanges, and the importance of the Fulbright fellowship program. It is also important to acknowledge differences of types of institutions such as public versus private, research versus liberal arts, and other key characteristics of US colleges and universities. The differences did matter when considering commitment of the institution and leadership over time.
These topics influenced student affairs professionals at the institutional level and that influence often carried over to the associations
Institutional Leadership and Support
Every institution in the US is different with unique missions and visions. Even today, not all institutions have policies in place for internationalizing the campus and student services.
Support from the institutional leadership is important when determining the significance of any topic or issue. As the internationalization of higher education began, it was institutions with
112 sympathetic leadership in place where the topic was considered important. Over the years, however, the top leadership at institutions became involved in international travel and international colleagues. As Jon Dalton recognized,
One of the things I became aware of as a Vice President was that my colleagues in
administration, especially deans and academic vice presidents, had a lot of international
contact. And I became more aware that it is really important to be seasoned
internationally in order to have a little more credibility with these senior administrators
because most of them were traveling. (personal communication, October 9, 2014)
These individuals were leading institutions and became trend setters in programs and initiatives as well as internationalizing curriculum and policies on campus.
Best Practices and Lead Institutions
Prior to 1975, sessions at the association level concerning the international dimension were never institution specific, rather the sessions would address how to work with international students or student exchange. This section expands on best practices and lead institutions found after analysis of the NASPA conferences over the years as well as institutional practices revealed in the oral histories. As these practices and programs became a part of conversation in student affairs, it showed a need for similar programs to be developed at other institutions and a need for student affairs professionals to become more knowledgeable about these topics.
NASPA conference sessions. Conference sessions often point to current interests or trends at the institution level at specific points in time and is a good way to measure what was being talked about at the professional level from year to year. It was not guaranteed that the international sessions that occurred at the professional conferences were the best practices and programs, but presenters submitted what they believed worked on their campus, with their
113 students, and their resources. Topics seen at conferences at the institutional level consisted of internationalizing campus, community partnerships, residence life initiatives, and international exchange models after 1974.
The first session about best practices concerning an international initiative at the campus level appeared in 1975. The session discussed a program at Bowling Green State University which described efforts in "developing intercultural, international linkages on the university campus" (NASPA Conference Program, 1975, p. 36) through US student and international student participation. In addition to international linkages on campus, residence life programs began presenting on their programs geared to international students including Syracuse
University's International Living-Learning Center model in 1977 and University of California-
Davis' Multi-Ethnic Living-Learning program in 1978 (NASPA Conference Program, 1977,
1978).
In 1979, the State University College at Buffalo presented a session on the collaboration between the institution and the community including pieces such as host family, buddy programs, and religious services (NASPA Conference Program, 1979). Over the next few years,
other programs highlighted their work within the community and how to internationalize the
campus through these partnerships. Finally, in the 1980s, institutional international exchange programs begin to be highlighted. North Carolina State University's Oxford summer program
was discussed with conference participants, and described in detail how this program could be
adopted elsewhere (NASPA Conference Program, 1982). Exchange programs and study abroad
were becoming more prevalent on campus as students began demanding these opportunities.
The trend is highlighted in some of the oral histories later in the chapter but the opportunities
114 were beginning to expand from the "traditional" Westernized study abroad experiences to other countries.
As the sessions changed over time, there was a clear shift in how topics were discussed and addressed as well. The shift went from grouping all minority groups including international students together to a recognition of differences between the many minority groups in higher education at the time. As discussed in Chapter 6, the multicultural and diversity movement was running parallel to the internationalization movement and was seen in the sessions at conferences in the 1980s and 1990s that presumably contributed to the recognition of difference after the
'70s.
One session in 1988, titled The Quest for World Peace: A Focus for our Profession, discussed the Citizen Education for Peace Project at the University of California-Irvine and the role of student affairs professionals to help fulfill this quest of world peace through cooperation of campus partners (NASPA Conference Program, 1988). The 1988 program was the first time world peace was talked about in such a programmatic way within the documents.
In 1990, the first best practices program on the topic of "new American" students was presented. The session presented a video from University of California at Santa Cruz documenting the life of a Mexican-American student, and highlighted the Immigrant Student
Project at University of California at Berkley, and the Southeast Asian Student Program at Cal
State Fullerton (NASPA Conference Program, 1990). These initiatives were to provide attendees with ways to help these students 'achieve their dreams' (NASPA Conference Program, 1990, p.
40). The progression of topics over the years highlighted how institutions were addressing programs and initiatives on campus concerning the international dimension as well as the general
115 growing awareness of diversity on campus. Yet, the oral histories provided different or at least alternative insights.
Institutional reflections from oral histories. Best practices were happening around the
US within the international dimension. The program documents only show so much of what was
happening at the institutional level. Oral histories from senior practitioners who were engaged
with these programs indicate that other programs and initiatives were happening as well at their
own institutions.
Study abroad has always been a part of higher education as seen in Chapter 4; however, it
has only been in the past forty five years that these experiences have been encouraged by a large
number of institutions. Part of this change was the addition of branch campuses; these were
relatively new as well. However, their influence in how institutions approach
internationalization cannot be overlooked. Branch campuses were never truly discussed in the
NASPA conference proceedings or in committee meeting documents during this time frame;
however, a few oral histories pick up on their significance.
Oral history participants reflected on their experiences on their own campuses over the
years. Higher education historian, John Thelin, described an initiative at his alma matter, Brown
University.
I remember in the early 1980s, my alma matter, Brown University came up with a really
novel approach to exchange programs. Here was their response--- they didn't have the
money or the resources of some of the really powerful universities and they didn't want
to imitate the typical arrangement for most exchange programs where you spend a
semester abroad in London or Paris, mostly with language majors, mostly upper middle
class women. Instead, we want to do things differently so they staked out working
116 relationships with a whole range of universities in countries or parts of countries that
were outside the mainstream. And they said to the student, ' if you are going to go, we
want you to go for a year and really immerse yourself. We want you to study a
discipline other than languages and by the way, if we make this arrangement, we make
an agreement with the host university in Hungary, they have to agree to send
students and faculty to Brown. If we are going to do this we are going to do this in a
serious way.' (J. Thelin, personal communication, November 21, 2014)
It was these types of programs that began to pop up around the country and start to shift the landscape of study abroad and global partnerships. Similarly, Elizabeth "Liz" Nuss, past
NASPA executive director, recalled a program at Indiana University,
I was sort of aware because some of the Higher Education faculty were in Malaysia, they
had a joint program and Malaysian students would go two years in Malaysia and then
would transfer for two years at Indiana University, on behalf of Malaysian government.
(personal communication, November 5, 2014)
Student affairs professionals began to see these types of initiatives happening and this awareness
was coupled with opportunities to begin traveling with their institution.
Institutional Exchanges and Trips
Chapter 7 expanded on early pioneers who were discussing the international dimension at
conferences and beyond, often times these individuals were able to take part in experiences due
to their institution or as a part of work for their institution. Some of these exchanges and trips
were due to the leadership at an institution not being able to go on a trip or wanting an
international partnership and looking to their administration to make that happen. For whatever
117 reason, institutions gave opportunities for individual growth and awareness of the international dimension with these experiences.
Jon Dalton recalled when the president of Florida State University wanted to explore institutional exchanges with the University of West Indies and asked for volunteers to assist from his leadership team.
I was the first one to volunteer although it wasn't clear that there was anything in student
affairs to be connected but I figured there probably was. I got involved in the West
Indies project because I felt it was important for student affairs to be represented
institutionally in that project and personally was interested in going to Jamaica. (J.
Dalton, personal communication, October 9, 2014)
From volunteering to help explore an institutional exchange, Dalton was able to set up multiple short term exchanges with partners in Costa Rica, Jamaica, Barbados, and even Dresden,
Germany, many of which are still in existence today (J. Dalton, personal communication,
October 9, 2014).
Margaret "Peggy" Barr and Gail Hanson had opportunities through their institutions to travel when their universities needed representation. "I went to China when our president was supposed to go. He didn't want to go, so he sent me. All of a sudden, I was in the middle of
Beijing speaking not a word of Chinese" (M. Barr, personal communication, October 13, 2014).
Barr was the Vice President for Student Affairs at Northwestern University in Evanston, IL at the time. While in China, she consulted with staff at Beijing University on the high suicide rate of students coming from the Western provinces of China due to her student affairs background.
Similarly, Hanson went to China with a small group in 1983 when George Washington
University needed a representative to travel on behalf of the university (G. Hanson, personal
118 communication, December 23, 2014). Opportunities such as these provided professionals an unique experience that many of their colleagues around the country were not getting.
However, not all interviewees traveled due to their positions. Elizabeth "Liz" Nuss traveled through an institution but not due to her role, rather, because her husband was a physicist and was invited to different institutions around the world. Nuss used these opportunities to travel and work with local institutions to visit student affairs professionals, especially residence halls, in other countries (E. Nuss, personal communication, November 5,
2014). She traveled to Japan and Russia with her husband through his invitations offered to his institution. However, she networked and learned about student services in those countries on her own.
Similar to many of the early pioneers in the profession, Nuss took advantage of traveling abroad to increase her understanding of student services in other countries and demonstrated a thirst for the international perspective. Intellectual thirst for new knowledge was common among the individuals pushing for change at both the institutional and associational levels.
Fulbright fellowships were another opportunity for professionals to apply their interest in international experiences at the institutional level.
Importance of Fulbright Fellowships. The Fulbright program was mentioned in many of the oral histories, as well as in the NASPA proceedings, and later in NASPA conference programs. As mentioned in Chapter 6, the Fulbright program encourages exchanges around the
world for faculty, students, and staff. Some of the early pioneers were Fulbright Scholars
themselves and they in turn encouraged others to apply to the Fulbright program and travel
abroad. Past ACPA President, Margaret "Peggy" Barr had applied for a Fulbright due to the
encouragement of others. "I got interested in doing that because Art Sandeen had told me to do
119 it, we all encouraged people to apply for that" (M. Barr, personal communication, October 13,
2014). For others, the Fulbright program was an opportunity to get outside of the US. Roger
Ludeman, a NASPA member, had never traveled outside of North America until he went on a
Fulbright exchange to Germany in 1993 (R. Ludeman, personal communication, October 20,
2014). "That's where I found out that 'oh,' people are doing student affairs work in other countries, isn't that interesting, the US isn't the only one doing that" (R. Ludeman, personal communication, October 20, 2014).
Jon Dalton, past NASPA President, spoke about his Fulbright Scholarship as one of his best experiences in travel and establishing professional relationships. He traveled to Germany in
1984 for six weeks with colleagues visiting different institutions. His intent was to observe student services in Germany as well as establishing contacts along the way (J. Dalton, personal communication, October 9, 2014). Relationships he developed led to later attending a student services conference in Germany and the start of a relationship between Deutches Studentenwerk, the German student services association, and NASPA, a relationship that is still strong today.
In 1983, it seemed that the Fulbright Fellows programs was being pushed through multiple avenues as seen in the documents. NASPA members sent along announcements from the American Council on Education (ACE) and American Association of University
Administrators (AAUA) recognizing the Fulbright program and other organizations involved.
Elizabeth "Liz" Nuss discussed how people going on Fulbright exchanges led to the professional associations gaining international representation. "Individuals were developing relationships at the institutions in the places where they had their Fulbright's and often they would invite their hosts from other countries to attend NASPA, that's where you had some other delegations coming" (E. Nuss, personal communication, November 5, 2014).
120 Ludeman shared, "this [Fulbright Fellows] is, I think, what really changed things in
NASPA. It was to have a number of senior officers who had had international experiences" (R.
Ludeman, personal communication, October 20, 2014). The Fulbright program a well recognized exchange opportunity and was often encouraged by the institutions. So the Fulbright program was promoted at the associational level as well. Fulbright's and similar experiences appear to have been a key link to the relationships and future exchanges that began to take place in the professional associations. For example, Dalton's relationship made in Germany later led to the strong partnership with NASPA and Deutches Studentenwerk.
Institutions provided professionals with opportunities to travel even when they didn't intend to do so and the Fulbright program gave them an opportunity for targeted educational travel. However, these opportunities were not the only way that student affairs professionals experienced the international dimension. The next section of oral histories provide additional insights into how professionals worked on a day to day basis with the international dimension.
International Dimensions on Campus
Not every student affairs professional has direct responsibilities with international programs, international students, or other aspects of the international dimension. However, when asked about how often the international dimension impacted their day to day work on campus, the oral history participants engaged in different ways with the international dimension depending on their work capacities. For some, it was rare to see the international dimension in their work while for others, it was frequent activity.
Some individuals prioritized various sort of work within the international dimension, even when it was not in their immediate job description. NASPA member, Ken Osfield, who had no specific duties with the international dimension, created an international student affairs
121 course for his institution's higher education graduate preparation program. Due to his passion and commitment to internationalizing student affairs, he created the course and still continues to update and add new experiences as a part of this course from year to year including authoring and editing a multi-author text book (K. Osfield, personal communication, October 22, 2014).
Similarly, NASPA member, Roger Ludeman said "I made that a part of my daily work but the normal student affairs person wouldn't see that having an impact very much other than the international students that they have" (R. Ludeman, personal communication, October 20,
2014). Ludeman's reflection speaks to past ACPA President Susan Komives and NASPA
President Kevin Kruger's experiences as they didn't see the international dimension too often in their institutional careers. Komives reflected that other than seeing international students on campus and her own administrative responsibility for students studying abroad, she was largely unaware of day to day work involving the international dimension. Similarly, Kruger said,
It don't think it had a big influence on me at the institutional level except in one area.
I ran the leadership program at the University of Maryland, I was teaching leadership, I
had a lot of interest in leadership as a content area, and I was interacting with a lot of
scholars and folks who were writing about leadership and presenting about it. I
remember the acknowledgement of the fact that when we talk about organization
behavior and leadership theory; there was an embedded Western bias in leadership
in some of the early work that had been done and we had to at least acknowledge that
what we were doing may not be relevant for international students and international
organizations. (K. Kruger, personal communication, October 31, 2014)
However, for past ACPA Executive Director, Carmen Neuberger, the international dimension was seen in everything she did. She attributes that effort to her own global context;
122 she was born in a different country, traveled, and lived abroad so those experiences made her aware of the international dimension in every aspect of her work. But for her, internationalization was a personal, lived experience (C. Neuberger, personal communication,
December 17, 2014).
Past NASPA Executive Director Elizabeth "Liz" Nuss and past NAWE Executive
Director Lynn Gangone, identified their experiences as they worked with groups from their sister institutions in China and Japan, respectively. Nuss shared that the international dimension rarely entered her day to day work but she did expand on her work with her institution's Chinese "sister institution" while in her role in the Chancellor's office at the University of Maryland (E. Nuss, personal communication, November 5, 2014). Gangone, on the other hand, shared that she worked very often with the international dimension due to her involvement with a sister institution in Japan;
When I was a dean of students in New Jersey, we were pretty immersed at the time in
relationships we had with our Japanese sister institution. So that was really my first
professional experience. It brought women from Japan to our institution and also took
me to Japan. (L. Gangone, personal communication, December 9, 2014)
Some of these experiences were due to institutional level of commitment to the international dimension, whereas for others, the international dimension just wasn't something that showed up as a key interest for the institution or for the individual professional. What emerges from the oral histories is that the international dimension on campus was due to the visibility of the international dimension which was closely related to individual interests and experience. In short, student affairs consists of so many topic areas that everyone does not always have similar interests. Browsing an annual NASPA conference program, it is clear that
123 there are multiple tracks of interest as well as multiple competency sessions that professionals may attend. With over 300 sessions to choose from in today's conference program, it can be difficult, if not impossible, for individuals to learn about everything.
Individuals from the oral history group also discussed their roles with both international
students and students studying abroad as a part of their role on campus. Past ACPA Executive
Director, Carmen Neuberger, discussed the commitment from both of her institutions to
international students, "I worked very closely with international students not so much as a
separate group but as integrated into the university" (C. Neuberger, personal communication,
December 17, 2014). Past NAWE President, Gail Hanson also talked about how international
students on campus pervaded her day to day work with the international dimension.
We had a lot of international students so all of a sudden when you are in that setting,
whatever is happening international, is happening to you. You have students from those
countries and you are going to have to communicate with them and for institutions it
affected the way policies were written, it affected, in some cases how some courses were
developed, widening of the vista and taking off the blinders, and saying you're not just
looking at this as a US citizen or a place with students from a domestic location, you are
looking at this globally so you need to stretch your boundaries. (G. Hanson, personal
communication, December 23, 2014)
At the same time, administrators were also working with students studying abroad.
Margaret "Peggy" Barr shared that she didn't work directly with her international office but that
when students had certain issues, she was brought in to help. "If a student got ill or had a psychological problem when they were studying overseas, we would get involved and make
124 sure the student got home safely and got the support they needed" (M. Barr, personal
communication, October 13, 2014).
Conclusion
The international dimension has been seen in different ways on campuses over the years.
As higher education internationalized, institutions were the first to see changes through policy, changes in curriculum, and services for students. Through the documents and oral histories, it can be seen that institutional opportunities such as exchanges, the Fulbright Scholarship program, and working with both international and study abroad students, helped push the international dimension in student affairs. Institutional support, leadership, and commitment to internationalization were and still are critical factors in how often individuals engage in the international dimension at the campus level. The best practices and programs as well as topical issues and concerns, often present themselves at professional association conferences. The next chapter focuses on how the associations became more internationalized over the years at the same time as institutions.
125 CHAPTER 9
INTERNATIONALIZATION AT THE ASSOCIATION LEVEL
At the same time that institutions were addressing the international dimension and responding to shifts in the internationalization of higher education after 1951, so were the professional associations. This chapter explores how and why professional associations were interested in the international dimension, why they got involved, partnerships with other associations, and how the oral history participants in this study believe associations contributed to the internationalization of student affairs. This chapter also examines documents of committee files within ACPA: College Student Educators International, NASPA: Student Affairs
Administrators in Higher Education, and NAWE: National Association of Women Educators
(also referred to NAWDAC/NAWDC in this chapter) over the years, individual contributions, and the contribution of these three associations to internationalization.
Why Be Involved?
First, why would professional associations and their members be interested in the international dimension? The oral histories have provided insight as to why associations might want to be engaged with the international dimension and why they should have provide services or programming for their membership. On one hand, participants articulated things like international attendees, the passion of individuals, and relevance of international issues and concerns at the campus level, as motivators for associations to begin to address the international level. On the other hand, issues such as expanding membership and the international market, and competition with other associations provide a different view as to why associations might internationalize.
126 International attendees. Individuals from around the world began to attend the professional association meetings and started to have a presence. In the mid 1970s and early
1980s, sessions on Canadian student affairs began to appear at the NASPA national conference,
and the first NASPA international conference in Toronto, Canada was in 1983. The NASPA
Proceedings from 1951 to 1966 highlight a few members from Puerto Rico, Canada, and other
visiting scholars from around the world at conferences. In recognition of these individuals
attending at a higher frequency, NASPA began to have an annual reception for international
attendees in 1988. It seemed that much of the early international presence at NASPA was from
Canada, however, in 1991 the first session on student affairs outside of North America was about
Ghana presented by Frederick A. Dobens from St. Joseph's University, John D. O'Bryant from
Northeastern University, and Roselle L. Wilson from the University of Michigan, after their
experiences during an exchange trip to Ghana. Additionally, ACPA's work with the Caribbean
cannot be overlooked as the Caribbean served as ACPA's first international division established
in 1995, an event that is discussed further in Chapter 10.
Having this international presence was pivotal for associations. Former ACPA President,
William "Bill" Bryan, said "I really think we probably became more involved as professional
organizations because of the reaching out of some other international groups related to student
affairs and we began to communicate more as we developed and probably following the 1980s"
(W. Bryan, personal communication, October 22, 2104). NASPA member, Roger Ludeman,
furthered this idea by discussing his experience with student affairs and services professionals
coming from the United Kingdom, David Ball and Iain MacArthur, who attended the very first
International Education Network meeting in the 1995. The international individuals helped
generate discussion and the identification of the needs of international members which Ludeman
127 later credits to the establishment of NASPA's International Symposium in 1996 (R. Ludeman, personal communication, October 20, 2014).
Individual association members. Similar to the individuals recognized in Chapter 7, it
was individual passion and drive that often brought the international dimension to the
consciousness of the leadership and members of associations. Ken Osfield, a NASPA member,
said "It always comes down to one individual or a couple, usually one, you get a spark by
someone" (personal communication, October 22, 2014). The oral histories highlighted some
names of individuals that were influential in the internationalization of student affairs. Many of
these individuals including Roger Ludeman and Jon Dalton are discussed in the next chapter.
Past ACPA President, Margaret "Peggy" Barr said, "A big factor was the passion of members...
who just felt so passionately that we ought to be doing something about this... it's visionaries out
there that we need to listen to" (personal communication, October 13, 2014).
Relevance to members and campuses. As discussed in the previous chapter, the
international dimension would often present itself at the campus level first. Associations were
often responding to the needs of members at the institutional level. Multiple oral histories
addressed associations response being due to the needs of members and what was happening on
campuses. Michael Coomes, an ACPA member, posited that, "I think the professional
organization's follow the membership and they, in turn, follow the larger cultural patterns"
(personal communication, October 27, 2014).
Many of these cultural patterns included more world travel, technology, and other
concurrent movements as discussed in Chapter 6. Elizabeth "Liz" Nuss talked a bit about some
of the new responsibilities for student affairs professionals on campus. "There was a lot more
exchange going on campuses, Vice Presidents were having increasing responsibility to
128 international students and international affairs; it became an issue or a topic because it was a
topic on campuses" (E. Nuss, personal communication, November 5, 2014). Similarly, past
President of NASPA, Jon Dalton stated "NASPA because it's a member driven organization...
whatever is going on out in the field, it pokes its way up into the organization and these trends
eventually began to be felt in the organization" (personal communication, October 9, 2014). Gail
Hanson, past President of NAWE, really expanded on some of these shifts within higher
education during the research time period and the need for increased services.
There was a time in higher education where there was a distinct shift in international
students being sought and brought to this country not just to study but in government
contract groups in larger numbers than ever before, and campuses had to be ready for
that and couldn't be naive and think that they were going to get a number of people from
other places in the world and those people were just going to meld in seamlessly and life
would go on, you had to change too. Educators had to start thinking about what had to
change on campuses in order to make it a welcoming global environment. (G. Hanson,
personal communication, December 23, 2014).
An international market for associations. Professional associations also had to recognize that membership within the US and Canada was limited to student affairs and they were competing for the same individuals. Becoming a global association opened up possible new revenue sources, this was also true at the campus level thinking about bringing international students as full pay students. On the one hand, some oral history participants talked about the economic side for associations. Roger Ludeman, a NASPA member, discussed how opening up the association to a global level could enhance membership (personal communication, October
20, 2014). Dennis "Denny" Roberts expanded on this idea,
129 Some of this is all about expanding membership, and increasing prestige and credibility,
and that they adopt this international perspective so that they can say we have x number
of members from around the world. So there is a very real economic and organizational
vitality question going on here, that is the reality of organizations that they are going to
compete with others to spread their brand and their value. I think much of that is wanting
to make a real difference in the higher education community but sometimes it appears to
be on the superficial side. (personal communication, December 5, 2014)
On the other hand, others provided a different side of the economic narrative. Kevin Kruger,
President of NASPA, discussed the same topic of economic gain.
I think there may be a cynical side of some people who might think that NASPA or
anyone else who goes into this to make more money or get more members, it probably
doesn't actually turn out that way. You probably end up actually subsidizing these efforts
rather than them paying for themselves... I can tell you that back in the inside
conversations it was never about revenue generation. It was always creating a
community, creating opportunities for interaction, and creating opportunities for mutual
learning. (K. Kruger, personal communication, October 31, 2014)
Michael Coomes, ACPA member, also identified that there might be an different side to the expansion and "a recognition that there are members out there that we haven't tapped into," but he continued to explain that institutions look to international students as a revenue source but he didn't believe associations did the same (personal communication, October 27, 2014).
Competition with one another. ACPA past President Dennis "Denny" Roberts mentioned, "that is the reality of organizations that they are going to compete with others to spread their brand and their value" (personal communication, December 5, 2014). Competition
130 was a reality for organizations like ACPA, NASPA, and NAWE, and similarly for other student affairs functional areas or higher education associations. Different topics and issues often take hold due to what 'everyone else' is doing. Michael Coomes and Dennis "Denny" Roberts, both
ACPA members, discussed this competition aspect in their oral histories. Coomes said:
They are hearing others talking about it in other associations, so we need to start carving
out a niche for it, the profession of student affairs has extended its boundaries beyond the
shores of this country... so the development of extending the regions to go beyond the
boundary shores of the US was initial effort to do that - bringing in Canada and the
Caribbean...associations are always looking over their shoulder. (personal
communication, October 27, 2014)
Dennis "Denny" Roberts discussed that there were different reasons for associations getting
involved with the international dimension,
They benchmark, they look around and see that other people are paying attention to and
they go, oh we need to get on with this and play the "catch up" game. They want to be a
part of the club, to be perceived as forward thinking educators, so basically attempt to use
an idea to substantiate their value. I think some of this is going on in student affairs, we
look around and saw other educational associations addressing internationalization and
people thought oops we better catch up with this. (D. Roberts, personal communication,
December 5, 2014)
Summary. Associations internationalized their purposes in different ways as discussed by oral history participants. The combination of international members/presence, the passion of
individuals, relevance for members, an international market, and competition with other
associations, provided a mix of reasons why associations would become involved in
131 internationalization. Documents provide a narrative of how associations slowly shifted after
1951. Through examining committee files from ACPA, NASPA, and NAWE, and 45 years of
NASPA conference programs, we see how the international dimension was actualized in
conversations and in conference sessions.
Association Committee Work and National Conferences
After reviewing 45 years of NASPA programs, committees from all three organizations
were revealed to exist. During my visit the archives at Bowling Green State University and
working with the archivist, the committee files were pulled and examined in depth. The files
were not as extensive and complete as the conference programs. There are years missing in each
committee file and only the files that were found could be reviewed; however, certain themes did
exist within these committees, and this was where a bulk of the work within the international
dimension was performed within the associations. Committee members were the individuals
who were committed to the international dimension, creating programs and sessions for
conferences, and identifying issues to notify the association leadership that should be addressed
at a larger level.
ACPA involvements and committee work. ACPA developed their Standing
Committee on International Education and their Commission on International Dimensions
(Commission X) in Student Personnel Work in 1961 and by 1962 there was discussion of
merging these two groups. However, in December 1962, these groups decided to remain
separate but to continue to work together (ACPA, 1962). Yet, in 1964, the committee became a
sub-group of the Commission (Putman, 1964). In their first annual report in 1961, they noted
that the international dimensions of importance in the student personnel field were: "American
student life, at home and abroad; foreign students; exerting leadership in the university for
132 effective planning of the institution's international commitments; and, relations with universities in other countries" (ACPA Standing Committee on International Committee, 1962). This committee saw it as their responsibility to work with other affiliated groups such as NAFSA, IIE, and other related groups. Similar to some of the reflections in earlier chapters, the lack of commitment to the international dimension from higher education was mentioned in this report from 1962 stating,
In general, the university in the United States has not systematically examined its
obligations in the area of international education nor has it committed itself on the highest
levels in the administration to meeting these obligations. The present situation demands
such an examination and the formulating of a policy pertaining to international education
in each institution of higher learning in America. (ACPA Standing Committee on
International Education, 1962, p. 1)
During the time period of the study, ACPA and its Commission X worked on many different initiatives to help further the international dimension. In 1962 and 1963, ACPA,
NAFSA, and the US National Students Association (NSA) conducted a research project to examine the relationship between foreign students and US students in college. The questionnaire covered three sections including social, intercultural, and educational, and had 30 plus questions
(Hardee & Rogers, 1963); unfortunately, the findings from this research were not in the archives.
However, the knowledge that this research was being conducted in the early 1960s showed promise that some were addressing the international dimension in a different way.
ACPA's Commission X focused on developing sessions for the national conference
around this topic from year to year. This is an important factor for Commissions as they have
many sessions reserved for their topics which ensures that each Commission topic within ACPA
133 is discussed and elaborated on over time. Additionally, the work with their subcommittee on
International Education, gave recommendations to ACPA presidents and leadership over the years on the international dimension related to relationships to establish, topics to explore, creation of a policy statement, liaison activities, any updates on research projects, and work with
NAFSA (ACPA, 1962; ACPA Standing Committee on International Education, 1962; Allaway,
1965; Kramer, 1965; Putman, 1964, 1965).
In the 1970s, the Commission expanded their goals from the 1960s to include:
1) to encourage the expansion of international study programs; 2) to facilitate the
development of counseling programs of US students participating in studying abroad and
for foreign students in American institutions; 3) to promote the international exchange of
persons in college personnel work; 4) to encourage worldwide professional
communication and the exchange of information on student personnel work; and 5) to
encourage the development of research on foreign students studying in the USA and on
Americans studying abroad. (Sander, 1977, p. 1)
The new focus of goals 3 and 4, aiming to increase exchange and knowledge for those in college personnel work set the stage for the introduction of looking beyond the US's understanding of student affairs. Attempts to introduce international exchanges for members and making connections in other countries was one way to achieve these goals. In 1972, the committee discussed the use of past individuals involved with ACPA and who have since moved to another country as a way to help develop student personnel programs in other countries
(Johnson, 1972). In 1976, there was mention of a workshop in Monterrey, Mexico for ACPA members organized by John Wellington and Les Carlin to visit Mexican institutions in Mexico
City and Monterey (Sander, 1976). Nonetheless, there wasn't enough interest and the trip did not
134 happen (Sander, 1976). However, this is the first documented attempt of an international exchange specifically for ACPA members.
The '70s was the decade that Commission X got involved with worldwide research and started their multi-annual newsletter, later named the Grapevine. The Commission X newsletter, the Grapevine, was published a few times a year updating members on opportunities to get involved, programs geared toward the international dimension at the national conferences, nomination information, and awards information. In 1973, an International Seminar of Student
Life was held in Geneva, Switzerland to conduct worldwide research to "correlated bio-medical factors of student life and the factors of malaise (restlessness, unrest of both externalized and internalized) characteristics of university students throughout the world" (Spees, 1975).
Commission X reported on this research to the ACPA membership to encourage participation.
However, little was reported beyond this correspondence in the committee files.
In a letter written on February 22, 1978 from the Director of Commission X at the time,
Dorothy Brickman said,
We are a very new Commission and from my observation, most student personnel
workers are not sensitized to the necessity of having a body of knowledge to deal with
foreign students especially. Yet, they [foreign students] are on all campuses, and if we
are to do an honest job on a campus, we have to be able to respect and understand one
another's differences and be equipped to handle the various dimensions in our campus
population. This is my theme song! Presently, most schools of Student Personnel
Administration do not include anything about the international dimension. Foreign
Student Advisors on campuses could lend a rich dimension somewhere in the curriculum
135 or being invited to talk to the classes or lead a seminar in order to sensitize faculty and
staff to the needs of foreign students. (personal communication)
Brickman brought up a few topics of interest by the end of the 1970s. One, those involved with the international dimension saw that most others in the field have no knowledge of the issues.
Two, that individuals in student personnel were not being trained on the international dimension in US graduate work. Three, that those invested in the international dimension were not being utilized to help others better understand the individuals and issues impacted by this topic. And finally, that those working in this area were often very excited about the topic and wanted to engage more people in the discussion. The final point is also seen in the oral histories and other documents from the individuals with professional experience speaking and promoting international experiences for all professionals.
Then in the 1980s, ACPA published a document entitled Action Planning for the 80s in
1982 that covered a range of topics the ACPA Long-Range Planning Committee believed were important for the executive committee of ACPA to recognize. Out of 15 planning issues and recommendations made by the long-range planning committee, international programming was included and written by Robert Shaffer. He discussed the type of student colleges and universities should be producing and includes the international dimension as a critical piece
(Shaffer, 1982). More importantly, he provided implications for ACPA and practitioners and their important role in this topic by stating,
ACPA, as a leading professional association serving the student personnel field, has
a firm responsibility to provide leadership, ideas, and suggestions not only to its members
working on the campus of US colleges and universities but also to staff members in
higher education everywhere. Student life in all its aspects must reflect a recognition of
136 the changes occurring in the world which influence the perceptions, self-images, and
attitudes of US student and faculty. Therefore, the Association cannot discharge its
obligations by appointing an international affairs committee; rather it must make certain
that all of its activities and programs encompass a broad view and a recognition of the
interrelationship and interactions of events and forces... for practitioners, anyone in
higher education who is concerned with student life and services needs to reflect on
understanding and awareness of national, cultural, religious, and behavioral differences
among students from various backgrounds. (Shaffer, 1982, p. 60-61)
In sum, he recommended that ACPA review their role and their activities including the international dimension. "Particular attention should be given to cross-cultural developmental learning, study abroad programs, and the extension of cooperative relationships with student affairs professionals in other countries" (Shaffer, 1982, p. 62). The call for relationships with professionals in other countries was the beginning of an understanding that the work of student affairs and services was a global phenomena.
Also in the early 1980s, Commission X's goals and objectives were updated:
1) To provide leadership in applying student development theory to international students
and international cross-cultural programs, 2) to stimulate and develop relationships
among members of the student personnel profession throughout the world, 3) to act as a
catalyst in developing an international awareness on the college campus and to encourage
study abroad by US students, 4) to develop a greater international consciousness among
members of the student development profession, and 5) to act as a clearinghouse and
stimulus for international research. (Marion, 1984, p. 1)
137 By the end of the 1980s, Cynthia S. Johnson, the Chair of the ACPA Professional
Development and Consultation Committee, sent a memo to the committee concerning an
International Linkages: Five-year plan. The plan laid out two goals, and objectives for each with corresponding plans to reach each objective over five years. The Five-Year plan showed great care and concern for integrating the international dimension into the work of ACPA. The goals included,
1) To raise the level of consciousness of members of ACPA regarding the global
concerns of society and co-assist members in helping their students, colleges, and
colleagues world-wide, and 2) To assist students in knowing and caring about the world
around them. ACPA members will assume a responsibility to assist the students and the
total campus to become more aware of the world issues of interdependence, the ecology
of the planet, human rights, and world peace. (Johnson, 1987, p. 2)
After their international linkages Five-Year Plan was finalized, Commission X began work towards the goals and objectives of this plan including working with NAFSA in giving their first
International Program Award and their first research award in 1991 (Kellom, 1992). In year two of the plan (1992), Gar Kellom, who moved from serving as chair of Commission X to chair of the Five-Year Linkages Committee, discussed an international partnership program with emerging student affairs programs in Kenya via Commission X's newsletter, the Grapevine, in
1993, demonstrating a commitment to the goal of expanding student affairs worldwide.
Additionally, this plan included working with other organizations, collaborating with professionals in countries establishing student affairs programs, creating an inclusive environment for international students, helping US students become more globally minded, and increasing global knowledge among ACPA membership (Kellom, 1992).
138 Finally, in 1995, the Commission began establishing ways to share information with professionals about intercultural issues including having an international resource room at the national conference, an international clearinghouse to serve as a resource center, the development of a packet of information concerning international awareness, and working with each Commission in ACPA to internationalize their efforts. This final decade of work including the five-year plan and organizing international resources demonstrated a stage set for the internationalization of student affairs tipping point in the mid 1990s as discussed further in
Chapter 1.
NASPA involvements, committee work, and conferences. In 1959, the NASPA
President, Dean Fred Turner at the University of Illinois, talked about the NASPA history in his presidential address discussing different issues in student affairs that impacted NASPA over the years.
Foreign students as a topic for discussion first appeared in 1926; in 1933, Mr. Charles D.
Hussey, Secretary of the Committee on Friendly Relations with Foreign Students, made
the first formal presentation to the Association. Since then, we have had the subject
before us repeatedly and in cooperation with other associations. (NASPA Proceedings,
1959, p. 36)
The inclusion of foreign students in his NASPA history is important to note without having looked at national program documents prior to 1951 in the current research and gives us the date of 1926 as the earliest view of the international dimension at NASPA conferences. In this section, both contributions from NASPA conferences as well as from committee documents are discussed.
139 NASPA proceedings, conference programs, and committee documents over the years highlight different aspects of the international dimension. Starting in 1953, committees within
NASPA begin to mention the international dimension in some of their work. For example, the
Report of the Commission on Program and Practices Evaluation notes that one of their recommendations was to consider how evaluation practices and the changing student body which included international students. The same committee also created a manual that provided a systematic approach to evaluation for 20 student personnel areas that included one area specific to "Services for Students from Other Lands" (NASPA Proceedings, 1953, p. 143). The areas to evaluate within this area included "the proper induction, orientation, and counseling of students from abroad" (NASPA Proceedings, 1953, p. 164). The inclusion of these services demonstrated the importance of the work that foreign student advisors were doing at the time whether or not their service were included under student affairs and services or not. Additionally, keynote addresses and sessions addressing the international dimension in the first decade of this research.
Three years later in 1956, Dr. Gordon S. Watkins, the provost for the University of
California, Riverside, delivered an address entitled Education for a World in Transition. He spoke of the importance of higher education in this new world of transition. His address, in essence hinting at globalization, refers to the "accomplishments of science, technology, and automation," and the importance of democratic tradition and faith (NASPA Proceedings, 1956, p. 136). Noting that certain political belief systems and countries over the past fifty years led to
a time of force and violence. The solution to this problem of force and violence, in his opinion,
was a democratic ideal and liberal education (NASPA Proceedings, 1956).
In the final analysis it is the individual mind and the individual spirit that must find the
answers to the world's problems and provide the program of cooperation that substitutes
140 peace and security for war and insecurity in the family of nations. The individual is
inescapably the point of focus of all education since self-realization in its broadest sense
is the major purpose of education. The primary functions of education are to guide the
individual in the discovery of himself, the innate abilities, his social heritage, and the
intricate relationships that make up the complex pattern of human living. (NASPA
Proceedings, 1956, p. 141)
Along with working with foreign students, thinking about a world in transition, and in the midst of the "Cold War," NASPA sessions also addressed different student issues that impacted student affairs and services. In 1957, the final session of the conference addressed A Report on the Princeton Conference - International Student Mental Health with the help of a panel
consisting of two doctors who worked in health services and psychiatry, and a student panelist
(NASPA Proceedings, 1957). They gave a brief overview of the conference and how different
countries addressed different issues, but that in general,
Those of us who work with foreign students in this country find that the incidence of
emotional problems in our foreign students is just about the same as it is in students in
our own country. Maybe a little bit more in some ways... but in general there is a good
deal of similarity. (NASPA Proceedings, 1957, p. 231)
The overall panel discussed similarities and differences between the countries involved in the
conference. NASPA members engaged in questions of how deans, staff, and student leaders
could get more information and how they could help with this issue on campus along with other
questions and some institutional best practices on the topic. This was the first time in the
research that a session on a specific need or service for foreign students appeared, but it wasn't
141 the last. The topic of health and wellness of these students came up a few times over the 45 year span.
Even though the committee changed names quite a few times during this first decade of research, they were also contributing to the international dimension in their work and their reports. The Committee to Cooperate with NAFSA, reported by Leo Dowling in 1959, addressed a session run the prior day at the NASPA conference entitled Foreign Students: Who's
Responsibility. Unfortunately, the Proceedings of that year did not have notes on this session; however, issues brought up by the panel included academic rigor, financial need, and low levels of English proficiency of foreign students according to Dowling's report (Dowling, 1959). This panel ran concurrently with a financial aid presentation that discussed information on the
National Defense Education Act of 1958 that included Title XI which gave money to institutions to establish foreign language training centers to strengthen this specialty area on campuses. The short mention in the larger session highlighted the international dimension being discussed in an average NASPA session at the time. Members were able to choose between these two sessions at this time frame, so those at the conference couldn't miss the international dimension completely.
With a new name change, the new Committee on International Exchange of Students in
1962 listed a short description of their purpose in the Proceedings:
A new committee to prepare recommendations for a NASPA policy statement concerning
the aims and operations of foreign student programs on the American campus, and of
study programs abroad for American students, with special reference to the
responsibilities of student personnel administration in these areas. This committee
142 considers new and proposed government programs and recommends positions and action
to NASPA. (NASPA Proceedings, 1962)
The description and notation of purpose was the first time that the NASPA documents revealed a stated purpose of this organization within the documents. Both in the committee and in sessions at the conferences, professionals were discussing international higher education systems, foreign students, students abroad, professional travel abroad, and student protests. As an example of how these topics were being discussed, the 1965 conference had a few more examples.
In the welcome address by the President of Howard University, Dr. James M. Nabrit, he spoke of student activism and the impact that students have on higher education and in the political systems around the world including South America, the Far East, and the
Mediterranean. It is important to note that this keynote address took place in the nation's capital,
Washington, D.C., in the middle of Civil Rights movement in the US. Similar to keynotes over the years, multiple keynotes in 1965 also mentioned international experiences. Dr. Hugh Borton,
President of Havorford College, gave one of the keynotes. Borton had earned his Ph.D. in
Holland and had lived and worked in Japan after his undergraduate work. Another keynote speaker, Dr. Harry D. Gideonse, Dean of Students from Augsburg College, gave a speech entitled Concepts of Freedom, in which he spoke of his time teaching in Germany. NASPA conferences, especially before 1967 when they stopped producing the extensive Proceedings, addressed the international dimension through different sessions, reports, and keynotes in a very visible way.
However, although the international dimension was being mentioned here and there, it did not mean that members were fully invested in the topic. On February 22, 1964, Glen
143 Nygreen of the NASPA executive committee explained to the new "committee of one," Bill
Blaesser, that,
Frankly, the committee has had a succession of chairmen who did not know what to do
with it [international content]... therefore, it is the decision of the Executive Committee
that we should discontinue the committee... appoint a one-man committee... from here on
out, you call the shots. (personal communication)
Nygreen was uncertain about the future of the committee in general but he was hopeful.
"Perhaps we will be wise to have a full-blown effort to shake the academic world into a
realization that international students affairs really deserves an even greater emphasis than we
are now giving it" (G. N. Nygreen, personal communication, February 22, 1964). Blaesser's
committee of one gave his first report in 1965 and shared that his purpose was to "explore the possible role of NASPA in the area of international relations and submit recommendations for
review by the Executive Committee" the following year (Blaesser, 1965, p. 1). Blaesser (1965)
recommended that NASPA establish a Commission on International Affairs.
Most, if not all, of the deans [of students] have many opportunities to influence policy
and action, both on and off campus, in the broad sphere of international affairs.
NASPA, as the major professional association for most of the deans, has the opportunity,
if not the obligation, to assist its members in carrying out their responsibilities in the
field of international education. (Blaesser, 1965, p. 2)
Blaesser even mentioned that NASPA had been exploring the idea of having an overseas seminar
in India and included excerpts from The Report of the Study Committee on Foreign Student
Affairs (Blaesser, 1965). The excerpts include four arguments as to why foreign students should be welcome in the US including: "Cold War cultural diplomacy, education of the most promising
144 individuals in the world community, US responsibility to assist the underdeveloped areas, and cultural interaction" (Blaesser, 1965, p. 7). Each of these factors discussed fall into de Wit's
(2002) political, economic, socio-cultural, and academic rationales. However, it was rare to hear many of these specific rationales cited in NASPA, ACPA, or NAWE committees or at the conferences.
It was the work of Bill Blaesser that helped develop the first workshop in International
Education in conjunction with NAFSA in 1967. The pre-conference workshop goals were to emphasize "foreign student programs, study abroad programs, the general campus climate for development of effective international education programs, and institutional policy and administrative leadership in the development of international dimensions" (Blaesser, 1967).
Blaesser's report included an update to the seminar in India and its inability to be funded in
1967, but hopefully the next fiscal year as well as an educational visit to Sweden for deans initiated by Dean Roland Patzer would help (Blaesser, 1967). Unfortunately, records of the committee files stop after 1967 and there was no follow-up on either of the international trips planned by NASPA and Blaesser in 1967. However, it was important to see these types of initiatives and programs being thought about and planned in the 1960s. Blaesser was definitely influential within NASPA helping to promote the international dimension in the '60s.
In the 1970s, NASPA conferences begin to see sessions and conversations about student affairs and services around the world. In 1975, for the first time at NASPA conference, there was a session focused on student services in Canada and a session describing research conducted on student services in Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden, and compared the results with
US services (NASPA Conference Program, 1975). The following year, 1976, there was a session entitled Humanizing the Student Personnel Services: Third World Perspectives with a
145 panel of four individuals from US institutions. The abstract stated that it would utilize third world perspectives "in relation to values, the enrichment out of clan life as a complement to academic success, the humanization of student personnel services" (NASPA Conference
Program, 1976, p. 41). Although all the panelists were from the US, it was a discussion topic not seen previously at conferences.
When the committee files re-appeared in 1978, there was discussion about consulting services on the topic of student affairs administration in African and Middle Eastern countries in which institutions did not have such services. By the end of the decade, there was another exchange with a full schedule traveling for three weeks in Europe including trips to institutions in Germany, France, and England (VanderLind, 1979). However, in early August of 1979, the trip was cancelled due to shortage of a few people for the trip.
A personal communication between NASPA Executive Director, Channing Briggs, and a travel agent, Stan Benz, gave more insight about the trip. Briggs mentioned a need for more advanced planning and promoting, timing of travel, and more interaction with student affairs professionals in different countries, as a way to help get the numbers needed for a trip (personal
communication, August 16, 1979). The trip had some "buy in" from NASPA but not enough to
get off the ground, so to speak. Nevertheless, the planning and thinking behind this trip showed promise for future attempts.
The 1950s through the 1970s showed a progressive increase for student affairs professionals eager to engage with and be involved with the international dimension. The momentum for these efforts did not stop in the 1980s. In 1980, the International Task Force
Committee discussed new topics such as expanding international membership, assessing needs of membership in Canada, a need for a more international presence outside Canada, and stronger
146 partnerships with other organizations/associations. Through different personal communications between committee members, the relationship with NAFSA and the need for a stronger
relationship was discussed by Carmen Neuberger, a need for further work on professional
exchanges by James VanderLind, and a need to respond to insensitivity of international concerns
from other NASPA committees and divisions by Paul Gilmor (S. Escott, personal
communication, December 23, 1980).
The results of these conversations prompted the Task Force on International Programs to
address a few recommendations concerning international issues within NASPA before detailing
their work in their 1981 preliminary report. First, the committee believed that NASPA should
focus on expanding services to Canadian institutions but that "a broad international thrust for
NASPA seems to be premature considering the current state of our development and maturity of
our programs" (Escott, 1981). Secondly, they believed that as the 1983 conference was being
held in Toronto, Canada, NASPA needed to establish a relationship with the Canadian
association, Canadian Association of College and University Student Services (CAUCSS), as well as work with other associations and organizations to increase information to membership
(Escott, 1981). Thoughts such as these paralleled some of the oral histories as well.
It seemed that NASPA, as much as they would have liked to expand, realized that programs and initiatives were not developed and not in place to serve adequately. Other associations in student affairs and services had begun to change their names including the
Association of College Unions International (ACUI) who added the "I" in 1968 and the
Association of College and University Housing Officers-International (ACUHO-I) who added the "I" in 1980. In their oral histories, Elizabeth "Liz" Nuss, past Executive Director of NASPA,
147 and Susan Komives, past ACPA president, talked about this change as being significant in associations thinking about themselves in a global context.
One of the things we (NASPA) struggled with was that you had ACUHO-I and ACUI,
who put "I" in names many years before; our struggle was people wanted it in our name
and some recognition, and the notion of watching what they (ACUHO-I/ACUI) were
doing, and they weren't doing much, but they wanted it in their name. Along with others,
I think felt like we weren't going to put it in our name just to have it in our name, the
question was "what are we going to be doing?" and could we afford to do it financially?
(E. Nuss, personal communication, November 5, 2014)
Interestingly enough the topic of NASPA's name was discussed in 1964 as discussed in Chapter
5. Due to the increase in strong Canadian presence, the executive committee talked about the
need for the word National in the title and proposed "NASPA: The Association of Deans and
Administrators in Student Affairs" (NASPA Proceedings, 1964). The proposal was to take out
the word, "national" to be more inclusive of their Canadian members, as well as removing the
terminology of student personnel due to the change in language to a more broad student affairs
vernacular (NASPA Proceedings, 1964). This name change would also bring the word, "Dean" back into the title.
In 1951, after the last name change, many deans were still upset about the loss of that
terminology from their original name the National Association of Deans of Men (NADM). The
motion, in fact, carried and over the next three years, the namewas written this way on the
conference proceedings. However, by 1967 the name was changed back to NASPA: National
Association of Student Personnel Administrators on the conference program. As in the three
years prior, the proceedings included this debate and a vote on a new name change; yet, in 1967
148 when NASPA printed a conference program, the name went back to its original, the National
Association of Student Personnel Administrators, with no further explanation as to whether the
name was voted back or was just never truly endorsed by the membership.
The topic of language would have set a precedent for other associations in student affairs
as the other large associations didn't include this language until after 1968 when ACUI added
their "I." In addition to name changes and thinking about student affairs and services outside of
the US, professionals at national conferences were presenting sessions on the importance of
cultures and communication, cross-cultural programming, working with international students,
and identifying best practices in study abroad (NASPA Conference Program, 1982, 1983)
In 1983, NASPA took a big step forward by holding its 65th annual conference in
Toronto, Canada. The event was the first of the big three US student affairs associations
conference to held outside the US in a different country. The theme for the conference was Skills for Global Challenges. Four out of 96 sessions and one out of the four pre-conferences
discussed the international dimension. Two of the three featured speakers had international
experience. The pre-conference session entitled Policy and Planning Issues for International
Students was presented by two representatives from National Association of Foreign Student
Advisors (NAFSA; NASPA Conference Program, 1983). According to the abstract, the NAFSA
representatives discussed policy and planning issues that student affairs professionals were likely
to face as the number of international students increased and how this would impact services
(NASPA Conference Program, 1983).
Of the sessions presented at the conference, two addressed education in Canada. The first
session discussed student services in Ontario Community Colleges and their future direction.
The second session addressed Canadian higher education in general, comparing many aspects
149 with US higher education (NASPA Conference Program, 1983). Two other sessions dealt with international students. One discussing the impact of international students on college campuses in the US and the new diversity they add to the campus. The other session addressed challenges and opportunities of international student programs including a curricular and non-curricular model of best practice. Finally, as a part of the conference planning committee, there was a
CACUSS (Canadian Association of College and University Student Services) representative and
Director of Student Services at the University of Manitoba, David Morphy, most likely due to the recommendations by the committee to include this important voice in the conference planning in 1983 (NASPA Conference Program, 1983).
In an odd turn, in 1986, with the NASPA conference theme, Student Affairs: An
American Tradition, only one session out of 96 had an international dimension and was directed at international students in a negative light. The abstract stated that,
The presenters of this program will explain how some international students devise
elaborate schemes in order to move from their country into the United States. Once here,
how international students manipulate the systems in place in order to have the US
government pay for their education, receive permanent residency or citizenship,
manipulate I-20 forms, and leave banks with overdrafts. (NASPA Conference
Program, 1986, p. 46)
That particular session was the first in the NASPA documents outside of the 1950s Cold
War conversation that cast international students in a negative light outwardly and claimed that they were 'manipulative.' It was telling that not all NASPA members were not fully supportive or understanding of the internationalization of student affairs and this response is a critical example.
150 However, this incident did not stop NASPA and its members from tackling new initiatives for the association. In fact, there were other responses in the late 1980s including a
Student Affairs Safari to East Africa. The safari included visits with professionals at different international institutions, lectures on culture, and local tours being arranged by members. The safari was arranged by individuals who were not a part of the NASPA Task Force but had asked
NASPA to sponsor the trip as a professional educational study program for mid 1989. At the same time, NASPA Task Force was putting together a Discover Europe's Universities trip for summer 1989. The Student Affairs Safari trip was pushed to 1990 due to the planning of the
European trip. In addition to these educational exchanges, NASPA was putting together monograph on foreign student issues.
The 1988 conference identified global consciousness as a critical piece of student affairs work. The conference had two major forum topics with four sub-topics within each that were debated and discussed in breakout sessions throughout the conference. The two major topics and four sub-topics were the Profession with sub-topics, student affairs research, the legacy of the
1960s, assessment/accountability, a perspective on student affairs, and Values with sub-topics including value free versus value laden academy, Greek organizations, access and standards with population diversity, and global consciousness. In a section of the conference titled, Forum II:
Focus of Values, a symposium was to discuss the following resolution: "That one of the primary roles of student affairs administrators is/is not to move students toward global consciousness"
(NASPA Conference Program, 1988, p. 14).
The panelists included had experience with international education issues, the internationalization of higher education, and had traveled extensively abroad. It is noteworthy that 1988 was the first year for a President's Breakfast for International Participants held in the
151 NASPA President's suite (NASPA Conference Program, 1988). The extra effort to include a breakfast indicated that more international participants were coming to NASPA and they
acknowledged their participation at the conference and was demonstrating a new commitment to
these individuals.
Exchanges, pre-conferences, professional experience and commitment, and conference
sessions led NASPA out of the 1980s and setting the stage for further internationalization of
student affairs and sessions as mentioned earlier. In 1991, there were sessions on student affairs
in Ghana, student activism in Bulgaria, the Fulbright program, and cross-cultural understanding
(NASPA Conference Program, 1991). In addition to these three sessions, there were over ten
sessions on diversity and multi-cultural issues (NASPA Conference Program, 1991).
In 1992, similar things were happening as the sessions included one devoted to discussing
the Fulbright program; one discussing the reunification of Germany and its implications on
student exchange; a US model program focusing on cultural diversity; and another model of
orientation incorporating cultural diversity. In addition, NASPA published two books that year,
one titled Working with International Student and Scholars on American Campuses addressing
issues and needs of international students, staff, and faculty (NASPA Conference Program,
1992). By this time, NASPA was consistently addressing the international dimension at
conferences.
Similar to the 1988 conference that included 'forums,' NASPA had three focus series
including student rights and responsibilities, institutions in urban environments, and global perspectives in 1993. Each series had a seminar, a major speaker, multiple invited sessions, and
other interest sessions associated with the 'focus.' The major speaker was Elie Wiesel, a Nobel
Peace Prize recipient who had experienced the Holocaust. Wiesel was a well-known defender of
152 human rights and promoter of peace. The two invited speakers were Li Lu, who helped lead the
Chinese student protest in Tiananmen Square and spoke on the student movement in China, and
Ulrich Littmann, the director of the Fulbright program in Germany, who spoke on Germany's reunification and student exchanges (NASPA Conference Program, 1993). Sessions in the early
1990s began to tackle issues not seen before at NASPA conferences including addressing pluralism, student services in non-Western countries, exchanges, and internationalizing US higher education (NASPA Conference Program, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994).
NAWE (NAWDAC/NAWDC) involvements. The earliest record of a committee in
NAWDAC with the international dimension was in 1968. Of course, this does not mean that no committee existed prior to this time. Many of the committee documents found were spotty during this time frame and documents, for example, correspondence, meeting minutes, and the like, were often missing or unclear. In a letter written on November 22, 1968, Carolyn McCann,
Chairman of the Committee on International Programs and Students, proposed to change the name Committee on Minority Students and Programs to include foreign students but to focus more on the black-white student confrontations (personal communication). There was dissonance among the members of this committee regarding this change. In one response to the name change, Dorothy Brickman, a member of the Committee on International Programs and
Students, objected, stating,
The mention of the word 'minority' in the proposed names connotes the black student at
this time. The foreign students, or international students as called in some colleges and
universities, would be excluded by the mere mention of 'minority' as the word, though
ostensibly including groups such as foreign students really doesn't mean this to most
persons. (personal communication, February 13, 1969)
153 The issue was under review by the Executive Committee of NAWDAC in 1969. However, the limited records show that a Task Force on Minority Concerns and a Task Force on International
Students and Programs was established in 1971 and later both were turned into standing committees. Chapter 6 discussed the multicultural and Civil Rights Movements running parallel to this particular conversation and seen in the research as important to address when thinking about student populations.
Dorothy Brickman's name came through in both the NAWE/NAWDAC and ACPA committee documents over the years. In a memo sent out by The Western College in Ohio,
Dorothy Brickman, was recognized for her accomplishments in the field of international education. She served in the United States Organizations, Inc. for six years until 1963 in Tokyo,
Japan. She was also invited to attend the first world International House Conference in Kyoto in
1970 as noted in the documents highlighting her as an influential individual in these associations within the international dimension.
Just as the other associations, NAWDC established goals for their committee. For the first time in the committee files, the goals for the 1972 to 1973 Task Force on International
Students and Programs were listed:
1) To define special concerns, issues, and problems relating to international students and
programs and to propose means of responding to these concerns; 2) to make the total
NAWDC membership sensitive and responsive to the special concerns of international
students in the USA on campuses and in the secondary schools and of American students
in study abroad programs; 3) to make the membership aware of current developments in
world affairs which have implications for the membership and the students they serve; 4)
to be a positive force in the concern of international education in professional education
154 for a NAWDC category position; 5) to increase more effective communication on
campuses among faculty, staff, and students to achieve a teamwork approach on behalf of
the international program and to enhance American-foreign student relationships; 6) to
develop professionally with international study, experiences, possible exchange posts
overseas, sabbaticals abroad and 'continuing education' in international education; 7) to
support the inclusion of international education in teacher education curriculum and in
elementary, middle, and high school curriculum, and related programs; 8) to promote
liaison with state legislature for the furtherance and support of international education; 9)
to cooperate in related agency programs such as those of the National Association for
Foreign Student Affairs (NAFSA) both nationally and regionally as well as locally; 10)
to make available bibliography related to the Task Force and broaden international
education horizons; and, 11) to stimulate publication for NAWDC readers in the area of
the Task Force interests. (NAWDC, 1973, p.1)
In general, this association aimed to address women's issues within the field of education, at all levels. Gail Hanson, past NAWE President, expanded on the evolution of the association in her oral history.
At some point, NAWE made a conscious decision not to be a student affairs organization
anymore, so it had presidents, provosts, development officers, and student affairs
officers, but a full range, and it focused more on women's leadership, equity, and pursuit
of that, and toward the end and opening the marketplace, if you will, the organization
reached out to international partners principally for scholarship and research reasons. (G.
Hanson, personal communication, December 23, 2014)
155 Over the years, NAWDAC committee files show a different way of how an association became involved in the international dimension. One way NAWDAC acknowledged different
aspects within the international dimension was in 1975 when the United Nations decreed the year
as International Woman's Year. The Committee on International Students and Programs
suggested supporting this theme with different activities during the year (personal letter sent to
the committee; D. Brickman, personal communication, April 22, 1974). By the late 1970s, the
goals of the committee moved to just three as well as a name change from the Committee on
International Students and Programs to the Committee on Intercultural Education and
Communication, to encourage NAWDAC members:
1) to engage in those activities, educational and cultural, which seek to broaden
understanding of other peoples - their heritage, histories, and aspirations; 2) to concern
themselves with the growing need for intercultural cooperation for the resolution of
common problems, whether national or international; and, 3) to consider the resulting
impact of increased interdependence on the American way of life. (B. Leonard, personal
communication, March 3, 1978)
The change in focus for both the association and the committee over the years showed a
different kind of commitment that an association could provide its members. Instead of planning
exchanges and looking to education in other countries, this association aimed to develop a
foundation of understanding, cooperation, and interdependence for their organization and their
members that would fit their needs. A final letter written in 1994 communicates to the executive
director at the time, Gail Hanson, that the committee had not been very active (E. A. Hart, personal communication, February 4, 1994). That was the last heard from the committee prior to
NAWE disbanding in 2000. However, past Executive Director, Lynn Gangone, said,
156 I would say in the NAWE space, we did a lot of work around internationalization and
actually one of my strategies as Executive Director was to acquire the international
conference on women in higher education. I thought it was important that we expanded
our boundaries and not just look nationally at what was happening with women and
leadership. (personal communication, December 9, 2014)
She later explained that NAWE did secure that conference. It was very successful and added a layer of the international dimension for members (L. Gangone, personal communication,
December 9, 2014).
Associations working together and apart. During the research time frame, associations were seen working together at times, often with other associations or through joint conferences.
One example of working with other associations was in May of 1965, the Institute on
International Education (IIE) hosted a meeting with agencies and organizations concerned with student personnel to discuss problems and possible solutions to the academic experience of the foreign student in which NASPA, ACPA, and NAWDAC were included (Davis, 1965). Not much more was revealed about this meeting in the committee files or in the conferences sessions other than it had occurred, but, having national organizations and associations thinking about and discussing the topic of foreign students encouraged conversation around the international dimension in the 1960s was significant.
The joint conferences in 1974 (ACPA, NASPA, NAWDAC) and 1987 (ACPA, NASPA) provide a bigger picture to what the associations were doing and how they were addressing the international dimension during these decades. In 1974, all three student affairs associations,
ACPA, NASPA, and NAWDAC, had concurrent conferences with some joint sessions in
Chicago, Illinois. Members of the three associations could attend program sessions of the other
157 associations during this time. Out of 209 sessions excluding workshops, business meetings, and keynotes, there was one session visibly discussing the international dimension: the topic of study abroad. However, the combined efforts of ACPA and NAWDAC resulted in two half day workshops on the topic.
A mini-workshop was created on behalf of ACPA and NAWDAC entitled International
Students and Programs across three sessions. The session topics included information about
NAFSA, cultural communication, and counseling international students and students going abroad. The second workshop was entitled Successful Personnel and International Dimensions:
Prescription for Successful Foreign Student and Study Abroad Programs with three sessions.
The three sessions discussed the NAFSA Field Service program, how to run effective study abroad and international student programs, and cross-cultural counseling (NASPA Conference
Program, 1974). The second workshop required a pre-registration and fee. However, these additional expenses may have precluded enrollment so the workshop was cancelled according to the documents.
The next joint conference was in 1987 with ACPA and NASPA in Chicago, Illinois in conjunction with the 50th anniversary of the 1937 Student Personnel Point of View (SPPV). Of
384 sessions, seven sessions included some international dimensions. The first session of the conference was a brief research presentation on the counseling needs of international students.
The NASPA International Task Force put on a program on how to help fund foreign student services. ACPA sponsored three programs including one discussing findings from a research project, one on empirical research concerning international students needs and problems, and one on cross-cultural communication for roommates. The other two sessions discussed community
158 among students including special populations like international students and others, and studying international student aid.
At the beginning of the 1987 conference program, a short piece was written on the SPPV of 1937 and two living participants, Ester Lloyd-Jones and C. Gilbert Wrenn, shared reflections on the topics of changes in student behaviors and changes in the student personnel profession.
Wrenn described the 'flood' of students coming to college campuses in the 1950s and their difference in age and experience post WWII. He also noted the "resentment and anger at
Vietnam and racial discrimination" (NASPA Conference Program, 1987, p. vii). But one of his overall differences in 50 years since the SPPV contained the international dimension:
The students' world today is far wider than the campus-- awareness of starvation in
Africa, Southern Asia, the Southern Americas; OPEC; an 'enemy' Russia and friendly
China; repression of peoples and government-approved torture of dissidents; beautiful
cultures and beautiful people abroad - anywhere - what a world! (NASPA Conference
Program, 1987, p. vii)
Wrenn's shared reflections hinted at concurrent movements and the idea that higher education was a different place in 1987 than in 1937. As influential pioneers in the early student personnel movement, Lloyd-Jones and Wrenn's shared reflections acknowledged the international dimension as a major difference and demonstrates how things had changed. Having these joint conferences demonstrated the range of topics covered at all conferences and how the international dimension was addressed differently between the early 1970s and late 1980s.
Partnership with NAFSA: Association of International Educators. Each of the student affairs professional associations had different off and on relationships with NAFSA between 1951 and 1996. Formerly the National Association of Foreign Student Advisers,
159 NAFSA, established in 1948, was formed to promote professional development among foreign
student advisers as more students were studying in the US after World War II (NAFSA, 2015).
The NASPA proceedings highlighted conversations about NAFSA over the years and the ebb
and flow of the relationship.
During this time frame, NAFSA was often represented at NASPA and vice versa. In the
early years of the 1950s and 1960s, NAFSA gave full reports to the NASPA membership. In
1961, the report of the Inter-Association Coordinating Committee (IACC) consisting of NASPA,
ACPA, NAWDAC, and the American Association of Collegiate Registrars and Administrations
Officers (AACRAO) reported their consideration to add NAFSA and the American College
Health Association (ACHA) and in 1963 both of these associations became a part of IACC
(NASPA Proceedings, 1961, 1963).
In the 1950s, reports from NAFSA discussed issues that faced foreign student advisers,
NAFSA national conference topics, the impact of foreign students studying in the US, and the
importance of the work of NAFSA for student affairs professionals (NASPA Proceedings, 1955,
1957). Dean Wray H. Congdon, Dean of Students from Lehigh University, said,
We deans have not caught the full importance of what NAFSA is trying to do in
international education, both through the work with foreign students, and through
encouraging our own students in the field of international understanding, and perhaps
travel and study experience abroad... In general, we felt that perhaps too many of our
group were glad to appoint a foreign student advisor and then wash their hands of the
problems. (NASPA Proceedings, 1957, p. 179)
160 It seemed similar to Chapter 7 and the pioneering professionals that discussed the international dimension, there was a frustration of certain individuals of the lack of interest by the rest of the membership.
In 1962, the chair of the Committee on International Exchange of Students in NASPA from the University of Chicago, John B. Netherton, gave his report and included the need to re- establish their relationship with NAFSA demonstrating this off and on again relationship between the two associations (Netherton, NASPA Proceedings, 1962). He elaborated on the fact that student personnel is based on developing the whole student and this includes the international students, the fact that most foreign advisers do not report to the dean, or student personnel administrators, should not matter (Netherton, NASPA Proceedings, 1962). Similarly,
ACPA's annual report in 1972 discussed the need for further partnership with NAFSA and their regional conferences as well as the five sessions put on at the ACPA national conference all on the topic of foreign students (Johnson, 1972). Reports such as these truly demonstrated the scattered relationship with NAFSA over the years among associations.
Over the next few decades, NAFSA was seen in and out of the conference proceedings and programs but reappeared in the mid to late 1970s as they further developed and promoted their field program (NASPA Conference Program, 1974, 1977). Through a letter to the associations, the work with NAFSA's Field Service Program was seen in each of the associations committee files and notes after its approval in 1963 (Putman, 1965; W. Warmbrunn, personal communication, November 18, 1963). The Field Service Program highlighted areas they wanted to prioritize including, "selection and admissions; English language proficiency; orientation, both initial and continuing; housing; academic and personal counseling; finances and employment; and American-Foreign student relationships" (W. Warmbrunn, personal communication,
161 November 18, 1963). To do this, they enlisted the help of associations such as NASPA, ACPA,
and NAWDAC, to have members serve on their Panel of Consultants. NAFSA even paid the
way for these members to meet (W. Warmbrunn, personal communication, November 18, 1963).
However, it wasn't until the mid to late 1970s that the Field Service Program was seen in
sessions at the conferences. In 1974, at the joint ACPA, NASPA, and NAWDAC conference,
NAFSA presented a session on this program highlighting a larger need to promote the program.
The mid 1980s were a time in which professional associations, institutions, and
individuals were making strides in the international dimension. The NASPA committee files
indicate an interesting trip taken by Owen R. Houghton of Franklin Pierce College in New
Hampshire in 1985. He took administrative leave from his university for five months to look
into international education experiences for his institution as well as representing NASPA's Task
Force on International Student Services to explore the idea of the association's role in
international education (Houghton, 1985).
Houghton visited over 57 institutions in England, Scotland, Wales, Ireland, France,
Austria, Switzerland, and Germany to discuss student affairs work and international exchange
with colleagues. He noted that many of these institutions were already connected with NAFSA.
Many individuals encouraged his efforts and through him, encouraged NASPA to be more
knowledgeable about and create links with NAFSA (O. Houghton, personal communication,
March 6, 1985). "In general, the question of NASPA's role in international student services was
not clearly answered. NASPA's presence in Great Britain would be considered basically
irrelevant, redundant, and unnecessary" (O. Houghton, personal communication, March 6, 1985, p. 2).
162 Similar to the frustrations of NASPA committee members of other committees and divisions not being sensitive to international issues, was NAFSA's frustrations in 1987. NASPA member Rolf Groseth sent out their 1987 newsletter article concerning NAFSA's relationships with other student-related organizations. "In spite of NAFSA's tremendous growth and outreach over the last several years, many professional development opportunities offered by the association may not be reaching a large number of campus professionals who provide services and programs for foreign students" (Reiff, 1987 p. 4). Reiff (1987) mentioned the work done with NASPA in the past year that could benefit both groups as well as detailing the importance of these relationships. Each of the student affairs professional associations, including NAFSA, have similar conversations about partnering with other associations and over the years cycles of communication and non communication occur.
In an oral history with past NASPA Executive Director, Elizabeth "Liz" Nuss, she explained that each of the associations in the Washington Higher Education Secretariat were invited to each other's conferences (E. Nuss, personal communication, November 5, 2014). She explained that at the time there were around 34, including ACPA, NAWE, NASPA, and
NAFSA. It was very hard to go to every conference annually unless they were in Washington
DC; therefore, many of the associational leaders would only attend a handful of these higher education conferences a year (E. Nuss, personal communication, November 5, 2014). At the same time, if the association leadership knew of a member who could attend as a proxy outside of DC, they would invite that individual to do so. Intuitively, this meant that from year to year the relationship with NAFSA would differ based on who attended and the main topics and issues would come to light only when someone attended each of the conferences. Even today, the
163 relationship with NAFSA is discussed by leaders in the International Education Knowledge
Community of NASPA.
Summary. The involvements of ACPA, NASPA, and NAWE committee work and conferences help highlight how the international dimension was addressed over the years.
ACPA and NASPA committee work looked to develop sessions, address association policy, establish international exchanges, and examine student affairs work outside of the US, whereas,
NAWE focused more on equity in education for women in the US and abroad and changed focus from student affairs specific to a broader scope of women in education. Prior chapter themes of concurrent movements, early pioneers, and the importance of the role of institutions were all seen both at NASPA conferences and within the committee files. The rest of this chapter elaborates on how the oral history participants viewed the topic of internationalization at the associational level during their time in the field.
Development of the International Dimension at the Association Level
The conferences were a place that issues and topics of importance were discussed from year to year. The documents tell a story of these issues and topics, but how did members see these topics during their membership? At the association level, how did members and conference attendees see the international dimension? Margaret "Peggy" Barr, former ACPA
President, talked about her time in the board room.
In the board room, we had so many things to talk about, that internationalization got to be
such a broad topic that they weren't sure they could do anything about it, so we would
take baby steps, for example, sending some officers to meet with other groups around
the world, sponsoring trips to meet colleagues to get interest going in international
programs, trying to look at how we could build better structures with NAFSA to develop
164 bridges with them and to do pre-con workshops. (M. Barr, personal communication,
October 13, 2014)
Barr brought up a very real issue related to this research study. How did professionals navigate conferences and professional opportunities when there were so many topics and issues of concern for student affairs professionals, institutions, and associations? Often it came down to professional interest. NASPA President Kevin Kruger said "frankly, as a member, I don't think
that this was something for me in my career trajectory" (personal communication, October 31,
2014) but of course that changed after his first international exchange with NASPA. This was a
common response for individuals in leadership that weren't highly involved in the international
dimension early on. Similarly, John Lowery, a faculty member involved with NASPA
explained,
I think once I went on the board, what really changed was that I discovered NASPA was
doing things I didn't know about. If you were an average member, you could be an active
member and not be aware of, for example, the exchanges, particularly if you weren't
upper administration, because that is who typically went on those trips, and the
recognition that NASPA was actively reaching out in that way to develop new
partnerships. (personal communication, November 7, 2014)
ACPA past President, Dennis "Denny" Roberts also talked about not fully knowing what
was happening at the associational level during his time as a member.
I was aware prior to 2005, for instance, that NASPA had the international symposium and
one year I may have gone to it. I can't even remember, I think I was just curious so I
stopped by, but I was aware through the symposium, that there was an emerging question
about internationalization. (D. Roberts, personal communication, December 5, 2014)
165 It would seem that many members may not have known about programs and initiatives that were happening in the association unless they had an interest in the topic or had a leadership role that gained them access to the board meetings as Barr and Lowery described. Some of these programs and initiatives that the associations provided for the membership included exchanges, pre-conferences, and committees or commissions to get involved but without prior knowledge,
many members remain unaware of any international dimension in their own association.
Conclusion
Susan Komives reflected that associations began to delve deeper and broader into
internationalization during her membership over the past 30 plus years (personal communication,
November 6, 2014). Evidenced by conference and committee documents and oral histories,
since 1951, associations have expanded within the international dimension from a focus on
international students and study abroad to offering pre-conferences, international exchanges, and
opportunities to be involved in committees, task forces, or commissions. A culmination of all
factors discussed in the previous chapters detailing concurrent and grassroots movements, pioneering professionals, institutional and associational involvement in the international
dimension led to the tipping point for the internationalization of student affairs in the mid-1990s
and is discussed in the next chapter.
166 CHAPTER 10
THE TIPPING POINT
This research study has presented some evident themes including concurrent movements
and grassroots efforts, pioneering professionals, and institutional and association efforts, that
influenced the internationalization of student affairs. The documents and oral histories pointed
to 1995 and 1996 as the tipping point for this research. When asked directly, most oral history participants identified the 1990s and specifically 1995/1996 as the time period with a marked
increase in interest in the international dimension culminating in different milestones. Past
NASPA President Jon Dalton explained, "These trends eventually began to be felt in the
organization and when I became president elect in '94, I felt like there was a readiness to be more
formally committed to this dimension of professional development" (personal communication,
October 9, 2014).
Milestones included NASPA's international exchanges, NASPA's first international board
member and board meeting abroad, and international symposium, ACPA's international
divisions, as well as continued efforts by NASPA and ACPA to work with international
members and collaborate worldwide. It is important to note that the National Association of
Women Educators (NAWE) was not doing much in this area and was already moving slowly
towards extinction. The NAWE committee files showed no documentation in this area much
after 1990 and so is not addressed in this chapter. However, ACPA and NASPA members and
the associations themselves in the '90s were beginning to look outside of the US and Canada and
acknowledging student affairs and services around the world. This chapter specifically examines
what was happening in the mid '90s to influence this shift in thought in student affairs and how
things increased to a "tipping point."
167 A Slow Evolution
Past chapters demonstrate a slow evolution over the 45 years. In the 1950s, early pioneering professionals encouraged engagement in the international dimension and the topics of international students and study abroad were discussed from year to year at conferences and in committee work. Students and student organizations like the National Student Association
(NSA), and individual professionals provided grassroots influences to promote the international dimension. Over time, hearing about different international systems of higher education, professional experiences abroad, and issues with international students in those reports, keynote addresses, and sessions were some of the only exposure to the international dimension for members at conferences.
The transition in the 1960s was influenced by US policy such as the introduction of the
Peace Corps, concurrent movements such as Civil Rights and Women's Rights, and events such as the Vietnam war. In association committee work, NASPA conferences, and oral histories, the
'60s was an important decade considering the many things happening both in the US and around the world as discussed in Chapter 2 and 6. The decade saw themes of international students, study abroad, and the first pre-conference for international issues as well as a first attempt at an international exchange for professionals to India within NASPA.
The 1970s and 1980s were the first two decades in which conference sessions started addressing issues of multiculturalism, student affairs in other countries, and in turn, the associations gained international memberships and had multiple international focused sessions at conferences. The multiculturalism movement helped gain attention for non-traditional and different minority groups which in turn gave attention to different world cultures, and opened the door for dialogue among student affairs professionals. Association international exchanges were
168 proposed during these decades and NASPA led their first documented successful international
exchange to Europe in 1989. A slow and steady increase of international focused sessions at
conferences in these two decades set the stage for the '90s and the tipping point.
In the 1990s, sessions become more diverse in topic, rather than simply discussing
international students and study abroad, sessions begin to address different topics like professional exchanges, student activism in different countries, and invited keynote speakers
with extensive experience abroad. The NASPA leadership was working on relationships and
developing international exchanges that began and developed a strategic goal for
internationalization in 1995 and developed an annual international symposium that started in
1996. ACPA also developed the first international divisions and international partnerships in
1995. Each of these major milestones was led by the efforts of one or a few individuals within
the associations. The following sections expands on how oral history participants described this
time period, the development of NASPA exchanges, symposium, and other international related
efforts, and the individuals who helped lead the way.
Signs of Internationalization in the 1990s
Oral history participants shared their thoughts on when they became first aware of an increase in interest in the international dimension and many referenced the '90s and the milestones mentioned above including their association committee/commission, ACPA international divisions, and NASPA exchanges and international symposium. Past NASPA
President, Jon Dalton, shared:
I suppose one of the most visible symbols was the introduction of the International
Symposium in '96, it became sort of visible symbol to NASPA's interest and
involvement. The gathering was not large but it provided a place to bring in
169 international participants and US participants and bring more focus on international
issues involved in profession; look at the Knowledge Community (KC; formerly NASPA
Network), wherever NASPA has attempted to give visibility to international issues
represents a public commitment to the importance of this domain. Also, publications
and Roger's [Ludeman] involvement was pretty pivotal pretty early. (personal
communication, October 9, 2014)
NASPA member, Roger Ludeman, also discussed the Symposium, the work of the KC, as well as the exchanges as significant. "Exchanges, the Symposium, there was a need for both, and the KC itself and their promotion of awards of outstanding international effort" (R.
Ludeman, personal communication, October 20, 2014). As a part of the International Education
Knowledge Community (IEKC), or International Education Network as it was named at the time,
Ludeman worked to establish both the NASPA international exchanges and the International
Symposium. He advocated for more attention to the international dimension in both NASPA and
ACPA that is highlighted later in this chapter.
ACPA was doing their own international initiatives in the '90s. Past Executive Director,
Carmen Neuberger, established international divisions in 1995 that introduced the Caribbean and
Guam, (C. Neuberger, personal communication, December 17, 2014) and past President,
William "Bill" Bryan discussed reciprocal arrangements with other international student affairs associations for conferences that were established in the '90s (W. Bryan, personal communication, October 22, 2014). Bryan expanded,
In 1995, I attended one [conference] in New Zealand, the student affairs association
conference, and presented a program there as well and tried to work out a reciprocal
170 arrangement where people from that conference could come to ACPA and have
registration waived and so on. (personal communication, October 22, 2014)
The first international division added was in the Caribbean and this partnership is still strong today. The relationship started when, "The University of the West Indies in Kingston was active in organizing student affairs divisions in other Caribbean countries at that time" and invited
ACPA and some of its leaders to annual conference prior to 1995 (C. Neuberger, personal communication, May 13, 2015). The 1996 ACPA President, Paul Oliaro, discussed the relationship between the Caribbean and ACPA. He was invited along with other ACPA leaders to the Caribbean conference prior to his presidency and he shared that other leaders would go to this annual conference which cemented their relationship over the years (P. Oliaro, personal communication, May 13, 2015).
Past ACPA President, Susan Komives also acknowledged the 1990s for an increase in internationalization by referencing the ACPA international divisions and NASPAs International
Symposium as significant factors of the internationalization of student affairs (personal communication, November 6, 2014). ACPA and NASPA have many of the same members due to the work that the organizations do, therefore, members from both organizations were able to recognize each other's efforts in this area. Their efforts were able to come to fruition in 1995 and
1996 due to members and leadership recognizing the importance of the topic and need to become involved with and learn from others around the world just as Dalton. Current NASPA President,
Kevin Kruger, discussed 1995 as a pivotal year as noted:
I would have to say 1995, I think prior to the symposium and the exchange programs,
other than trying to get international folks to come to our conference, I don't know if
there was any real substantive efforts going on. I think that was the biggest first step,
171 they had been building I think up to that point, but that was the first big step. (K. Kruger,
personal communication, October 31, 2014)
The oral histories conducted for this study helped to reveal the tipping point for the
internationalization of student affairs in the US. The documents showed some of this
information, but the oral histories brought life to what was happening in these two years.
Professional exchanges were one of the things that brought internationalization to life for professionals. As mentioned in Chapter 8, some individuals were able to go on exchanges with
their institutions. Professional associations tried to board the 'bandwagon' but it didn't happen
right away as demonstrated by failed attempts over the years.
Professional Association Exchanges
NASPA President, Kevin Kruger talked about his experience working for NASPA and
going on to France in 1995.
The very first exchange NASPA did was led by Roger Ludeman, was to France. But the
list of people on that trip was really like a who's who of folks who went, we did a very
intense two week trip to multiple institutions and different parts of France and it was the
beginning efforts to start to think about, 'okay we did this over there and now we are
going to reciprocate and bring folks over here' and then it became a domino effect... This
was really the beginning of NASPAs entrance into the international arena. (K. Kruger,
personal communication, October 31, 2014)
Kruger's experience was the first exchange that later became a bi-annual activity and included a
reciprocal arrangement. However, prior to this successful activity, there were multiple failed
exchanges from both NASPA and ACPA, as well as different individuals who worked to
establish these exchanges and presented on these experiences. As mentioned in Chapter 9,
172 NASPA attempted the first exchange to India in 1967, following ACPA and NASPA attempted
exchanges to Europe, Hong Kong, and Mexico in the '70s and '80s, but the first trip to actually
'make,' according to the documents, was NASPA's 1989 European trip. Previous exchanges
would fail due to lack of commitment and interest from the membership or lack of advanced
notice. Yet, members were traveling and going on exchanges as seen in NASPA conference programs, many through their institutions, discussed in Chapter 8.
The first NASPA conference session specifically focused on exchanges occurred in 1984
when six professionals presented on their experiences abroad. The session was a panel of five participants and a chair, who had traveled around the world through academic exchange programs, as consultants, with the State Department, or with a study abroad program (NASPA
Conference Program, 1984). The panel of individuals chaired by Carolyn Adair, Director of
Student Activities at Texas A&M, talked about their experiences, education abroad, and working
with foreign governments (NASPA Conference Program, 1984, p. 44); these individuals
consisted of John Koldus, Vice President for Student Services at Texas A&M; George Young,
Vice President for Student Development at Broward Community College (FL); Tom Thielen,
Vice President for Student Affairs at Iowa State University; Art Sandeen, Vice President for
Student Affairs at the University of Florida; and Moses Turner, Vice President for Student
Affairs at the University of Michigan. Since 1984, there have been multiple sessions that discuss
exchanges to encourage individuals to take advantage of these types of opportunities. The
encouragement of exchanges, Fulbright fellowships, and consulting may have influenced the professional associations to begin to put serious thought and effort behind the idea, or it could
have been the individuals planning the experiences that finally forced associations to commit.
173 Either way, individuals that participated in exchanges, even before associations were doing them, were influenced by their experiences.
Kevin Kruger talked about how participating in an international exchange personally influenced him to think of student affairs beyond US borders (personal communication, October
31, 2014). Ken Osfield, NASPA member who has traveled on multiple NASPA international exchanges, had a different explanation of his experience,
It's interesting when you go on these exchanges to see the different level of commitment
for some of the people you are traveling with, I was always amazed that very few of the
people I traveled with, mostly senior student services officers, didn't really spend any
time learning about the country. In Italy, it blew my mind how a vice president could
go on a trip like that and not have looked into the country, the culture, or how they were
providing student services in that country. (K. Osfield, personal communication, October
22, 2014)
Rather, it seemed as if some just wanted to travel. Regardless of preparation, participants learn about services in other countries and have an experience that most student affairs professionals do not have. Lack of preparation and lack of interested professionals could explain why international exchanges were not occurring prior to the '90s. Yet, NASPA specifically, encouraged preparation, knowledge of culture, language, and expectations, among individuals prior to leaving the country.
What Was Happening at the NASPA Conferences During the Tipping Point?
The NASPA conferences in 1995 and 1996 included the international dimension at a
similar rate as other years; however, different topics and types of sessions were presented than
really before including an opportunity to take a day trip to Mexico in 1995, as the conference
174 was located in southern California, and the introduction of the International Symposium in 1996.
Conferences themselves didn't change overnight, and the tipping point could not have been determined by documents alone. But NASPA and ACPA, as associations, were moving forward with the addition of the NASPA exchanges and addition of ACPA international divisions in
1995, and the NASPA symposium in 1996.
1995. The 77th annual NASPA conference held in San Diego, California offered a
Mexico Tour prior to the conference. As 1995 was the first year of the International Education
Network, NASPA's committee focused on bringing interested individuals together and share knowledge around the topic. There were five interest sessions out of 169 on the international dimension. Three sessions discussed opportunities for student affairs professionals to travel abroad, including one on Semester at Sea, the Fulbright program in Germany, and another on the
Fulbright program and other exchanges. One session discussed student services in China through two professional's first-hand experiences in China. The last session discussed an institutional model program on the topic of leadership training in an international context at
University of Texas, El Paso. In addition to these five sessions, there were also two pre- conferences that included the international dimension.
1996. The 78th annual conference held in Atlanta, Georgia was a big year for NASPA and student affairs in the international dimension. The first year of the international symposium was 1996, it was called the Symposium on Global Education in 1996. Today, it is a pre- conference, sponsored by the International Education Knowledge Community (formerly
Network) and brings international and US members together to discuss issues in international education and the internationalization of student affairs and higher education. In 1996, it was an
175 'extended session' with four parts totaling nine hours of time over two days during the conference. The abstract stated,
The NASPA membership is becoming increasingly aware of student affairs operations
around the world. This workshop is designed to acquaint conference attendees with the
'state of the art' in student affairs around the globe. Differences and similarities will be
explored as will the potential for building professional relationships and study
abroad/exchange opportunities for students and student affairs staff. (NASPA
Conference Program, 1996, p. 48)
NASPA held their first Orientation for international members and visitors through the work of the international education network as well as their third annual international visitors reception held in the President's suite.
Out of 19 half day pre-conferences, one explored global communication and one discussed student affairs in Hong Kong. Additionally, there were two featured speakers with international experience. The interest sessions with international dimensions were varied in
1996 with 11 out of 186, not including speakers, pre-conferences, and the symposium. The
International Education Network led by Roger Ludeman presented on the Network's activities such as the Fall 1995 student affairs exchange to France after a meeting with NASPA and the
European Council for Student Affairs in summer 1995, and pending publications from the
Network.
Other sessions included a session that discussed the Fulbright program and other student
affairs opportunities; student affairs in Latin America; a model program on international
exchanges for students and staff at Florida State University; Latino Ethnic Identity; women's
development in student affairs in Jamaica and the West Indies; and student learning and
176 leadership at Monterrey Tech in Mexico. These sessions cover a wide variety of topics and parts of the world not seen at NASPA prior to this time. In addition, sessions were offered on legal issues due to immigration to the US; Asian Pacific American student activism; a partnership program between historically black colleges and universities, and universities in South Africa; and an international perspective on student affairs due to political changes in China, Russia,
Malaysia, and Malawi. The expansion of 'type' of sessions seen at NASPA was very different in
1996.
People Leading the Way to Internationalization
In addition to the early pioneering professionals discussed in Chapter 7 and important
individuals involved in committees presented in Chapter 9, others began to recognize the
importance of the international dimension. Documents and oral histories point to a few different
individuals that influenced the internationalization of student affairs. The most prominent as of
1996 were Jon Dalton from NASPA and Roger Ludeman from ACPA and NASPA. Additional
names during the early '90s period included Elizabeth "Liz" Nuss and Carmen Neuberger.
John Lowery, NASPA member and faculty member at Indiana University of
Pennsylvania, reflected that,
I would in part to attribute it [internationalization] to and driven by individuals early on.
My guess on how associations work and what I've seen in NASPA is there were one or
two individuals that really pushed the organization to experiment with these types of
things. There were individuals who were significantly involved in the association and in
a position to push this issue forward. I don't think it came from a ground swell of
demand, particularly in 1994. (J. Lowery, personal communication, November 7, 2014)
177 Individuals mentioned in Chapter 7 as well as those involved with committees in Chapter 9 were setting the stage for these individuals in the 1990s. The pioneering individuals early on did make a difference and it was their efforts that helped create the "right time, right place" that was the tipping point in 1995/1996. The individuals mentioned in this chapter could not have done it without all previous efforts that set the stage.
Some took advantage of this set stage to push the international dimension forward. Oral histories revealed some of these individuals to be Elizabeth "Liz" Nuss and Carmen Neuberger as contributors for their associations. Past NASPA President, Jon Dalton, talked about his time working with Nuss,
Liz Nuss was instrumental, she was executive director, when I was president [1995] and
she, herself, had traveled quite a bit, with her husband, a physicist. And her influence
was important and she shared a lot of that her travel experience with the board and was
supportive in my interest and wanting to give more attention to that topic. You should
not underestimate that role in the association because that's our full time chief advocate
[Executive Director] and they are very influential in shaping policy and direction.
(personal communication, October 9, 2014)
Similarly, Carmen Neuberger was the Past Executive Director for ACPA from 1995 to
2003. Neuberger disclosed in her oral history that she started the international divisions within
ACPA around 1995/1996. "I had a little freedom to do things like establish international divisions, 'why not have international divisions,' it was the timing, interest, my interest in, and an idea whose time has come, and I did that" (C. Neuberger, personal communication, December
17, 2014). The first international division was the Caribbean division.
178 However, the two names most discussed in the oral histories were Jon Dalton and Roger
Ludeman. From documents and oral histories, it seems that these two were the catalysts for the
internationalization of student affairs. ACPA past President, Dennis "Denny" Roberts reflected,
I look at the work of Roger and Jon. I would really give major credit to both of them.
They were the early people talking about the importance of understanding that there was
this internationalization and we needed to pay attention to it and begin to address it.
(personal communication, December 5, 2014)
Jon Dalton, NASPA President in 1995, initiated a few things during his presidency that
influenced the internationalization of NASPA. According to Dalton, each president identifies
themes they want within their presidency (personal communication, October 9, 2014). In 1995,
NASPA updated their strategic plan as seen in Dalton's annual report.
The annual report of 1994 to 1995 had no goals directed specifically toward
internationalization rather "Goal 5: Promote diversity in NASPA and the profession" (Scott,
1995, p. 2). However, that was updated in 1995 with "Objective Three: To promote pluralism,
diversity, and internationalism in NASPA and the profession" and specifically point two within
this objective stating "Initiated formal professional exchange agreements with the Deutsches
Studentenwerk in Germany, the CNOUS (Centre National des Oeuvres Universitaires et
Scolaires) in France, and the Instituto in Mexico. Sponsored professional exchange programs in
Germany and France" (Dalton, 1996, p. 2).
The update to the strategic plan and objectives demonstrated a new commitment unseen before within NASPA. In his oral history, Dalton shared "I wanted the international focus to be
a theme of my presidency and I suggested that we meet internationally as a symbol of that" (J.
Dalton, personal communication, October 9, 2014). As a part of that theme, he took his
179 leadership team to Monterrey, Mexico for their board meeting and he also appointed the first
international board member from Mexico, Carlos J. Mijares Lopez (J. Dalton, personal
communication, October 9, 2014). Kevin Kruger, NASPA President, reflected on Dalton's
influence,
Dalton played a significant role in his decision to appoint Carlos to the NASPA board,
that was sort of a bold decision and was very symbolic. A demonstrative way of
showing the kind of support we had for international issues and the fact of being
supporting of an international board meeting, that was important. (personal
communication, October 31, 2014)
Roger Ludeman shared, "the name Jon Dalton is right up front, he was doing things others were
not, he was involved with a Fulbright, but he also got involved with France and Germany after
attending an annual event" (personal communication, October 20, 2014). The partnerships with
France and Germany, and the work of Dalton and Ludeman led to the establishment of the
international exchanges. The combination of Dalton and Ludeman seemed to be a catalyst for
NASPA in the internationalization of NASPA. Dalton reflected that "Roger's involvement was pretty pivotal early on" (personal communication, October 9, 2014). And Roger was involved
with both ACPA and NASPA.
Past ACPA President, Margaret "Peggy" Barr, noted Ludeman as influential in the ACPA board room,
The power of one is really amazing, primarily in ACPA, he was coming in and saying
we need to take colleagues to visit other countries, we need to meet with people who do
our work around in other countries. (M. Barr, personal communication, October 13,
2014)
180 Ken Osfield, NASPA member, became interested in NASPA's work in the international dimension due to Ludeman's contributions.
I met Roger in the hallway at table, and he just pulled me aside and said 'hey what are
you doing and I said, 'well just walking around in between sessions, why what do you got
going?' He told me about the symposium, and to be honest with you, that's what
sparked my interest was him grabbing me as a new professional and giving me an
opportunity to get involved in a serious way. (K. Osfield, personal communication,
October 22, 2014)
Ludeman was also mentioned by past ACPA President's Susan Komives and Paul Oliaro,
NASPA President Kevin Kruger, and others in the oral histories. He helped organize and lead
NASPA's first international exchange and international symposium as well as leading NASPA's
International Education Network early after it was created. Oliaro stated that if anyone could be credited for the internationalization of ACPA, it was Ludeman (personal communication, May
13, 2014).
Summary and Conclusion
All of these individuals contributed to the internationalization of student affairs by their commitment to the international dimension and their personal experiences. However, the time had to be ripe, and the associations and membership had to be ready for this commitment. The previous chapters in this research including the concurrent movements and grassroots efforts, early pioneers, and institutional and associational efforts, influenced a forward shift to set the stage for this tipping point. With the stage set, individuals took the reins and developed a new focus for the organizations that included major milestones for both ACPA and NASPA. 1995 and 1996 represented the "tipping point" for the internationalization of student affairs due to the
181 major programs and initiatives, strategic goals, and a shift in members awareness about the international dimension. After this tipping point, the associations have continued their work in the international dimension with more focus and movement which will be explored further in
Chapter 12. However, this "tipping point" is the conclusion of this research study and is summarized in the next chapter.
182 CHAPTER 11
A NEW OUTLOOK: CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
The internationalization of student affairs did not happen overnight and was not influenced by one particular event or individual. This research study shows a slow evolution from 1951 to the early 1990s culminating in a "tipping point" in 1995 and 1996. Influences from concurrent and grassroots movements, early pioneers, and institutional and associational efforts, combined to gain momentum around the international dimension and eventually push the internationalization of student affairs to professional consciousness. When determining how an entire field evolves over time, it is critical to examine it through a horizontal history. John
Thelin states that by doing horizontal histories researchers are able to observe a "complete ecology of higher education that includes the roles of foundations, consortia, associations, accrediting bodies, state bureaus, and federal agencies" (Thelin, 2010, p. 71).
The research study attempted to complete this horizontal history across 45 years of document analysis including 45 years of NASPA: Student Affairs Professionals in Higher
Education conference programs, committee files from all three major student affairs associations:
ACPA: College Student Educators International, National Association of Women Educators
(NAWE) and NASPA, and supplemented by 17 oral histories. Through the data, the research identifies contributing factors to the internationalization of student affairs. Chapter 2 started by providing the historical and social context of the time period and the importance of acknowledging individual experience. Chapter 4 provided a foundation of understanding for the internationalization of higher education and Chapter 5 described the establishment and history of the field of student affairs. Chapters 2, 4, and 5 set the context for understanding the larger pieces of the research topic: a historical context, internationalization, and students affairs. The
183 next four chapters expanded on the major themes found in the data including concurrent and grassroots movements, pioneering professionals, and institutional and associational influences.
Finally, Chapter 10 described the combination of previous efforts and themes of the research to reveal a "tipping point" for internationalization in student affairs in the United States (US) in
1995 and 1996 .
Research Questions Revisited
Research questions identified in Chapter 1 included: Why and how did student affairs become more internationalized in the United States from 1951 to 1996? What factors led to the internationalization of the profession? What roles did institutions, professionals, and professional associations (specifically ACPA, NASPA, and NAWE) play in this internationalization?
The first question of why and how student affairs became more internationalized is addressed throughout Chapters 6 through 10. The why of becoming more internationalized came from the oral histories. Themes included an increase in international attendees; the passion of individuals; relevance of international issues and concerns at the campus level; expanding membership and an international market; and competition with other associations. The how is established through the major themes found in the research with the culmination of the "tipping point" explained by the answer to the second question and the factors that led to the internationalization of the profession.
Factors that led to the internationalization of student affairs in the US included the major themes discussed through the chapters including concurrent and grassroots movements, pioneering professionals, and institutional and associational influences, as well as the events occurring prior to the "tipping point."
184 Concurrent movements that ran parallel to the internationalization in student affairs and higher education included a variety of government and private initiatives, the ending of World
War II, the Cold War, the 1960s, diversity movements, the evolution of international higher education, and a world made smaller by faster communications and extensive travel options for students, faculty, and student affairs professionals. Running parallel to these events were multiple grassroots initiatives from individual students and professionals at the institution and association levels. Some of these pioneering professionals between 1951 and 1966 were discussing the international dimension in a new way creating an awareness among colleagues on campus and at conferences. The individuals were influenced by their personal and professional experiences both abroad and with students.
Institutions were influenced by institutional leadership and support, campus best practices, exchanges and trips including Fulbright Fellowships, and day to day work with the international dimension on campus. Oral histories revealed that these factors were most important when considering the level of internationalization at the institution. A campus in which the leadership advocates for the international dimension, provides international exchange opportunities, and integrates the international dimension into policy at all levels, sets a best practice standard for lead institutions around the US.
As the international dimension was discussed at the campus level, professionals began to see the need to address these issues at the professional association level. Oral histories confirmed that often professional associations followed the trends of campuses due to their membership. Each professional association developed a committee/commission/task force that addressed the international dimension and provided much of the effort to internationalize student affairs work at the association level. The individuals, including international members,
185 passionate about the international dimension pushed the topic, presented conference sessions,
and eventually helped establish international exchanges and pre-conferences for the associations.
It was all of these efforts that led to the "tipping point" for the internationalization in
student affairs in the US. International exchanges, individual passion, the NASPA international
symposium, and ACPA international divisions contributed to the actual point in time (the
"tipping point") where there was a shift in consciousness towards internationalization. However,
this does not mean that all student affairs professionals are fully aware of their colleagues,
associations, or institutions involvements in the international dimension.
The third question on the roles of institutions, professionals, and professional associations
(specifically ACPA, NASPA, and NAWE) in the internationalization of student affairs is
discussed throughout the chapters. The research showed that professionals tended to be at the
core of much of change at both the institutional and associational levels. However, the oral
histories and documents also showed that the internationalization in student affairs in the US was
also heavily influenced by students themselves. From international students presence on campus
and the need for different services for students and student organizations such as the US National
Student Association (NSA) bringing awareness to certain student issues. Issues such as the need
for greater integration of international students as well as establishing student relationships
around the world to ensure student equity around the globe held the attention of student
associations early in this research's time frame as seen in Chapter 6.
An Expanded Social Rationale
de Wit's (2002) four rationales for the internationalization of higher education include political, economic, academic, and socio-cultural, and were cited throughout the research study.
Many factors that influenced the internationalization of student affairs fell into those four
186 rationale categories. For example, early discussions of the Cold War usually fell into the political rationale addressing national security, an increase in international students in the economic rationale highlighting economic benefit for institutions, and initiatives like new branch campuses around the world fell into all four rationales. However, this research clearly underlines the role of the student both as individual contributors as well as their influence in student affairs as a profession. Oral histories revealed professionals who emphasized the importance of students in their day to day work, as the basis for the profession as a whole, and helping the field of student affairs define student need.
Past NAWE Executive Director, Lynn Gangone said "Students defined the need and then we responded to the need" (personal communication, December 9, 2014). Similarly, past ACPA
President, Susan Komives said "in student affairs, the student voice is first and then we address it though policy" (personal communication, November 6, 2014). Historically, student affairs was born out of the necessity to address student issues such as discipline, housing, and wellness and as such, has always been sensitive to student needs. Whereas de Wit examines rationales through the lens of the larger framework of higher education, yet, student affairs answers to both the larger higher education initiatives and to the needs of the students.
As such, I would argue for an expansion of de Wit's (2002) social (of socio-cultural) rationale. Currently, the social rationale highlights how internationalization impacts the student or the individual. This research study has shown that it was often the students that influenced internationalization as well as vice versa; however, de Wit (2002) focuses more on study abroad and how interactions with different cultures, in general, influence the individual. Yet, this research shows that the social component is more involved and the student themselves hold an integral role in the internationalization process, at least in student affairs.
187 The Internationalization in Student Affairs in the US
NAFSA (2008) defined internationalization as "the conscious effort to integrate and infuse international, intercultural, and global dimensions into the ethos and outcomes of postsecondary education" (p. 1). Has the field of student affairs internationalized? The field has begun the process of internationalization, but by no means has hit saturation. This research
shows that the "tipping point" was a point in time where student affairs pushed beyond
recognizing the international dimension and the field became an active participant in
internationalizing higher education through individual, institutional, and associational means
through integrating and infusing the international dimension into their services and work.
However, not everyone in the field is completely aware of the international dimension,
international opportunities in the field, or that the Student Personnel Point of View (SPPV) of
1949 expanded student affairs purpose to include a global dimension by adding new goals.
Just like any college campus or large association, there were many things happening and
not everyone was aware of all activity that was occurring. Ironically, this mirrored the
frustrations that many student affairs administrators had with their students: not knowing about
all campus resources and services. However, for the field of student affairs to truly
internationalize, as the definition describes, all student affairs professionals must integrate the
international dimension into their own work. And as student affairs work is examined
worldwide, ACPA past President Dennis "Denny" Roberts states that, "the task of the
international student development person is to figure out what is it that we learned from the
American experience that can be modified and then become useful in an international setting"
(personal communication, December 5, 2014). Rather than taking student affairs and attempting
to transplant it in other countries, it's critical to examine student affairs worldwide and adapt
188 whatever works best for a particular country, culture, and context. Some of this is discussed in the next chapter that highlights some things that have further internationalized in the field since
1996.
Implications for Future Research
Past ACPA President, Margaret "Peggy" Barr said that "It [internationalization] is a ship that has left the dock and we have to continue to row really fast to catch up to it and to become part of it" (personal communication, October 13, 2014). True internationalization has not happened; however, progress in the process have been demonstrated by the "tipping point" that occurred in this research. This study is just the beginning of understanding the internationalization of student affairs and provides a narrative of how student affairs internationalized until 1996, but as this research reveals, services and awareness have increased at every level. Associations have begun to realize the market of student affairs around the world.
However, as some of the oral history participants have acknowledged, institutions, associations, and members have not fully internationalized.
As scholarship addressing student affairs around the world increased in the late 1990s, the history of these services was not addressed. Frankly, I would argue that a majority of individuals in the US and around the world may not know how others operate in the field of student affairs and services in other countries and, similarly, most would not know the history of their work around the world. However, to specifically expand on this research, future research will need to examine how each of these entities (professionals, institutions, associations) can continue to internationalize their purposes in the future to ensure the infusion of the international dimension in student affairs work. Conducting research on the individuals, the lead institutions, and specific efforts at all levels that helped push this topic forward could provide a larger picture
189 of the internationalization in student affairs. Additionally, researching these same entities around the globe could begin to address internationalization of student affairs and services around the
world, this would also include the history.
Currently, the availability of historical research concerning this topic is severely lacking.
However, I hope this research study has provided a jumping off point for other research around
this topic and can provide a framework to continue to examine student affairs through document
analysis and oral histories. The current research could be specifically expanded by looking at the
45 years of conference programs from ACPA and NAWE to see if those conferences were
different or contributed to the international dimension in a different way than NASPA. By providing historical understanding through associations provides a horizontal history through a
different lens. Expanding this research to include other student affairs functional area
associations such as The Association of College and University Housing Officers International
(ACUHO-I), Association of College Unions International (ACUI), and others, could give
detailed insight to the internationalization and history of these areas. Researching academic
associations could also provide a new perspective to the internationalization of higher education beyond the current literature.
Conclusion
Knight and de Wit (1995) stated that “little research has been done on the historical roots
of the present wave of internationalization of higher education, in reaction to the globalization of
our societies” (p. 5). This research effort attempts to fill a gap within the field of student affairs
and higher education in general. Student affairs is a part of higher education and understanding
how this profession internationalized over the years can help to better describe the
internationalization of higher education. Over the 45-year period, the field of student affairs was
190 influenced by concurrent and grassroots movements, pioneering professionals, and institutional and associational efforts that culminated in the "tipping point" for the internationalization in student affairs in 1995 and 1996. In addition to these factors, this research highlighted the critical importance of students and student need in the field of student affairs. The field itself was established due to this need and no one in student affairs can forget that students should come first.
Student affairs has come a long way as can be seen in the study. At the beginning of the research, there were brief discussions of foreign students in the 1950s and ending with the international exchanges, pre-conferences, and strategic goals of the 1990s. The next and final chapter provides a brief overview of what has happened since 1996 as the field has continued to internationalize. The epilogue expands on programs, initiatives, new associations, and other things that have helped to expand internationalization in student affairs.
191 CHAPTER 12
EPILOGUE
This chapter highlights some of the initiatives and development of internationalization in student affairs since 1996 including concurrent and grassroots movements, professional experiences, institutional and associational influences, and what is next in the internationalization of student affairs. Scholarship concerning the internationalization of student affairs has increased as well as the concerted effort for higher education to produce global citizens upon college graduation. However, something that cannot be overlooked are events such as September 11th, 2001 as mentioned in an earlier chapter and how that impacted the international dimension in US society and higher education.
In an ACPA: College Student Educators International webinar on April 28th 2015,
Dennis "Denny" Roberts asked the question about internationalization: "Is it a trendy conversation that people are involved in or something that is a reality?" He then verified that he did not believe it was a trend. An increase in student affairs and services globally, and focus on internationalization at the institutional and associational level prove that in fact it is not a trend.
As society becomes more global, higher education continues to expand past borders, and institutions partner worldwide, internationalization is ever present. Roberts (2015) stated that,
I wouldn't be surprised if many of you all have looked at your institution's mission
statements lately, and the term either internationalization or globalization is increasingly
popping up and more institutions are saying that is a part of who they are, branch
campuses, partner programs around the world, definitely expanding, there is now over
200 branch campuses in various areas across the world and many more partnerships.
192 This chapter frames the development of the internationalization in and of student affairs through a few major events that demonstrate significant strides forward since 1996 including the creation of the International Association of Student Affairs and Services (IASAS) in 2000, the first
Global Summit on Student Affairs in 2012, and advancements in ACPA and NASPA.
Creation of the International Association of Student Affairs and Services (IASAS)
After establishing the NASPA international symposium, Roger Ludeman began to think about the need for a global student affairs and services association and worked with colleagues around the world. "Around 1997, I started plans for IASAS, it wasn't official, but started it there at another level, not nation based or region based, but globally based and bring people together all around the world" (R. Ludeman, personal communication, October 20, 2014). In 2000,
IASAS was an informal network of professional associations around the world and was officially founded as an association on March 1, 2010 (IASAS, n.d.). "Our main focus is on providing services and programs aimed at enhanced communication among student affairs organizations and agencies and international professional development activities for student affairs professionals and providers related to issues that are international in nature" (IASAS, n.d.).
IASAS is a completely different association from the typical country specific student affairs and services associations. Their mission and vision provide for the first association that has attempted to serve student affairs and services on a global scale.
Global Summit on Student Affairs and Services
IASAS and NASPA partnered to host the first Global Summit on Student Affairs and
Services held in Washington D. C. in September of 2012. With representation from over 20 countries, the summit served as a location for student affairs and services leaders from around
193 the globe to discuss common issues and unique issues for different countries and contexts. The first summit identified four common themes:
1) Student Affairs has a critical role to play in responding to students as they enter higher
education. 2) Student Affairs has a critical role to play in responding to students as they
engage in the process of higher education (during their enrollment). 3) Student Affairs
has a critical role to play in responding to students as they prepare to exit higher
education. 4) Student Affairs is expanding globally as a field in higher education.
(Callahan & Stanfield, 2012)
From these themes, seven actionable items were established to work on until the next
Global Summit, which took place in 2014. The next steps included: "Maintain the summit network, develop academic partnerships, construct learning outcomes and assessment instruments, write a summary of the Global Summit, explore the role and use of technology, create a research query of existing data, and form an overarching philosophy" (Callahan &
Stanfield, 2012). These first steps were necessary to maintain conversation and commitment to the network that later led to the second Global Summit held in Italy in 2014. The intent of these global summits is to have open dialogue among student affairs and services professionals around the world and meet on a regular basis in different locations around the world. Both the establishment of IASAS and the beginnings of the Global Summit highlights the progression and forward movement of the internationalization of student affairs as a field.
Internationalization at the Association Level in Student Affairs
Professional associations continued to internationalize after the "tipping point." As the
National Association of Women in Education (NAWE) disbanded in 2000, this section only discusses ACPA and NASPA updates. Since 1996, ACPA changed their name to include the
194 word international from Association of College Personnel Administrators to ACPA: College
Student Educators International; took members on international exchanges; started an annual pre-conference; Global Dimensions Committee X celebrated their 50th year anniversary in 2011; and ACPA will be having its first international conference in 2016. ACPA also added a global strategic plan: "ACPA, in its commitment to the advancement of the student affairs profession, recognizes the global dimensions of its work and the contributions of student affairs/student services practitioners and scholars throughout the world" (ACPA, 2013).
Similarly, NASPA has added specific goals to their strategic plan. Their most recent strategic plan they have added a goal to "Develop and promote NASPA’s identity as a global student affairs association" (NASPA, 2015). Current NASPA President, Kevin Kruger commented on this change by saying,
I see a huge, signature event was when almost four years ago when the board did
strategic planning and had globalization as a strategic priority for the association, that is
an example of that progression to really characterize NASPA as a being a global
organization. (K. Kruger, personal communication, October 31, 2014)
In line with this new shift and to achieve their goals and objectives they have added two new global areas in addition to their current regional structure and after the 20th anniversary of the
International Symposium in 2015, NASPA changed the title to fit more in line with the direction of the association to the Global Symposium for 2016. The Latin American and Caribbean (LAC) area and the Middle East, North Africa, South Asia (MENASA) area have been added to the
NASPA structure as of 2015 as these areas try to bolster their student affairs and services professional development and resources in those areas with their own volunteer structure.
195 ACPA and NASPA have had committees, task forces, and many members working on these global initiatives in the past 20 years to get these associations to a place that members see a visible change in priorities within the associations. Both associations have worked with IASAS in its development over the years as well as providing continued international exchanges for members.
Next Steps and Conclusion
The field of student affairs originated in the US; however, the US is not the only one to offer student services. True internationalization will include the recognition of this fact and an open mind to how people do things differently around the world in different contexts. Dennis
"Denny" Roberts talked about his experience in Qatar:
For instance, some of the stuff that we were doing in Qatar are superior to practice of
student development in the US, it's more deeply anchored in the cultural context, it is
highly resourced, it is very serious, people who are now beginning to visit are
recognizing that work and maybe we need to look at emerging institutions and how they
are adapting practice and how that can inform us in US to do a better job. When that
starts to happen that is when true internationalization is happening. (D. Roberts, personal
communication, December 5, 2014)
Similarly, the student affairs and internationalization literature is dominated by the US and
Canada. Voices from other countries and cultures is needed to expand student affairs and services around the world. In an ACPA webinar by Dennis "Denny" Roberts he acknowledged that one perspective of internationalization is not sufficient, the field needs to be informed by others around the world (Roberts, 2015). This research challenges scholars around the world to
196 learn about the history of student affairs and services in their own countries and cultures and educate others.
More of us should present at conferences around the world on best practices from your institution. We should publish on adaptations made to certain programs, student development theory, or effective professional association initiatives. These are the next steps in the global literature about the internationalization of student affairs and services.
197 APPENDIX A
ORAL HISTORY QUESTIONS
(Text used in each oral history interview conducted for this study)
First, I want to share a little bit more about my dissertation before we start and record. I
have done 45 years of document analysis of NASPA programs and other document analysis of
major student affairs documents during the time frame of 1951 to 1996. I aim to interview
around 15-20 student affairs professionals with different experiences in professional
organizations and different experiences to talk about the topic of internationalization. Some will be leaders in the movement, some will have served in leadership roles in their organization and
some will have been members - I am looking for a big picture of how students affairs, the profession, evolved or didn't over the years around this topic.
I am going to ask a few biographical questions before we get started with the content of
the oral history. I would like to keep this under an hour, so for these first section of questions,
think of them more as short answer rather than in depth unless it is meaningful and relevant to
the topic.
Begin recording.
(Italic questions not necessary for every interview based on other questions)
Biographical Questions
When and where were you born?
Tell me about how you grew up, your family, your background?
Where did you attend college? Did you go directly to college or did you take any time off? Any
military duty? Tell me a little about these experiences.
198 How did you become involved in Student Affairs, Higher Education, Research etc (made applicable to each interviewee)?
Did you ever travel outside of the US? Tell me a little about those experiences. - Had you ever spent a considerable amount of time (either personally or professional) with individuals from other countries?
What are your research interests? What major life events informed the decisions to pursue these avenues of inquiry?
Are (or were) you involved with any professional organizations? If so, which ones and to what level of engagement?
Tell me about your career until this point?
Did you have mentors in the field? Who and why? How did their mentorship affect your career trajectory?
What political/historical event(s) do you consider to be the most important or impactful in your life?
(if retired or out of the field) Tell me a little about your life since you left the field. Interests, work, etc.
Describe your personal understanding of the term internationalization
Personal, Individual, Institutional Experiences (if applicable)
What was going on in your life that established interest in internationalization (if applicable)?
Were these the same influences that sustained interest over time?
How often did internationalization impact your work at the institution? Did it ever impact or enter into your research? If yes, how and why?
199 Were there any historical/political events in your life that influenced your thoughts on
internationalization (e.g. September 11, WWII, Study Abroad)?
Higher Education Specific (only for HE specific individuals)
HE: What is your understanding of how higher education internationalized? Were there any
major events or factors (influences) leading to the internationalization of higher education?
What are some examples of how internationalization was manifested in higher education.
What kind of influence did organizations like CIES, NAFSA or other US policies like the
introduction of Peace Corps and the Fulbright program have on internationalization in higher
education?
How were students impacted by internationalization?
Professional Association Involvement
Why do you think leadership (professional) organizations (e.g. NASPA, ACPA, NAWE) became
involved with international topics and colleagues? What factors do you believe led to an
increasing internationalization in your professional organization.
When and how did you become involved with international travel and contact with international professional colleagues (if applicable)?
When did you first become aware of a significant increase in interest in international affairs in
the profession (if applicable)? When did you first become aware of the shift toward increased
interest in international affairs in the profession?
During your time in membership, what topics within the scope of internationalization most
talked about - e.g. study abroad, international students - feel free to reflect over different decades
and any evolving topics. ('60s, '70s, '80s, '90s, 2000s).
200 Who (if anyone) in your organization (NASPA, ACPA, NAWE, etc.) provided leadership
(guidance) in encouraging more internationalization in the organization?
What significant milestones (e.g. events, etc.) can you think of that marked an increased
commitment to or heightened awareness in internationalization?
If you participated in the governance of the organization (executive director, past board
member/president) - did you see the significance of the topic of internationalization change at all
from membership to board room?
Did you see a difference at the institutional level and the professional level in commitment to
internationalization?
Final Questions
Internationalization happened in many ways, from government policy to grassroots issues like
international students on campus--How do you think student affairs was most influenced?
Any final thoughts or stories you would like to share about internationalization either in your personal?
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213 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
Kathleen Callahan completed her B.S. in Sociology at North Carolina State University and her M.Ed. in College Student Affairs at the University of South Florida. She will be starting as a Lecturer in Leadership Studies at Christopher Newport University in the fall of 2015.
Callahan serves as NASPA: Student Affairs Administrators in Higher Education Region III
Historian since 2007 and as the national co-chair for the International Education Knowledge
Community from 2012 to 2014. At Florida State, she worked in assistantships for the Higher
Education Program and the Undergraduate Leadership Studies Certificate. Prior to attending
Florida State University for her Ph.D., she worked full time as a Residence Life Coordinator and
Academic Associate at Winthrop University in South Carolina. In addition to her job, she also taught multiple undergraduate courses including Leadership Theory, Human Experience, and a
Freshman Seminar as well as coaching the Women's Club Volleyball team.
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