DOCSLIB.ORG

DIFFICILE EST SATVRAM NVNC SCRIBERE Satire in the Corporate Media Age

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
DIFFICILE EST SATVRAM NVNC SCRIBERE Satire in the Corporate Media Age Martin M. Winkler (Fairfax, Virginia) DIFFICILE EST SATVRAM NVNC SCRIBERE Satire in the Corporate Media Age The textual change in my title to one of Juvenal’s most famous lines may prompt the question whether the same situation was true tunc (»then«); that is, in ancient Rome. Classical scholars will immediately think of terms such as libertas or parrhesia,both of which express what we would today call »freedom of speech.« Horace opens Sermones 1.4 with the observation that the writers of Old Comedy – he names Eupolis, Cratinus, and Aristophanes – had exposed vice and crime »with great freedom« (multa cum libertate) and that the early Roman satirist Lucilius followed their example, if in a different genre; he, Horace, will in turn follow Lucilius.1 But even in democratic Athens Aristophanes was twice charged with slander by the popular politician Cleon, although he was not convicted, and everybody knows what happened to Socrates for exercising his parrhesia. Earlier authors of iambs, especially Archilochus and Hipponax, had been highly effective in their attacks but still had to reckon with unpleasant consequences.2 Later on, Diogenes and other Cynics generally remained safe even if they did their best to »push the buttons,« as Americans call it today, of the good citizens around them. Perhaps the Cynics were safe because they were social outsiders or, in modern terms, dropouts who formed a counterculture to the establishment.3 They were also largely ineffective. Quintilian declared verse satire to be entirely Roman because it had not been a literary genre in Greece.4 But most of the Greeks mentioned above clearly exhibit the spirit of satire and may be considered honorary members of the satirists’ guild. In Rome, satire goes back to Ennius and Lucilius. In his programmatic Satire 1, Juvenal twice pays tribute to Lucilius, portraying him as a kind of epic hero who swoops down on vice and folly on his chariot, swinging, as it were, his stylus like amightysword.5 But Lucilius had a powerful patron to protect him, and so did Horace, the close friend of Maecenas and Augustus. Consequently, the reputation 1 Hor. sat. 1.4.1–8 and 2.1.34. 2 On the Greek iambic poets see, e.g., the »Introduction« to Gerber (1999) 1–12. On Archilochus as effective satirist cf. Testimonia 19–32 in Gerber (1999) 46–57 (the fate of Lycambes and his daughters). Plut. Cato 7 reports that Cato the Elder attacked Scipio the Elder in the manner of Archilochus, thereby introducing to Rome the iamb as political invective. 3 On Diogenes cf. the account, unsurpassed in its vividness, of Schwartz (1956) 133–4. See further Green (1992) 614–7. 4 Quint. inst. 10.1.93: satura quidem tota nostra est. 5 Iuv. 1.20 (magnus equos Auruncae flexit alumnus)and165–6(ense velut stricto … Lucilius ardens / infremuit). 262 Martin M. Winkler of Horace came to suffer a critical split as author of the Odes and as author of satires, the Sermones. The greatness of Horace as a lyric poet is readily acknowledged, but the writer of satire could be and was repeatedly disparaged. Horace became, as it were, a tame bird singing its mild satiric songs from inside a gilded imperial cage. In retrospect it has not helped Horace that his satiric motto is virtually Epicurean: »laughingly to tell the truth.«6 This is an example of to spoudaiogeloion, the mixture of earnest seriousness (to spoudaion) and the risible (to geloion),butitisalsoinstark contrast to Lucilius, whom Juvenal calls ardens (»burning«) in his desire for satiric attack. It is even more in contrast to Juvenal himself, who in Satire 1 professes to be guided by yet stronger passions and to write with the rising bile of anger and indignation.7 In 1692 John Dryden, the great British poet, translator, and satirist, compared Horatian and Juvenalian satire and came down in favor of Juvenal’s: I wou’d willingly divide the Palm betwixt them; upon the two Heads of Profit and Delight, which are the two Ends of Poetry in general. It must be granted by the Favourers of Juvenal,thatHorace is the more Copious, and Profitable in his Instructions of Humane Life. But in my particular Opinion … Juvenal is the more delightful Author. I am profited by both, I am pleas’d with both; but I owe more to Horace for my Instruction; and more to Juvenal, for my Pleasure. But, after all, I must confess, that the Delight which Horace gives me, is but languish- ing … Juvenal is of a more vigorous and Masculine Wit, he gives me as much Pleasure as I can bear: He fully satisfies my Expectation, he Treats his Subject home: His Spleen is rais’d, and he raises mine: I have the Pleasure of Concernment in all he says; He drives his Reader along with him; and when he is at the end of his way, I willingly stop with him … Add to this, that his Thoughts are as just as those of Horace, and much more Elevated. His Expressions are Sonorous and more Noble; his Verse more numerous, and his Words are suitable to his Thoughts, sublime and lofty … Horace is always on the Amble; Juvenal on the Gallop … He goes with more impetuosity than Horace;butas securely; and the swiftness adds a more lively agitation to the Spirits. And besides this, the Sauce of Juvenal is more poignant, to create in us an Appetite of Reading him. The Meat of Horace is more nourishing; but the Cookery of Juvenal more exquisite; so that, granting Horace to be the more general Philosopher; we cannot deny, that Juvenal was the greater Poet, I mean in Satire. His Thoughts are sharper, his Indignation against Vice is more vehement; his Spirit has more of the Commonwealth Genius; he treats Tyranny, and all the Vices attending it, as they deserve, with the utmost rigour: And consequently, a Noble Soul is better pleas’d with a Zealous Vindicator of Roman Liberty; than with a Temporizing Poet, a well Manner’d Court Slave, and a Man who is often afraid of Laughing in the right place: Who is ever decent, because he is naturally servile.8 6 Hor. sat. 1.1.24: ridentem dicere verum; cf. sat. 1.10.14–5 (ridiculum acri / fortius). Except in the early invectives (sat. 1.1–3), there is almost no biting attack in Horace’s satire. 7 Iuv. 1.30–1, 45, and 79 (the famous facit indignatio versum). 8 These passages are from Dryden’s Discourse Concerning the Original and Progress of Satire,theepistle dedicatory of his translations of Juvenal and Persius to Charles, Earl of Dorset and Middlesex: The Satyrs of Decimus Junius Juvenalis and of Aulus Persius Flaccus. Translated into English Verse by Mr..
Load more

Recommended publications
  • John Dryden and the Late 17Th Century Dramatic Experience Lecture 16 (C) by Asher Ashkar Gohar 1 Credit Hr
    JOHN DRYDEN AND THE LATE 17TH CENTURY DRAMATIC EXPERIENCE LECTURE 16 (C) BY ASHER ASHKAR GOHAR 1 CREDIT HR. JOHN DRYDEN (1631 – 1700) HIS LIFE: John Dryden was an English poet, literary critic, translator, and playwright who was made England's first Poet Laureate in 1668. He is seen as dominating the literary life of Restoration England to such a point that the period came to be known in literary circles as the “Age of Dryden”. The son of a country gentleman, Dryden grew up in the country. When he was 11 years old the Civil War broke out. Both his father’s and mother’s families sided with Parliament against the king, but Dryden’s own sympathies in his youth are unknown. About 1644 Dryden was admitted to Westminster School, where he received a predominantly classical education under the celebrated Richard Busby. His easy and lifelong familiarity with classical literature begun at Westminster later resulted in idiomatic English translations. In 1650 he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, where he took his B.A. degree in 1654. What Dryden did between leaving the university in 1654 and the Restoration of Charles II in 1660 is not known with certainty. In 1659 his contribution to a memorial volume for Oliver Cromwell marked him as a poet worth watching. His “heroic stanzas” were mature, considered, sonorous, and sprinkled with those classical and scientific allusions that characterized his later verse. This kind of public poetry was always one of the things Dryden did best. On December 1, 1663, he married Elizabeth Howard, the youngest daughter of Thomas Howard, 1st earl of Berkshire.
    [Show full text]
  • Cato, Roman Stoicism, and the American 'Revolution'
    Cato, Roman Stoicism, and the American ‘Revolution’ Katherine Harper A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Arts Faculty, University of Sydney. March 27, 2014 For My Parents, To Whom I Owe Everything Contents Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................... i Abstract.......................................................................................................................... iv Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter One - ‘Classical Conditioning’: The Classical Tradition in Colonial America ..................... 23 The Usefulness of Knowledge ................................................................................... 24 Grammar Schools and Colleges ................................................................................ 26 General Populace ...................................................................................................... 38 Conclusions ............................................................................................................... 45 Chapter Two - Cato in the Colonies: Joseph Addison’s Cato: A Tragedy .......................................... 47 Joseph Addison’s Cato: A Tragedy .......................................................................... 49 The Universal Appeal of Virtue ...........................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Dryden on Shadwell's Theatre of Violence
    James Blac k DRYDEN ON SHADWELL'S THEATRE OF VIOLENCE All admirers of J ohn Dryden can sympathise w ith H.T . Swedenberg's dream of o ne day "finding bundle after bundle of Dryden's manuscripts and a journal kept thro ugho ut his career. .. .! turn in the journal to the 1670's and eagerly scan the leaves to find out precisely when MacFlecknoe was written and what the ultimate occasion for it was. " 1 For the truth is that although MacFlecknoe can be provisionally dated 1678 the " ultimate occasion" of Dryden's satire on Thomas Shadwell has never been satisfactorily explained. We know that for abo ut nine years Dryden and Shadwell had been arguing in prologues and prefaces with reasonably good manners , chiefly over the principles of comedy. R.J. Smith makes a case for Shadwell's being considered the foremost among Dryden's many adversaries in literary argumentatio n, and points out that their discourse had reached the stage where Dryden, in A n Apology for Heroic Poetry ( 16 77), made "an appeal for a live-and-let-live agree­ ment." 2 T he generally serious and calm nature of their debate makes MacFlecknoe seem almost a shocking intrusion- a personally-or politically-inspired attack which shattered the calm of discourse. Surely-so the reasoning of commentators goes- there must have been a casus belli. It used to be thought that Dryden was reacting to an attack by Shadwell in The Medal of j ohn Bayes, but this theory has been discounted.3 A.S. Borgman, a Shadwell biographer, would like to be able to account for Dryden's "turning against" Shadwell and making him the butt of MacFlecknoe: Had he wearied of [Sh adwell's) rep eated boasts o f friendship w ith the wits? Had he become disgusted with (h is) arrogant treatment of those who did not applaud th e humours in The Virtuoso and A True Widow? Had he tired of DRYDEN ON SHADWELL'S THEATRE OF VIOLENCE 299 seeing Shadwell "wallow in the pit" and condemn plays? Or did some word or act bring to his mind the former controversy and the threat then made of condemning dulness?4 D.M.
    [Show full text]
  • Epic to Novel
    EPIC TO NOVEL THOMAS E. MARESCA Epic to Novel OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY PRESS Copyright® 1974 by the Ohio State University Press All Rights Reserved. Manufactured in the United States of America Portions of the chapter entitled "Dryden11 appeared in the summer 1974 issue ofELH under the title "The Context of Dryden's Absalom and Achitophel." Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Mare sea, Thomas E Epic to Novel Bibliography: p. 1. English fiction — Early modern, 1500-1700 — History and criticism. 2. Epic poetry. English — History and criticism. I. Title. PR769.M3 823\03 74-19109 ISBN 0-8142-0216-0 ISBN 0-8142-0289-6 Original hard-cover edition 3 March 1975 Paperback reprint issued May 1977 FOR DIANE CONTENT S Preface ix Dryden 3 Pope 79 Swift 135 Fielding 181 List of Texts Cited 235 Index 237 PREFACE This book attempts to trace the process by which the novel replaced the epic as the major literary form in English. It explores the hows and whys of this process by an analysis of the subject matter of epic rather than its form or manner; that is, it attempts to find out what post-classical readers understood when they read epic by examination of major commentaries on Virgil's Aeneid from the early Middle Ages through the Renaissance. After that it proceeds to the same goal by close reading of major English literary works that bear a parodic relation to epic. I understand the epic tradition this book talks about as a heterogeneous body of materials growing from a single root, always changing and transforming them­ selves, but changing in ways and directions indicated by their earliest shaping.
    [Show full text]
  • Sir Robert Howard's Comedy "The Committee"
    TK -ti. a.v\c^ t^i\t^ci with Xva+vo <5c vx^.V\ on Wci"V^S V SIR ROBERT HOWARD'S COMEDY "THE COMMITTEE" Edited with Introduction and Notes BY CARRYL NELSON THURBER A. B. Cornell University, 1908. THESIS Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF ARTS IN ENGLISH IN THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 1917 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS THE GRADUATE SCHOOL ..5::^. /. IQI 7 I HEREBY RECOMMEND THAT THE THESIS PREPARED UNDER MY SUPER- VISION BY Q.A^1^.J.. 7h..&A:^.d!^... ENTITLED ..j^..(A=...Z2?{;^^.^. ^(^^Ig^tct^^ BE ACCEPTED AS FULFILLING THIS PART OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF 7J(LcOLy^J^. Qi^^J::^.. .Jj... .2., LJj=::C£::^~^^ L,..li^C> In Charge of Thesis Head of Department Recommendation concurred in Committee on Final Examination* *Required for doctor's degree but not for master's. 376623 TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION Chapter Page I Howard: Man and Statesman 1 II Howard: Poet, Dramatist, 11 and Historian III "The Committee" and "Teague" 48 History and Criticism TEXT OP "THE COmilTTEE" 61 GLOSSARIAL NOTES 153 BIBLIOaRAPHY 165 Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2013 http://archive.org/details/sirroberthowardsOOthur 1 SIR ROBERT HOWARD'S COMEDY "THE COMMITTEE" INTRODUCTION Chapter I Howard: Man and Statesman Sir Robert Howard, bom in I626, was the sixth son of Thomas Howard, first earl of Berkshire, by Elizabeth, daugh- ter of William Cecil, lord Burghley, afterwards second earl of Exeter. About Howard's early life there is available practically no information further than that he was educated at Magdalene College, whether Oxford or Cambridge seems some- (2) what uncertain.
    [Show full text]
  • Mac Flecknoe Mac Flecknoe (Full Title: Mac Flecknoe; Or, a Satyr Upon the True-Blew-Protestant Poet, T.S.) Is a Verse Mock-Heroic Satire Written by John Dryden
    Mac Flecknoe Mac Flecknoe (full title: Mac Flecknoe; or, A satyr upon the True-Blew-Protestant Poet, T.S.) is a verse mock-heroic satire written by John Dryden. It is a direct attack on Thomas Shadwell, another prominent poet of the time. It opens with the lines: All human things are subject to decay, And when fate summons, monarchs must obey. Written about 1678, but not published until 1682 (see 1682 in poetry), "Mac Flecknoe" is the outcome of a series of disagreements between Thomas Shadwell and Dryden. Their quarrel blossomed from the following disagreements: "1)their different estimates of the genius of Ben Jonson, 2)The preference of Dryden for comedy of wit and repartee and of Shadwell, the chief disciple of Jonson, for humors comedy, 3) A sharp disagreement over the true purpose of comedy, 4) Contention over the value of rhymed plays, and 5) Plagiarism." Shadwell fancied himself heir to Ben Jonson and to the variety of comedy which the latter had commonly written. Shadwell’s poetry was certainly not of the same standard as Jonson’s, and it is possible that Dryden wearied of Shadwell’s argument that Dryden undervalued Jonson. Shadwell and Dryden were separated not only by literary grounds but also by political ones as Shadwell was a Whig, while Dryden was an outspoken supporter of the Stuartmonarchy. The poem illustrates Shadwell as the heir to a kingdom of poetic dullness, represented by his association with Richard Flecknoe, an earlier poet already satirized by Andrew Marvell and disliked by Dryden, although the poet does not use belittling techniques to satirize him.
    [Show full text]
  • Department of English and American Studies English Language And
    Masaryk University Faculty of Arts Department of English and American Studies English Language and Literature Helena Haraštová The Puzzle of Pericles: the Play versus the Novel Bachelor’s Diploma Thesis Supervisor: Mgr. Filip Krajník, Ph. D. 2017 I declare that I have worked on this thesis independently, using only the primary and secondary sources listed in the bibliography. …………………………………………….. MgA. Helena Haraštová 2 Acknowledgements: I would like to thank my husband and my daughter for their love, patience and understanding during the process of writing this thesis. 3 Table of Contents Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 1 1. Sources of Inspiration ................................................................................................. 6 1.1 Apollonius of Tyre .............................................................................................. 6 1.2 John Gower's Confessio Amantis ....................................................................... 8 1.3 Lawrence Twine's The Pattern of Painful Adventures ....................................... 9 1.4 Change of Names ............................................................................................. 11 1.5 Other Sources ................................................................................................... 13 2. Pericles – the Play ..................................................................................................... 14 2.1 Historical
    [Show full text]
  • Redating Pericles: a Re-Examination of Shakespeare’S
    REDATING PERICLES: A RE-EXAMINATION OF SHAKESPEARE’S PERICLES AS AN ELIZABETHAN PLAY A THESIS IN Theatre Presented to the Faculty of the University of Missouri-Kansas City in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree MASTER OF ARTS by Michelle Elaine Stelting University of Missouri Kansas City December 2015 © 2015 MICHELLE ELAINE STELTING ALL RIGHTS RESERVED REDATING PERICLES: A RE-EXAMINATION OF SHAKESPEARE’S PERICLES AS AN ELIZABETHAN PLAY Michelle Elaine Stelting, Candidate for the Master of Arts Degree University of Missouri-Kansas City, 2015 ABSTRACT Pericles's apparent inferiority to Shakespeare’s mature works raises many questions for scholars. Was Shakespeare collaborating with an inferior playwright or playwrights? Did he allow so many corrupt printed versions of his works after 1604 out of indifference? Re-dating Pericles from the Jacobean to the Elizabethan era answers these questions and reveals previously unexamined connections between topical references in Pericles and events and personalities in the court of Elizabeth I: John Dee, Philip Sidney, Edward de Vere, and many others. The tournament impresas, alchemical symbolism of the story, and its lunar and astronomical imagery suggest Pericles was written long before 1608. Finally, Shakespeare’s focus on father-daughter relationships, and the importance of Marina, the daughter, as the heroine of the story, point to Pericles as written for a young girl. This thesis uses topical references, Shakespeare’s anachronisms, Shakespeare’s sources, stylometry and textual analysis, as well as Henslowe’s diary, the Stationers' Register, and other contemporary documentary evidence to determine whether there may have been versions of Pericles circulating before the accepted date of 1608.
    [Show full text]
  • Neale C. Gay First Draft of Research Paper Tentatively Titled: The
    Neale C. Gay First Draft of Research Paper Tentatively titled: The Dual Theses Regarding Democracy In Thucydides’ History of the Peloponnesian War Thucydides’ History of the Peloponnesian war stands as one of the benchmarks of Western historiography. The History is a history interlaced with a tragedy befitting fifth century Athens, and an understanding of the cultural and intellectual achievements of the twenty-four years covered by its author. That he stretches farther back in his archeology to cover the Persian Wars is a further benefit to his readers, because, by doing so, he manages to encompass one hundred years of Athenian democracy into the vastness of his scope. His is a history written for posterity,1 a history written to illuminate forever the importance of the war between the Athenian alliance and the Spartan alliance.2 This was his initial purpose. The study of Thucydides’ History, however, has given much more to future generations than merely an understanding of the greatness of the Peloponnesian War; Thucydides has bequeathed an account of the decline and fall of Athenian democracy. When he began chronicling the battles fought and the speeches made, this was far from his mind. He began to develop underlying theses concerning government that, while saying volumes about Athenian characteristics, have dire consequences for his opinion of his countrymen, and for humankind in general. The History becomes a tragic satire as Thucydides witnesses the rapid decline of his culture. 1 “My work is not a piece of writing designed to meet the taste of an immediate public, but was done to last for ever.” (I, 22) 2 Thucydides believed that never in history were two adversaries matched so evenly as Athens and Sparta while at the height of their militaristic power.
    [Show full text]
  • Rising from the Ruins
    Rising from the Ruins Rising from the Ruins: Roman Antiquities in Neoclassic Literature By Bruce C. Swaffield Rising from the Ruins: Roman Antiquities in Neoclassic Literature, by Bruce C. Swaffield This book first published 2009 Cambridge Scholars Publishing 12 Back Chapman Street, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2XX, UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Copyright © 2009 by Bruce C. Swaffield All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISBN (10): 1-4438-1400-8, ISBN (13): 978-1-4438-1400-3 This entire work is dedicated to my wife, Jeannine, and our two children, BethAnn and Brendon. Each one of them sacrificed much through the years so that I could pursue my passion for writing and learning, especially about the ruins of Rome. In addition, I would like to thank my three grandchildren—Ellie, Lexi and Dom—for showing me the true spirit of life. TABLE OF CONTENTS Foreword .................................................................................................... ix John Paul Russo Preface...................................................................................................... xiii Acknowledgements ................................................................................... xv Chapter One................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • John Dryden - Poems
    Classic Poetry Series John Dryden - poems - Publication Date: 2012 Publisher: Poemhunter.com - The World's Poetry Archive John Dryden(1631 - 1700) JJohn Dryden was an influential English poet, literary critic, translator, and playwright who dominated the literary life of Restoration England to such a point that the period came to be known in literary circles as the Age of Dryden. Walter Scott called him "Glorious John." He was made Poet Laureate in 1668. <b>Early Life</b> Dryden was born in the village rectory of Aldwincle near Thrapston in Northamptonshire, where his maternal grandfather was Rector of All Saints. He was the eldest of fourteen children born to Erasmus Dryden and wife Mary Pickering, paternal grandson of Sir Erasmus Dryden, 1st Baronet (1553–1632) and wife Frances Wilkes, Puritan landowning gentry who supported the Puritan cause and Parliament. He was also a second cousin once removed of Jonathan Swift. As a boy Dryden lived in the nearby village of Titchmarsh, Northamptonshire where it is also likely that he received his first education. In 1644 he was sent to Westminster School as a King’s Scholar where his headmaster was Dr Richard Busby, a charismatic teacher and severe disciplinarian. Having recently been re-founded by Elizabeth I, Westminster during this period embraced a very different religious and political spirit encouraging royalism and high Anglicanism. Whatever Dryden’s response to this was, he clearly respected the Headmaster and would later send two of his own sons to school at Westminster. In the late twentieth century a house at Westminster was founded in his name.
    [Show full text]
  • TECHNICALITY of TRANSLATION APPEARS in the COMPETENCE of the TRANSLATOR Dr
    Global Journal of Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences Vol.4, No.1, pp.45-48, January 2016 ___Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org) TECHNICALITY OF TRANSLATION APPEARS IN THE COMPETENCE OF THE TRANSLATOR Dr. Kamal Osman Sharfi Mohamed Taif University. Faculty of Education and Arts. English Department .KSA ABSTRACT: This paper investigates the Technicality of Translation Appears in the Competence of the Translator. Technicality of Translation Appears in the Competence of the Translator. A competency is a set of defined behaviors that provide a structured guide enabling the identification, evaluation and development of the behaviors in individual employees. Translators always risk inappropriate spill-over of source-language idiom and usage into the target-language translation. Terminology can be considered the surface appearance of relevant domain concepts. Candidate terminological expressions are usually captured with shallow techniques that range from stochastic methods to more sophisticated syntactic approaches. KEYWORDS: Translation, Competence, Language, Communication INTRODUCTION This paper takes ‘Technicality of Translation Appears in the Competence of the Translator’ and analyses the interchangeability the relationship between the technical translation and the competence due to the demands of business documentation consequent to the Industrial Revolution that began in the mid-18th century, some translation specialties have become formalized, with dedicated schools and professional associations. Because of the laboriousness of translation, since the 1940s engineers have sought to automate translation or to mechanically aid the human translator. The rise of the Internet has fostered a world-wide market for translation services and has facilitated language localization. The theory and practice of translation reach back into antiquity and show remarkable continuities.
    [Show full text]