The Canadian Wheat Board

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

The Canadian Wheat Board 36 CHOICES Firs[ Quarter 1997 The Canadian Wheat Board by Andrew he Canadian Wheat Board (CWB), a monopoly amined CWB monopoly operations and their ef­ Schmitz, T exporter of Canadian wheat, barley, and du­ fect on Canada/United States grain trade. These Hartley rum, has been challenged by a segment of Cana­ included the 1990 U.S. International Trade Com­ Furtan, dian farmers, u.s. farm groups, and the U.S. gov­ mission (ITC) study-a fact-finding study under Harvey ernment. We offer, here, our assessment of an im­ Section 332 of the Tariff Act of 1930, as amended Brooks, and portant part of the CWB monopoly controversy. in 1990-of Canadian durum wheat exportS to the Richard Gray We evaluate the effect of the CWB on prices, mar­ United States; the 1994 Canada/United States ket shares, and other measures of its performance. Trade Agreement (CUSTA) Binational Panel to in­ Canada is a major exporter of wheat and barley. vestigate Canadian durum exports; and the 1994 In 1996/97, Canada is forecasted to have 22 per­ ITC investigation into Canadian wheat exports that, cent of the wheat export market, 61 percent of the in 1994/95, led to a U.S. wheat and durum import durum export market, and 40 percent of the barley control agreement with Canada. Also, the United export market. By law, all these exports must be States is indicating that, under the World Trade made through the CWB. This monopoly on ex­ Organization (WTO), state-trading organizations ports, however, is now under fire from a number should be required to make notifications to the of fronts. First, in 1993, the Honorable C. Mayer, WTO that would insure transparency of their ac­ former minister of agriculture, removed the sale of tivities (Article XVII of the GATT, 1994). barley to the United States from the sole jurisdic­ tion of the CWB. A subsequent court challenge, The Canadian Wheat Board however, placed barley back under the CWB's ju­ The CWB markets grain on behalf of farmers in risdiction. Second, since 1995, a segment of prairie the western provi nces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, farmers have openly defied Canadian law and have Alberta, and parts of British Columbia. It is the sold grain to the United States without CWB per­ sole seller of these farmers' wheat, durum, and bar­ mits. The farmers' defiance of the law is now work­ ley for export to world markets and for human ing its way through the courtS. Third, in the fall of consumption in the domestic market. The extent 1995, a group of Canadian farmers challenged the of the CWB monopoly is limited by many com­ CWB monopoly under the Canadian Charter of peting international sellers who also can export Rights and Freedoms. This case, often called the wheat and barley into Canada. The CWB con­ Charter case, began in the federal court in Septem­ tracts for Canada's elevator services (including clean­ ber 1996, and a ruling is expected to be made by ing and storage), transportation, and terminal el­ May 1997. Fourth, in 1995 the current minister of evator services. The CWB is the thirty-third largest agriculture, the Honorable R. Goodale, put into business corporation in Canada and the fourth larg­ place a review process (Western Grain Marketing est exporting company in Canada, with annual gross Panel) to examine the Canadian grain marketing sales greater than $4.0 billion. system. The Panel's report called for far-reaching The federal government first marketed wheat in changes in the way the CWB operates, but it did 1917 when it appointed a Board of Grain Supervi­ not suggest changes to the CWB monopoly in sors. To fulfill wartime needs for the 1917/18 and wheat, durum, and malting barley. Fifcli, in 1997, 1918/19 crop years, this board ass umed monopoly farmers will vote their preference for or akainst control. After WW I, other institutions, including CWB monopoly control over barley. the major farmer-owned cooperatives, sold wheat In several investigations, the United States ex- for export (Schmitz and McCalla). Following the CHOICES Firs[ Quarrer 1997 37 financial collapse of the prairie pooling coopera­ calls grain into the system as required to meet sales tives in the early 1930s, the CWB was instituted in commitments. This delivery quota evolved from a 1935 as a voluntary marketing agency for wheat. quota per seeded acre, through a quota based on In 1943, the Canadian government made the CWB total farm acreage, to a combination of both farm the mandatory monopoly marketing agency for prai­ acreage and delivery contracts. These delivery quota rie wheat. The government added barley and oats changes were designed to match the limited capac­ to the board's authoriry in 1949. The CWB con­ iry of the Canadian elevator and grain-transporta­ trolled the export of these grains, the interprovin­ tion systems with the specific export demand by cial movement of grain, and the sale of grain to all grain and grade. Second, the CWB pays farmers a domestic users. Beginning in 1935, the CWB op­ pooled price for each class and grade of wheat, erated under the Canadian Wheat Board Act and barley, and durum. When farmers deliver grain was established as a federal crown agency in 1967. within the quota, they receive a government guar­ Over time, certain powers of the CWB monopoly anteed initial payment-usually 70 to 80 percent were removed. First, in 1974 the government gave of the projected final realized price. The CWB farmers the option to domestically sell feed wheat, makes adjustment payment(s) throughout the pool oats, and barley for nonhuman consumption year. After all of the grain sales are complete for through the open market. Currently, feed wheat each sales period, the CWB closes out the sales and feed barley contracts are traded on the account and gives farmers a final payment. This Winnipeg Commodiry Exchange (WCE). Second, final CWB payment is the amount paid to farmers the CWB no longer controls interprovincial grain from sales receipts above the initial and interim movement. Finally, in 1989, the government re­ payments made to producers, after all operating moved the CWB's monopoly status over oats and cOSts of the CWB have been deducted. After ac­ WCE now trades oat contracts. counting for transport costs, each farmer receives According to various CWB publications, the the same final price for each grade and class of CWB mandate is to (aj obtain the best prices avail­ grain delivered to a particular location. able for producers during the marketing period, (bj pool the risk associated with adverse price move­ Economic performance of the CWB ments, and (cj guarantee, for producers, equitable The CWB's performance is a hotly debated issue, access to markets during the delivery period of a in part because there is no single yardstick by which crop year. The CWB achieves this stated mandate to measure its performance, and in part because through two basic mechanisms. First, as a result of other components of the grain system affect farm the limited capaciry of the grain-handling and grain­ grain prices and sales. In addition, the international transportation systems in western Canada, the CWB grain markets are difficult to model because they allocates to each farmer a delivery quota that allows are imperfectly competitive in nature. To under­ him or her access to the commercial grain-han­ stand its performance, the CWB must be viewed dling system over the course of the crop year (each within the context of the entire Canadian regula­ farmer who sells grain to the CWB has a CWB tory framework. This framework includes the Ca­ quota book). Through these mechanisms, the CWB nadian Grain Commission (CGC), which is a fed- 38 CHOICES First Quarter 1997 eral agency that sets grain quality standards and keting provides in the neighborhood of Can$265 grades, as well as the Car Allocation Policy Group million per year to Canadian wheat farmers. that regulates rail car allocation. It is important to stress that the Canadian grain­ The performance of the CWB, debated in the afore­ marketing system emphasizes quality, end-use char­ mentioned Charter case, can be evaluated in the con­ acteristics, product availability, post-sales services, and text of four major criteria: price premiums, marketing technical knowledge. These factors are encompassed and basis costs, farmgate prices, and market shares. in die CWB's approach to the sale of wheat, durum, and malting barley. The premiums found by Carter Price premiums (1992), by Schmitz, Gray, and Ulrich, and by Wil­ At least five major reports argue that the CWB is son are a result of both price discrimination by the able to obtain price premiums (Schmitz 199Ga). CWB and the fact that the Canadian system pro­ C\l!e are not aware of any studies that argue the vides attributes, such as grain cleanliness, that other CWB price premiums are negative. However, Carter systems do not. However, the premiums found by and Loyns extensively discussed the premiums Kraft; Furtan, and Tyrchniewicz are solely a result earned by the CWB.) A premium is defined as the of the CWB's ability to price discriminate. difference between the price obtained by the CWB Canada's focus on quality has provided a mar­ and the price that would be obtainable under a keting advantage over the United States. As Canadian multiple-seller environment. The CWB Christianson pointed out, " ... quality issues are be­ earns price premiums primarily because it can price coming increasingly important in the grain trade .... discriminate (charge different customers different The United States may have the most inconsistent prices for the same quality grain) among markets product of any wheat exporter in the world.
Recommended publications
  • Canadian Wheat
    Canadian Wheat By: J. E. Dexter1, K.R. Preston1 and N. J. Woodbeck2 Chapter 6: Future of flour a compendium of flour improvement, 2006, pg - 43-62 Edited by Lutz Popper, Wermer Schafer and Walter Freund. Agrimedia, Bergen. Dunne, Germany. 1 Canadian Grain Commission, Grain Research Laboratory, 1404-303 Main Street, Winnipeg, Manitoba, R3C 3G8, Canada 2 Canadian Grain Commission, Industry Services, 900-303 Main Street, Winnipeg, Manitoba, R3C 3G8, Canada Introduction The vast majority of Canadian wheat is produced in western Canada (Manitoba and provinces to the west). A high proportion of western Canadian wheat is exported, and it is marketed in a highly regulated fashion. As soon as western Canadian wheat is delivered by producers to a grain elevator the wheat becomes the property of the Canadian Wheat Board, which is a single desk seller for western Canadian wheat. Approval for registration into any of the eight classes of wheat in western Canada is based on merit according to disease resistance, agronomic performance and processing quality. Wheat is also produced in eastern Canada, primarily in southern Ontario. Eastern Canadian wheat is also registered on the basis of merit, although processing quality models are not quite as strictly defined as for western Canada. There is no single desk seller for eastern Canadian wheat. Eastern Canadian wheat is marketed by private trading companies and the Ontario Wheat Producers Marketing Board. Approximately 50% of eastern Canadian wheat disappears domestically. The Canadian Grain Commission (CGC), a Department within Agriculture and Agri- Food Canada (AAFC), oversees quality assurance of Canadian grains, oilseeds, pulses and special crops.
    [Show full text]
  • The Canadian Wheat Board, Warburtons, and the Creative
    The Canadian Wheat Board and the creative re- constitution of the Canada-UK wheat trade: wheat and bread in food regime history by André J. R. Magnan A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Department of Sociology University of Toronto © Copyright by André Magnan 2010. Abstract Title: The Canadian Wheat Board and the creative re-constitution of the Canada-UK wheat trade: wheat and bread in food regime history Author: André J. R. Magnan Submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Department of Sociology University of Toronto, 2010. This dissertation traces the historical transformation of the Canada-UK commodity chain for wheat-bread as a lens on processes of local and global change in agrofood relations. During the 1990s, the Canadian Wheat Board (Canada‟s monopoly wheat seller) and Warburtons, a British bakery, pioneered an innovative identity- preserved sourcing relationship that ties contracted prairie farmers to consumers of premium bread in the UK. Emblematic of the increasing importance of quality claims, traceability, and private standards in the reorganization of agrifood supply chains, I argue that the changes of the 1990s cannot be understood outside of historical legacies giving shape to unique institutions for regulating agrofood relations on the Canadian prairies and in the UK food sector. I trace the rise, fall, and re-invention of the Canada-UK commodity chain across successive food regimes, examining the changing significance of wheat- bread, inter-state relations between Canada, the UK, and the US, and public and private forms of agrofood regulation over time.
    [Show full text]
  • Canadian Farmers Fight the Logic of Market Choice in GM Wheat
    Let the Market Decide? Canadian Farmers Fight the Logic of Market Choice in GM Wheat Emily Eaton1 University of Regina: Department of Geography Regina, Saskatchewan S4S 0A2 [email protected] Abstract This paper examines the controversy that surrounded Monsanto’s attempt to commercialize genetically engineered Roundup Ready (RR) wheat in Canada in the early 2000s. Specifically, the paper interrogates the argument made by RR wheat proponents that the fate of RR wheat should be decided in the marketplace according to individual choice. To counter the common-sense notion of the right of consumers and producers to market choice, anti-RR wheat activists, led by agricultural producers, advanced notions of collective action. They argued that markets offered a very narrow set of choices and that once introduced into agricultural systems, RR wheat threatened already existing agronomic practices and export markets. The paper argues that the “let the markets decide” approach denies the common positionality of farmers as producers of food and forecloses a politics of production. Similarly, in the realm of consumption, agency beyond individual self-interest is rendered unthinkable. Keywords: market choice, subjectivity, neoliberalism, genetic modification 1 Creative Commons licence: Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works Canadian farmers fight the logic of market choice in GM wheat 108 Introduction [T]here’s a lot of debate on how much benefit local farmers have had ... in using [GM] Canola for example. Saskatchewan farmers, well they’ve readily adopted that technology right? And they have the choice. They don’t have to pay for that seed, they don’t have to use that technology, but they are.
    [Show full text]
  • Sicilian Durum Bread Adapted from Scienza E Technologia Della Panificazione by Prof
    Le Pagnotte di Enna – Sicilian Durum Bread Adapted from Scienza e Technologia della Panificazione by Prof. Giovanni Quaglia Ingredients: NOTE: The amount of water relative to the flour is dependent upon the fineness of the semolina granules in the flour, its freshness and its water absorption rate. Starter: ¼ tsp. Yeast - active dry or 1/10th of a small cake yeast - (2 g.) ¼ Cup Water - warm - (60 ml) ¾ Cup + 1 Tbsp. Flour - durum - (100g) Dough: 1 tsp. Yeast - active dry or 1/4 of a small cake yeast - (7 g) ¼ Cup Water: warm - (60 ml) ¾ Cup + 2 Tbsp. Water - 205 ml) All Starters from above - (160 g.) 3 ¼ Cups Flour - durum - (400 g.) 1 ½ tsp. Salt - (7.5 g.) Procedure: Starter Dissolve the yeast in 1/4 cup water and allow it to stand for approximately 5 -10 minutes. Add 3/4 cup plus 1 tablespoon durum flour and mix until the flour is absorbed. The dough will be stiff. Cover the starter and allow it to remain at room temperature overnight. Dough: Dissolve the yeast in 1/4 cup water and allow it to stand for approximately 5 -10 minutes. Break the starter into small pieces, and combine it with the dissolved yeast. Add the additional water (3/4 cup plus 2 tablespoons at room temperature) to this mixture. Gradually add the flour (3 1/4 cups) and the salt (1 1/2 tsp.) and continue to mix until the dough begins to hold together. Knead the dough until it is smooth and elastic. Place the dough in a lightly floured bowl.
    [Show full text]
  • Wheat and Barley Varieties for Arizona
    DURUM WHEAT Alberto is a large-seeded, short-statured variety with excellent lodging resistance. Joaquin is a high yielding variety taller than Yecora Desert King is a later-maturing variety with slightly Rojo but similar in protein and maturity. above average height. WB-9229 is taller and later than Yecora Rojo. Duraking is a high-yielding variety with excellent WB-Joaquin Oro is a high protein variety with good lodging resistance. lodging resistance and is taller and earlier than Wheat and Barley Havasu is a early-maturing variety with large seed Yecora Rojo. and high test weight. Yecora Rojo is an early-maturing, short-statured Varieties Helios has good lodging resistance and early variety. maturity. Kronos is an early-maturing variety with large grain for Arizona size. Maestralle is a tall, early maturing variety that 2018 originated in Italy. Miwok is a high-yielding variety with large seed and late maturity. Orita is a full season variety with excellent lodging resistance and high grain protein content. Platinum has short stature and good lodging resistance. Powell is a new variety intended as a replacement for Orita. Saragolla has high test weight and low protein THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA content and originated in Italy. COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND LIFE SCIENCES Tiburon has excellent lodging resistance, large grain TUCSON, ARIZONA 85721 size, and high protein. DR. MICHAEL J. OttmaN WB-Mead is a high yielding, tall, late maturing variety Specialist, Plant Sciences with excellent lodging resistance and high grain protein. CONtact: WB-Mohave is a high-yielding variety with high grain MIKE OttmaN protein.
    [Show full text]
  • Grain, Flour and Ships – the Wheat Trade in Portland, Oregon
    Grain, Flour and Ships The Wheat Trade in Portland, Oregon Postcard Views of the Oregon Grain Industry, c1900 Prepared for Prosper Portland In Partial Fulfillment of the Centennial Mills Removal Project Under Agreement with the Oregon SHPO and the USACE George Kramer, M.S., HP Sr. Historic Preservation Specialist Heritage Research Associates, Inc. Eugene, Oregon April 2019 GRAIN, FLOUR AND SHIPS: THE WHEAT TRADE IN PORTLAND, OREGON By George Kramer Prepared for Prosper Portland 222 NW Fifth Avenue Portland, OR 97209 Heritage Research Associates, Inc. 1997 Garden Avenue Eugene, Oregon 97403 April 2019 HERITAGE RESEARCH ASSOCIATES REPORT NO. 448 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page List of Figures ......................................................................................................................... iv List of Tables ........................................................................................................................... v 1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 1 2. Historic Overview – Grain and Flour in Portland .............................................................. 4 Growing and Harvesting 4 Transporting Grain to Portland ................................................................................... 6 Exporting from Portland ............................................................................................. 8 Flour Mills .................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • 2019 Durum Quality Report
    U.S. DURUM MAKING PREMIUM PASTA DURUM is the hardest of all wheats. Its density, combined with its high pro- tein content and gluten strength, make durum the wheat of choice for producing MONTANA | NORTH DAKOTA premium pasta and couscous products. Pasta made from durum is firm with consistent cooking quality. Durum kernels are amber colored and larger than Wheat those of other wheat classes. Also unique to durum is its yellow endosperm Table of Contents which gives pasta its golden hue and the best color for couscous. When durum is milled, the endosperm is ground into a granular product called Grading and Kernel Characteristics ..................5-8 semolina. A mixture of water and semolina forms a stiff dough. Pasta dough is then forced through dies, or metal discs with holes, to create hundreds of differ- Milling Characteristics ....................................9-10 ent shapes. Pasta Characteristics ..................................11-12 13 Durum production is geographically concentrated to the Northern Plains be- Summary Information ......................................... cause it demands a special agronomic environment. In most years, the states of Handling and Transportation ..............................14 North Dakota and Montana produce 80 percent of the U.S. durum crop. Varietal Information .....................................15-17 Laboratory Analysis ............................................18 Methods, Terms and Symbols ....................18-19 2019 Regional Quality Report U.S. DURUM WHEAT MONTANA | NORTH DAKOTA 3 OVERVIEW THE 2019 durum crop produced in North Dakota and Montana is smaller in production compared to 2018, and is skewed lower in overall quality due to PRODUCTION DATA historic rains during the month of September and a significantly delayed harvest. 2014-18 Regional production is estimated at 52 million bushels (1.4 MMT), down 20 2019 2018 AVERAGE percent from 2018, as planted area fell by 35 percent.
    [Show full text]
  • Enhancing the Quality of US Grain for International
    Chapter 5 The Changing Role of . Contents Page Quality in the Market Place . 89 Changing Nature of Markets–A Case Study in Wheat. 91 Background 91 Product Consumption and Wheat Importation . 91 The Dynamics of the Wheat Market. 93 Analysis Results . 93 Case Study Summary . 98 Chapter 5 References . 99 Tables Table Page 5-1. Export Classes of Wheat Categorized by Characteristics and Country of Origin ● . .... ... ● . ..,..0.. 92 5-2. Required Protein Levels for Wheat-Based End Products and Protein Content of U.S. Wheat Classes. 92 5-3, Regional Tastes, Preferences, and the Requirements for Wheat-Based End Products . 93 5-4, Wheat Consumption in Selected Countries, 1984/85 . 94 5-5. Market Shares of Imported Wheat Classes, 1984/85. 95 5-6. Correlation of Imported Wheat Class Market Shares, Income, and Domestic Wheat Production, 1984/85 . 96 5-7. Average Growth Rates of Wheat Class imports by Country, Region, and World, 1961/62-84/85 ● ****.. .**.*.** ● **..*.. ● ******. ● *,.,..* * 97 5-8. Simulated Changes in Wheat Class Market Shares, 1985/95 . 98 Chapter 5 The quality concerns of each industry using The varying quality requirements exhibited wheat, corn, and soybeans are identified in by these industries, especially for wheat, high- chapter 4. Wheat, by its very nature, is the most light the need for the United States to become complex of the three grains in terms of defin- more aware of individual industry require- ing quality because of the vast array of prod- ments if the goal is to produce and deliver high- ucts and processing technologies involved. quality grain, The Nation has developed the Quality requirements differ not only by type reputation as a consistent supplier for any type and individual product, but between mills using and quality of grain desired; to become a sup- the same type wheat to produce flour for the plier of high-quality grains, it must become same type of product.
    [Show full text]
  • And Modern Wheat Species (Durum and Common Wheat)
    foods Article Comparative Study on Gluten Protein Composition of Ancient (Einkorn, Emmer and Spelt) and Modern Wheat Species (Durum and Common Wheat) Sabrina Geisslitz 1, C. Friedrich H. Longin 2, Katharina A. Scherf 1,3,* and Peter Koehler 4 1 Leibniz-Institute for Food Systems Biology at the Technical University of Munich, Lise-Meitner-Strasse 34, 85354 Freising, Germany 2 State Plant Breeding Institute, University of Hohenheim, Fruwirthstraße 21, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany 3 Department of Bioactive and Functional Food Chemistry, Institute of Applied Biosciences, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Adenauerring 20a, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany 4 biotask AG, Schelztorstrasse 54-56, 73728 Esslingen am Neckar, Germany * Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 16 August 2019; Accepted: 6 September 2019; Published: 12 September 2019 Abstract: The spectrophotometric Bradford assay was adapted for the analysis of gluten protein contents (gliadins and glutenins) of spelt, durum wheat, emmer and einkorn. The assay was applied to a set of 300 samples, including 15 cultivars each of common wheat, spelt, durum wheat, emmer and einkorn cultivated at four locations in Germany in the same year. The total protein content was equally influenced by location and wheat species, however, gliadin, glutenin and gluten contents were influenced more strongly by wheat species than location. Einkorn, emmer and spelt had higher protein and gluten contents than common wheat at all four locations. However, common wheat had higher glutenin contents than einkorn, emmer and spelt resulting in increasing ratios of gliadins to glutenins from common wheat (< 3.8) to spelt, emmer and einkorn (up to 12.1). With the knowledge that glutenin contents are suitable predictors for high baking volume, cultivars of einkorn, emmer and spelt with good predicted baking performance were identified.
    [Show full text]
  • Reciprocal Access in US/Canadian Grain Trade Background Issues for the US Grain Trade
    AE 98001 January 1998 Reciprocal Access in U.S./Canadian Grain Trade Background Issues for the U.S. Grain Trade* William W. Wilson and Bruce L. Dahl ** *Special paper prepared at the request of the USDA/FAS for discussion. **Professor and Research Scientist, Department of Agricultural Economics, North Dakota State University, Fargo. Acknowledgments Constructive comments on this and earlier drafts were received from our colleagues, Demcey Johnson, Won Koo, George Flaskerud, Graham Parsons, Organization for Western European Cooperation (OWEC), and Frank Gomme (USDA). However, errors and omissions remain the responsibility of the authors. NOTICE: The analyses and views reported in this paper are those of the author. They are not necessarily endorsed by the Department of Agricultural Economics or by North Dakota State University. North Dakota State University is committed to the policy that all persons shall have equal access to its programs, and employment without regard to race, color, creed, religion, national origin, sex, age, marital status, disability, public assistance status, veteran status, or sexual orientation. Information on other titles in this series may be obtained from: Department of Agricultural Economics, North Dakota State University, P.O. Box 5636, Fargo, ND 58105. Telephone: 701-231-7441, Fax: 701-231-7400, or e-mail: [email protected]. Copyright © 1998 by William W. Wilson and Bruce L. Dahl. All rights reserved. Readers may make verbatim copies of this document for non-commercial purposes by any means, provided that this copyright notice appears on all such copies. Abstract The purpose of this paper is to review past trade relations in the grains sector between the United States and Canada and to document trade barriers and the potential for the evolution of reciprocal trade.
    [Show full text]
  • The International Footprint of Teff: Resurgence of an Ancient Ethiopian Grain by Annette R
    Washington University in St. Louis Washington University Open Scholarship Arts & Sciences Electronic Theses and Dissertations Arts & Sciences Spring 5-15-2015 The nI ternational Footprint of Teff: Resurgence of an Ancient Ethiopian Grain Annette R. Crymes Washington University in St. Louis Follow this and additional works at: https://openscholarship.wustl.edu/art_sci_etds Part of the Food Security Commons Recommended Citation Crymes, Annette R., "The nI ternational Footprint of Teff: Resurgence of an Ancient Ethiopian Grain" (2015). Arts & Sciences Electronic Theses and Dissertations. 394. https://openscholarship.wustl.edu/art_sci_etds/394 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Arts & Sciences at Washington University Open Scholarship. It has been accepted for inclusion in Arts & Sciences Electronic Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Washington University Open Scholarship. For more information, please contact [email protected]. WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY IN ST. LOUIS University College International Affairs The International Footprint of Teff: Resurgence of an Ancient Ethiopian Grain by Annette R. Crymes A thesis presented to the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences of Washington University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts May 2015 St. Louis, Missouri © 2015, Annette R. Crymes Table of Contents List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ iv List
    [Show full text]
  • Subpart M -- United States Standards for Wheat
    United States Department of Agriculture Grain Inspection, Packers and Stockyards Administration Federal Grain Inspection Service U.S. Standards May 2014 Subpart M -- United States Standards for Wheat Contents Subpart M -- United States Standards for Wheat 1 Terms Defined 2 Principles Governing the Application of Standards 4 Grades and Grade Requirements 5 Special Grades and Special Grade Requirements 6 The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in its programs on the basis of race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political beliefs, and marital or familial status. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities who require alternate means for communication of program information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA’s TARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice and TDD). To file a complaint, write to the USDA, Office of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, 1400 Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410, or call (202) 720-5964 (voice and TDD). USDA is an equal employment opportunity employer. Distribution: FGIS, OSP, Industry Originating Office: FMD PPMAB Terms Defined § 810.2201 Definition of wheat. Grain that, before the removal of dockage, consists of 50 percent or more common wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), club wheat (T. compactum Host.), and durum wheat (T. durum Desf.) and not more than 10 percent of other grains for which standards have been established under the United States Grain Standards Act and that, after the removal of the dockage, contains 50 percent or more of whole kernels of one or more of these wheats. § 810.2202 Definition of other terms.
    [Show full text]