The Survival of Medieval Furnishings in Lutheran Churches Notes Towards a Comparison Between Germany and Scandinavia

The Survival of Medieval Furnishings in Lutheran Churches Notes towards a Comparison between Germany and Scandinavia

Justin Kroesen

Abstract Perhaps paradoxically, of all medieval churches in Europe, those that became Lutheran during the sixteenth-century Protestant Reformation possess the greatest wealth of medieval interior elements. Compared to Puritan Britain and the Calvinist Low Countries, Lutheran churches were not as thoroughly stripped of their medieval furnishings, while on the other hand Baroque renewals were much less far-reaching here than in Catholic regions. Although Lutheranism in general exerted a preserving effect on medieval church interiors, there are important differences between regions, both within Germany and between Germany and Scandinavia (here to be understood as “the Nordic countries”, i.e. including Finland and Iceland). This article makes a first attempt towards a comparison of the survival rates of medieval church furnishings in Lutheran Germany and the Eu- ropean North. Both regions are more or less on a par with regard to several specific elements including high altars and their decorations, triumphal arch crosses and baptismal fonts. However, other elements, such as tabernacles, choir stalls, chancel screens, pulpits and side altars are much more often preserved in Germany than in Scandinavia. It may be concluded, therefore, that the Reforma- tion generally had further-reaching implications on the material culture of Nordic church buildings than on German ones. Keywords Medieval art, Church Furnishings, Lutheran Reformation, Germany, Scandinavia Author Professor of Cultural History at the University Museum of Bergen, Norway Email [email protected] Iconographisk Post Nordisk tidskrift för bildtolkning • Nordic Review of Iconography Nr 3 /4, 2018, pp. 4–39. issn 2323-5586

Introduction In German art-historical scholarship, the Other than what has traditionally been past decades have seen a growing acknowl- maintained, the Lutheran Reformation Fig. 1. Doberan (Germany), former abbey church, interior looking east with furnishings mainly from the 14th century. Photo Justin Kroesen & Regnerus Steensma. edgement of what may be described as “the not only brought about sweeping changes paradox of the preserving Reformation”. to church interiors, including the removal

nordic review of iconography 5 justin kroesen The Survival of Medieval Furnishings in Lutheran Churches or destruction of medieval furnishings and via, generally took a much milder stance The best medieval cathedral interior is no regions that remained faithful to Rome works of art, but at the same time it result- towards the religious past in that they ac- doubt found in Halberstadt (Saxony-An- was hardly better ensured. Partly in reac- ed in manifold continuities of tradition- cepted much of its traditional ritual and halt), where a rood loft, Calvary group, tion to the success of the Protestant Refor- al rituals, church furnishings, and imag- material culture.5 Outbursts of Icono- choir stalls, a tabernacle, a number of side mation, the Roman Catholic Church set es. The “preserving power of Lutheranism” clasm did occur here and there, but it nev- altars, lecterns, candleholders, a baptismal out on a large-scale Counter- or Catholic (“Die bewahrende Kraft des Luthertums”) er gained a systematic character because font and many statues have remained in situ Reformation, starting with the Council of has meanwhile even become something Martin Luther himself strongly opposed (fig. 11). In addition, the adjacent cathedral Trent (1545–1563), which had far-reaching of a motto – although not uncontested any form of image-breaking.6 After the treasury (Domschatz) is among the great- consequences for the interior appearance – in German scholarship.1 Whatever the transition, many interior elements were est of its kind in Europe.9 The most com- of church buildings.14 In Southern Ger- precise balance between continuity and left intact, from altars to baptismal fonts plete surviving town parish church interi- many and neighboring Austria, as well as change may have been in thousands of and from choir stalls to tabernacles. Most or is undoubtedly St Laurence’s in Nurem- in Italy, Spain and Portugal, and in most specific cases, it is a fact that Europe’s best of these objects continued to serve in the berg (Bavaria). Here, besides the famous parts of eastern Central Europe renew- preserved medieval interior ensembles are Protestant cult, such as altars and fonts. Sacrament tower by Adam Krafft and the als in the Renaissance and Baroque styles found in churches that were taken over by Other elements were maintained because hanging Englische Gruß by Veit Stoss (fig. have resulted in medieval interior ensem- Lutheran Protestants during the sixteenth they were given a different function, or 6), no less than ten side altars survive in- bles being scarce today.15 In France, the century. This contribution makes a first -at survived even though they had lost their tact with their corresponding altarpieces, largest wave of destruction would follow tempt to draw a comparison between the function (sometimes displaced and stored even though these had lost their function during the French Revolution, while the preserving Reformations in Germany and away). At a conference organized in Dres- with the arrival of Lutheranism.10 And fi- two world wars of the twentieth century the Nordic countries. As will be shown, den in 1995 by the Catholic (!) Görres Ge- nally, a large number of Europe’s best pre- have caused massive losses across the con- developments in both areas show many sellschaft, entitled “Die bewahrende Kraft served medieval country church interiors tinent, particularly in Northern France, similarities, but at the same time there are des Luthertums” (“the preserving power are found all over Germany, from Meck- Belgium and Germany.16 Interestingly, the important differences. The article makes of Lutheranism”), Frank Schmidt, head of lenburg on the Baltic coast to Franconia special position of Lutheranism is con- a tour through an imaginary medieval heritage at the regional Lutheran church in in Bavaria.11 It is only in this last category firmed once again by two regions outside church interior calling at the most impor- Saxony, cogently described these three op- that Lutheran Germany is rivaled on the Germany and Scandinavia that are rela- tant common elements, from the high al- tions as Weiternutzung (“continued use”), Scandinavian side by parts of Denmark, tively rich in medieval church furnishings, tar in the chancel to the baptismal font at Umnutzung (“altered use”) and Nichtnut- Scania and – particularly – the Swedish is- namely the Slovak Spiš region and Roma- the west end of the nave.2 The limited size zung (“non-use”).7 land of Gotland.12 nian Transylvania: both became Lutheran of this study and the vast extension of the Anyone who is searching for the best- In other countries of Europe, medieval during the sixteenth century. area under scrutiny obviously only allows preserved medieval church interiors in Eu- church interiors have generally survived to for a comparison in broad outlines.3 rope will end up in the Lutheran parts of a lesser extent, due to a variety of reasons. Chancel furnishings In articles published in 2005 and 2017, Germany. Moreover, this is true of church- In England and the Low Countries, as Lutheran churches in Germany possess I have tried to set the relative wealth of es of all sorts, from cathedrals to modest well as in large parts of France and Switzer- hundreds of high altars, many still with medieval survivals in Lutheran churches country churches. The best-preserved mo- land, Calvinist tendencies led to the large- their original altarpieces or “retables”. In in a European perspective.4 Contrary to nastic church interior is the former mon- scale destruction of medieval church fur- their first Germany-wide survey of the late the Calvinists in the Netherlands and the astery at Doberan near Rostock (Meck- nishings during the iconoclastic fury of nineteenth century, Ernst Franz Münzen- Puritans in England, the Lutherans, who lenburg-Vorpommern), where almost all the mid-sixteenth century.13 Contrary to berger and Stephan Beissel counted gained the upper hand in the Reformation original church furnishings from the four- what may perhaps be expected, the surviv- around 2000 medieval altarpieces.17 It is in large parts of Germany and Scandina- teenth century survive to date (fig. 1).8 al of medieval furnishings in countries and a cautious estimate that about two thirds

6 iconographisk post nr 3/4, 2018 nordic review of iconography 7 justin kroesen The Survival of Medieval Furnishings in Lutheran Churches of these adorn high altars in now Luther- largely concentrate on Christological and an churches or stem from such contexts. Mariological motifs, and less on the saints. Medieval altarpieces in German Lutheran Therefore, it can be concluded that reta- churches reflect the entire spectrum from bles containing statues of saints or scenes Romanesque models, for example in the from their Vitae were removed here more former abbey church at Loccum (Lower thoroughly than in Germany, especially Saxony), to the monumental splendor of the South.20 Moreover, changes made to the late Gothic style, in the former abbey medieval retables after the Reformation church of Blaubeuren (Baden-Württem- were more common in Scandinavia than berg) (fig. 2). It can even be maintained in Germany, particularly in Denmark.21 that the entire typological and icono- However, some aspects of the surviving graphical development of medieval altar- medieval high altars in Scandinavia stand pieces could be written on the basis of out. Firstly, the Nordic countries possess surviving examples in Lutheran Germa- far more altar frontals than have been pre- ny alone. It is no coincidence, for exam- served in Germany. This form of altar dec- ple, that in Norbert Wolf ’s study of four- oration especially flourished before the teenth-century winged altarpieces from rise of the (winged) altarpiece, between 2002 entitled Deutsche Schnitzretabel des the twelfth and fourteenth centuries. Of 14. Jahrhunderts those from Lutheran con- little over one hundred high medieval texts outnumber those from Catholic ones wooden painted altar frontals that survive by 2:1.18 The Lutherans generally accepted throughout Europe, thirty are found in the medieval altars with their decorations Norway alone (fig. 3).22 To these may be as focuses for worship and prayer, even in added around twenty late Gothic painted cases where their iconography did not ac- frontals preserved in Denmark.23 In con- cord with the Lutheran ideals, for example trast, the number of similar objects surviv- when the central chest was filled with non- ing in Germany hardly exceeds a dozen. Biblical images of the life of the Virgin or Early forms of medieval altar decora- statues of saints. tion are generally better preserved in the Regarding the survival rate of high al- Nordic countries than in Germany, per- tars, Scandinavia offers a similar picture. haps because Late Gothic had somewhat In the Lutheran North hundreds of high less impact in some regions. The mid- altarpieces are preserved, roughly 450 in twelfth-century “gyldne altre” (“golden al- Sweden and over 200 in Denmark, while tars”) from Lisbjerg, Odder and Sahl, all another 100 are found in Norway, Finland in Danish Jutland, are ensembles of fron- and Iceland.19 Compared to Germany, tal and retable entirely covered in gilded however, medieval altarpieces in Scandina- copper.24 Their arched retables are among via generally show somewhat less icono- the oldest known altarpieces in Europe. Fig. 2. Blaubeuren (Germany), former abbey church, high altar retable, wood, 1493–1494. graphical variety, since their programs The Nordic countries can also pride them- Photo Justin Kroesen & Regnerus Steensma.

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Fig. 3. Bergen (Norway), University Museum, altar frontal from Nes (Sogn og Fjordane), Fig. 4. Helsinki wood, c. 1315. Photo Justin Kroesen. (Finland), National Museum, tabernacle selves on possessing numerous “tabernacle ly or largely across Europe, around half are shrine containing 26 the Virgin and Child shrines” that consist of an openwork bal- found in Sweden alone. Finally, it should (later changed into St dachin containing one figure – most- also be mentioned that Sweden (especially Anne and the Virgin) ly the Virgin and Child – and equipped the island of Gotland) possesses a number from Urjala (Pirkan- with folding doors carrying relief scenes of highly remarkable wingless altarpieces maa), wood, late 13th century. Photo Justin on the insides. The thirteenth-century from the first half and middle of the four- Kroesen. Marian shrines from Urjala (Pirkanmaa, teenth-century.27 These retables, that are Finland) (fig. 4), Fröskog (Dalsland, Swe- practically unparalleled in Germany to- den) and Hedalen (Oppland, Norway) day, provide a rare impression of what al- Due to Calvinist Iconoclasm in present- two Antwerp altarpieces and one from share a number of common features with tar decorations looked like on the eve of day Belgium, Netherlandish altarpieces in Brussels.30 Preserved examples in their examples found elsewhere, especially in the rise of the late Gothic “Flügelaltar” both Germany and Scandinavia by far out- area of origin are even rarer with regard Italy and Spain, but they have only few (“winged retable”). number those in the country of origin.29 to altarpieces from Utrecht, which was parallels in Germany today.25 Of around During the late Middle Ages the South- The cathedral of Swedish Strängnäs (Sö- the most important production center in five hundred examples of such tabernacle ern Netherlands, particularly the cities of dermanland) possesses no less than three the Northern Netherlands. Although sev- shrines from between the thirteenth and Antwerp and Brussels, became Europe’s winged retables of Brussels origins, while eral examples in northwestern Germany early sixteenth centuries preserved whol- primary exporting region of altarpieces.28 Vasterås Cathedral (Västmanland) has may be connected to Utrecht workshops,

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Fig. 5. Copenhagen (Denmark), National Museum, winged altarpiece from Munkaþverá (Iceland), wood and alabaster, c. 1425. Photo Justin Kroesen. the only more or less coherent cluster of survived much less frequently than high Utrecht altarpieces is found in Norway. In altars is the Sacrament house or tabernacle, addition to the five retables that had been in the shape of a niche or cupboard which identified as such in the 1950s, Kristin served to store the consecrated Host af- Kausland recently ascribed several more ter the celebration of Mass.34 This practice pieces to workshops in the Dutch cathe- was abolished by the Lutherans, which re- dral city, including two in northern Nor- sulted in many Sacrament niches and tow- way (Hillesøy and Trondenes) and the al- ers being removed and destroyed. Despite tarpiece from Austevoll (Hordaland) now this, Lutheran churches in Germany still kept at the University Museum of Ber- possess a large number of medieval taber- gen.31 Triptychs with alabaster reliefs of nacles in the form of wall niches and free- English origins, which have hardly sur- standing towers in stone and wood. The vived in Britain itself, are found in their en- German Sacrament houses constitute by tirety in Borbjerg and Vejrum, both in Jut- far the largest stock of their kind in Eu- land, as well as in the National Museum of rope and reflect the entire medieval devel- Copenhagen, originally from Munkaþverá opment from modest Romanesque mod- monastery on Iceland (fig. 5).32 Complete els to soaring late Gothic towers including triptychs of this kind are unparalleled in the earlier mentioned “Sakramentshaus” 33 Germany. in St Laurence in Nuremberg, erected by Fig. 6. Nuremberg (Germany), St Laurence, interior of the chancel looking east with 35 An element of central importance in Adam Krafft in 1493–1496 (fig. 6). In Sacrament tower, stone, 1493–1496. To the right: the Englische Gruß, wood, 1517–1518. the chancel of medieval churches that has most parts of Scandinavia, medieval tab- Photo Justin Kroesen & Regnerus Steensma.

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Fig. 7. Hee (Denmark), Fig. 8. Hammarö (Sweden), village church, village church, Sacrament Sacrament niche with cupboard, wood, late 15th door showing Christ century. Photo Justin Kroesen. as the Man of Sorrows amidst heraldry, wood, 1460-1470. Photo Justin Kroesen.

ernacles are found much more rarely. A ing Hammarö (Värmland) (fig. 8), Lagga handful of late Gothic wooden sacrament and Villberga (Uppland).36 cupboards survive in Denmark, including The only exception to the rule is found Haraldsted on Zealand and Øland (Ox- – once again – in the medieval churches holm) in Jutland, while a remarkable wood- of Gotland, where Sacrament niches sur- lined niche with a painted door is pre- vive in about 55 of its 91 country church- of Gotland constitute the largest more val tabernacles in Scandinavia may have served in Hee (Jutland) (fig. 7). In main- es.37 Moreover, most of these wall cup- or less coherent group of their kind in been that many were freestanding and land Sweden, simple niches are occasional- boards are contemporary to the church Europe. In all their variety, they offer a carried out in wood, as was also the case ly found, while Sacrament towers survive buildings, most of which were erected in unique impression of how the Eucharist in northern Germany. Such furnishings in the cathedrals of Linköping (Östergöt- the thirteenth and early fourteenth cen- was stored in European parish churches are obviously more vulnerable than stone land, in stone, fifteenth century) and Lund turies, a period that is poorly represent- during the century following the Fourth ones, and easier to remove. Furthermore, (Scania, in wood, fourteenth century), as ed even among tabernacles in Germany.38 Lateran Council of 1215 (fig. 9). One many churches in Denmark and Sweden well as in several village churches includ- Together, the early medieval tabernacles reason for the overall scarcity of medie- are built of granite, which makes the crea-

14 iconographisk post nr 3/4, 2018 nordic review of iconography 15 justin kroesen The Survival of Medieval Furnishings in Lutheran Churches tion of wall niches a rather difficult affair. ously leave no traces once they lose their stock in Scandinavia.40 Choir stalls surviv- Württemberg; fig. 2) created by Jörg Syrlin In addition, the fact that Norway hardly function and are removed. ing in Lutheran churches in Germany ena- the Elder and the Younger, respectively. In provides any evidence for the existence of Another central element in medieval ble their entire medieval development to Southern Germany in particular, medieval tabernacles could perhaps be explained by chancel furnishings includes choir stalls be drawn, from the sturdy Romanesque choir stalls are also quite commonly found the practice of storing the Host in a hang- that were designed for priests to be used stalls in Ratzeburg Cathedral (Schleswig- in village churches, for example in Ditz- ing pyx over the altar, which was a wide- for the singing of the Hours. In this re- Holstein) and Loccum Abbey (Lower Sax- ingen, Ennetach, Oberlenningen, Ofter- spread custom in England and France.39 spect, Germany again possesses the greatest ony) to the splendid late Gothic sets of Ulm dingen and Tiefenbronn.41 An important Wooden towers and hanging pyxes obvi- wealth, which by far surpasses the extant (fig. 10) and Blaubeuren in Swabia (Baden- reason for choir stalls to have survived less

Fig. 9. Källunge (Sweden), Fig. 10. Ulm (Germany), village church, Sacrament Our Lady (“Minster”), choir niche above three steps, stalls by Jörg Syrlin the Elder, stone and wood, c. 1300. wood, 1469–1474. Photo Justin Kroesen. Photo Justin Kroesen & Regnerus Steensma.

16 iconographisk post nr 3/4, 2018 nordic review of iconography 17 justin kroesen The Survival of Medieval Furnishings in Lutheran Churches frequently in Scandinavian churches is the development from early models in the late fact that the dissolution of the monaster- Romanesque style, as in the cathedral of ies was much more radical here than in sev- Naumburg (c. 1220), to late Gothic exam- eral parts of Germany where many lived ples, for example in Halberstadt Cathedral on as Lutheran “Stiftskirchen” (collegiate (c. 1505) (fig. 11), both in Saxony-Anhalt. churches) or were converted into centers Beyond cathedrals, medieval choir screens of education.42 Nevertheless, some Scandi- in Lutheran Germany are also found in navian cathedrals preserve important sets, former monastic churches, for example including Lund (Scania, Sweden) from c. in the Franciscans’ church in Rothenburg 1370 and Roskilde (Zealand, Denmark) ob der Tauber (Bavaria) and the Domin- from c. 1420. In addition, smaller choir icans’ church (Predigerkirche) in Erfurt stalls are occasionally found in Swedish (Thuringia), as well as in parish church- country churches including Veckholm in es including Niefern and Bönnigheim Uppland and Gothem and Kräklingbo on (Baden-Württemberg).46 Remarkably, in Gotland.43 East Frisia (Lower Saxony), medieval choir screens are found in several now Lutheran Between the chancel and nave village churches, including Holtrop, Butt- In medieval churches the chancel was usu- forde and Schortens.47 ally separated from the nave by a parti- In comparison, the number of preserved tion in the shape of a rail, a wall or gallery pre-Reformation choir screens in Scandi- (“rood loft”), the so-called rood screen or navia is conspicuously small.48 However, choir screen, which in German is known they may have originally been quite com- as a “Lettner”, a term derived from the mon here too.49 One reason for their rare Latin term lectorium or lectionarium. survival may be the use of wood, which This implied a de facto bipartition of me- made them both more vulnerable and eas- dieval church space into a clerical realm ier to remove. A surviving screen struc- and a space for the laity. With the arriv- ture composed of wooden beams from the al of Lutheranism, the entire community village church of Balkåkra (Scania), that was henceforth invited to receive Com- has been dendrochronologically dated to munion at the high altar, which turned 1485–1486, is now in the University His- the choir screen into an obstacle. Never- torical Museum of Lund (fig. 12).50 The theless, Lutheran churches in Germany earliest Scandinavian screens are found still possess the greatest wealth of surviv- in western Norway and share many char- ing choir screens with rood lofts on the Eu- acteristics with contemporary screens in ropean continent.44 Of around forty pre- England. The stave church of Hopperstad served chancel screens in Germany, some (Sogn og Fjordane) has a wooden parti- thirty are found in churches that are now tion with trefoil openings in the upper sec- Fig. 11. Halberstadt (Germany), cathedral, rood loft, stone, c. 1505. Above: Calvary group, Lutheran.45 Together they reflect its entire tion dating from the late thirteenth centu- wood, 1210–1220. Photo Justin Kroesen.

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Fig. 12. Lund (Sweden), University Historical Museum, rood screen from Balkåkra (Scania), wood, 1485– 1486. The Calvary Group on top of it is from Gualöv Church (Scania), c. 1200-1250. Photo Justin Kroesen. ry.51 In Eidfjord (Hordaland), important in the University Museum of Trondheim parts of a wooden screen built from beams (Norway).55 Both carvings can be dated to around 1300 survive, while the carved par- the second half of the fifteenth century. apet from a mid-thirteenth-century rood Choir partitions were usually crowned loft is found in the church of Kinn (Sogn by a monumental rood called the “trium- og Fjordane).52 In addition, several thir- phal cross”.56 Both Lutheran Germany teenth-century churches in western Nor- and Scandinavia possess a relatively large way offer circumstantial evidence for the number of such crucifixes. In Germany, a former presence of choir screens, for ex- concentration of medieval roods is found ample Tingvoll (Møre og Romsdal) and in and around the Elbe basin, for exam- Voss (Hordaland).53 In Voss there is a ple in the cathedrals of Ratzeburg (Schles- staircase inside the transversal wall be- wig-Holstein), Havelberg (fig. 13), Hal- tween the nave and chancel that gave ac- berstadt (fig. 11; both in Saxony-Anhalt), cess to a former gallery.54 Late Gothic par- Meissen and Freiberg (both in Saxony).57 apets of vanished rood screens are found In three parish churches in the town of Fig. 13. Havelberg (Germany), cathedral, Calvary group, wood, c. 1300. Below: rood screen, in the church of Korppoo (Finland) and Stendal (Saxony-Anhalt), namely St James, stone, 1396–1411. Photo Justin Kroesen & Regnerus Steensma.

20 iconographisk post nr 3/4, 2018 nordic review of iconography 21 justin kroesen The Survival of Medieval Furnishings in Lutheran Churches medieval churches from at least the thir- Baden-Württemberg.66 Together they en- teenth century.64 In Germany, between able the pulpit’s development to be traced 200 and 230 medieval pulpits survive, from the late Romanesque model in the mostly in Lutheran churches.65 Of these Stiftskirche in Bücken (Lower Saxony) extant pulpits, about three quarters are of to the late Gothic example in St Anne’s stone while one quarter is made of wood. church in Annaberg (Saxony) which dates Examples are found in different parts of from 1516 (fig. 15). Most pulpits still occu- Germany, with a strong concentration of py their original location on the south side stone pulpits around the river Neckar in of the nave and many show figures of the

Fig. 14. Højer (Denmark), village church, interior looking east with a Calvary group in the triumphal arch, wood, c. 1250. Photo Justin Kroesen.

St Peter’s and St Mary’s, roods still occu- den, they are more numerous, with those in py their position on top of medieval rood Scania and on Gotland having been stud- screens.58 A second important concentra- ied most extensively.62 A striking phenom- tion of surviving medieval roods and Cal- enon among the medieval roods on the last vary groups is found in Schleswig, espe- mentioned island is the fact that a large cially in country churches, where they are number of examples from the thirteenth found on both sides of the present Ger- century are equipped with rings or discs, man-Danish border.59 They offer particu- as is the case, for example, in the churches larly rich evidence for their early develop- at Eskelhem, Fide, Stånga and Öja.63 ment during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, and moreover many specimens Elements in the nave in this region survive in their original set- It has traditionally been maintained that tings, for example in Rieseby (Germany) fixed pulpits were only introduced after Fig. 15. Annaberg (Germany), 60 and Højer (Denmark) (fig. 14). In Nor- the Reformation with its increased weight St Anne, pulpit, stone, 1516. way, roods are preserved more sporadical- attached to preaching. In reality, however, Photo Justin Kroesen & Reg- ly, and most are now in museums.61 In Swe- these preaching devices gained ground in nerus Steensma.

22 iconographisk post nr 3/4, 2018 nordic review of iconography 23 justin kroesen The Survival of Medieval Furnishings in Lutheran Churches lohe and Ruffenhofen (Bavaria), both preserved of which the original function from the fifteenth.67 Closed pews with is unknown.71 shallow carvings on the side panels sur- Another element of central importance vive in several churches including Manu- found in the nave of medieval churches was bach and Bechtolsheim (both in Rhine- the side altar. These often privately found- land-Palatinate).68 Such complete sets of ed altars could be located in separate chap- wooden church benches are preserved els, along the walls of the nave, and in front nowhere in Scandinavia. However, some of the rood screen and the nave pillars. In Nordic churches do provide evidence of some late medieval churches their number seating in the nave in the shape of low amounted to several dozens.72 Side altars benches running along the nave walls. In lost their function with the arrival of the Garde on Swedish Gotland a stone bench Reformation because Luther and his fol- lines the north, west and south walls of lowers strongly opposed all kinds of pri- the nave while in the stave church at Nor- vate ritual. Nevertheless, examples sur- wegian Torpo (Buskerud) (fig. 17) the vive in a considerable number of Luther- bench against the north and west walls is an churches in Germany. The richest -ex made of wood.69 The high, wide plinths tant pattern is found in St Laurence’s in at the foot of the nave pillars in Vam- Nuremberg (Bavaria), where ten examples lingbo (Gotland) may also have provid- survive to date in chapels and against the Fig. 16. Urphar (Germany), St Jacob, interior looking east with benches, wood, 14th century? ed seating for medieval churchgoers.70 In nave pillars (fig. 18).73 An example of a well- Photo Justin Kroesen & Regnerus Steensma. addition, in Sweden and Norway, several preserved chapel with an altar and retable moveable benches of medieval origins are and closed off by a wooden screen is the Church Fathers and other saints around The rise of preaching in medieval the drum. The wealth of Lutheran Ger- churches brought about the need for fixed many presents a stark contrast with the al- seats for the community to sit on during most total absence of medieval pulpits in sermons. With the arrival of Protestant- the Nordic countries. A fourteenth-cen- ism church services would become even tury stone platform in Tirstrup (Jutland) more of a seated affair, so that benches, could perhaps be interpreted as a rare ex- where they served well, were sometimes ample in Denmark, and in Vamlingbo on maintained. In Germany, complete sets Swedish Gotland there is an opening in of benches have been preserved in sever- the transversal wall between chancel and al churches, the majority of which are now Fig. 17. Torpo nave which is accessible from the chancel Lutheran. The oldest specimens, from (Norway), stave and may also have been used for the deliv- around 1300, survive in the former Cister- church, bench running along the ery of sermons. It cannot be established if cian nunnery of Börstel (Lower Saxony), north and west pulpits were less common here in the first while later sets are found in Urphar (Baden- walls, wood, early place, or if they have rather massively fall- Württemberg) (fig. 16), possibly from the 13th century. Photo en victim to post-Reformation renewals. fourteenth century, and Kleinschwarzen- Justin Kroesen.

24 iconographisk post nr 3/4, 2018 nordic review of iconography 25 justin kroesen The Survival of Medieval Furnishings in Lutheran Churches tury showing the Virgin and Child and of surviving side altars is found on Swedish the Family of St Anne. The chancel of the Gotland, where around forty churches still parish church at Trondenes in northern possess the northern altar block while the Norway possesses a unique ensemble of southern one survives in some twenty cas- three altars, all equipped with late Gothic es.79 Side altars of more modest execution winged retables, the freestanding high al- seem to have been common in Denmark tar being flanked by two side altars in the and Norway, with niches in the east wall eastern corners (fig. 20).78 A concentration of the nave serving this purpose. In Nor-

Fig. 18. Nuremberg (Germany), St Laurence, the northern side aisle looking east with side altars, stone and wood, 15th century. Photo Justin Kroesen & Regnerus Steensma. chapel of the Brömse-family on the south ten found in Lutheran churches in Scan- side of the nave of St Jacob’s in Lübeck dinavia, where side altars were more thor- (Schleswig-Holstein).74 In several smaller oughly removed after the Reformation.76 churches two side altars still occupy their However, two remarkable exceptions de- original positions in the nave, most com- serve to be mentioned. In Swedish Sankt monly on either side of the chancel arch. Olof (Scania) the nave is filled with no In St Wolfgang in Rothenburg ob der Tau- less than four altars, of which three have ber and in the church of St Vitus in Veits- retained their original altar furnishings.77 bronn, both in Bavaria, the altars have pre- On the altar in front of the eastern nave served their late Gothic triptychs.75 In the pillar is a late Gothic shrine (the wings Fig. 19. Sankt Olof (Sweden), castle chapel of Neckarmühlbach (Baden- have vanished) with an impressive height village and pilgrims’ church, Württemberg) the altars and retables have of 331 cm containing an older sculpture of side altar in the nave with a tabernacle shrine, wood, been preserved in combination with two the Throne of Grace from c. 1440 (fig. 19), early 16th century, contain- late Gothic altar ciboria that were built while two further side altars at the north ing the Throne of Grace, over them around 1500. and south walls are equipped with smaller wood, c. 1440. Photo Justin Patterns such as these are much less of- tabernacle shrines from the fifteenth cen- Kroesen.

26 iconographisk post nr 3/4, 2018 nordic review of iconography 27 justin kroesen The Survival of Medieval Furnishings in Lutheran Churches manesque fonts in Schleswig including der to integrate the administration of bap- Munkbrarup near Flensburg show fierce tism into communal Sunday worship. combat scenes between Good and Evil Scandinavia’s medieval fonts, most of which hardly reflect Lutheran ideas sur- which date from the Romanesque period, rounding baptism.83 Most medieval fonts are numerous but generally more sober in Germany were moved after the Refor- than in Germany. With around 1600 ex- mation from their original position east- tant examples in Denmark, implying a sur- ward into the nave or to the chancel in or- vival rate of around 86%, this country may

Fig. 20. Trondenes (Norway), village church, interior of the chancel looking east with high altar and two side altars, all with retables, stone and wood, late 15th and early 16th centuries. Photo Jiri Havran. wegian Seljord and Bø, both in Telemark, rich carvings, are most commonly found stone slabs inserted in the round-arched in the north of the country, while the rich- niches served as altar mensae. Roman- est Gothic models survive in the south. In esque paintings inside such niches serving addition, many churches in northern Ger- as modest altar retables are found in Mäs- many possess richly decorated fonts cast in terby on Swedish Gotland and Måløv on bronze, called “Taufkessel”.82 In some cas- Danish Zealand.80 es, explicitly Catholic iconographical pro- Baptismal fonts usually stood in the grams on medieval fonts did not impede westernmost part of the nave of medieval their survival, for example in St Mary’s in churches, close to the entrance. Medieval Stendal (Saxony-Anhalt) where the bowl fonts were generally maintained in Luther- of the bronze font from 1474 is surround- an churches after the Reformation, both in ed by a row of saints, and in St Mary’s 81 Fig. 21. Reutlingen Germany and in Scandinavia. In terms church at Reutlingen (Baden-Württem- (Germany), St Mary’s, of variety and decorations, however, the berg) where the sandstone font dating baptismal font, stone, 1499. greatest wealth is found in Germany. Stone from 1499 carries sculpted depictions of Photo Justin Kroesen & fonts in the Romanesque style, often with the Seven Sacraments (fig. 21). Some Ro- Regnerus Steensma.

28 iconographisk post nr 3/4, 2018 nordic review of iconography 29 justin kroesen The Survival of Medieval Furnishings in Lutheran Churches even possess the densest medieval font in Germany and Scandinavia unambigu- landscape in Europe.84 Here too, fonts oc- ously tips toward Germany. Regarding the cupy their original location only by way different categories of medieval churches, of exception since almost all were moved the difference between Germany and the to the eastern part of the nave or into the Nordic countries is the largest with regard chancel after the Reformation. The great- to former monasteries. Whereas these pos- est wealth of medieval baptismal fonts sess some of the most complete ensembles with figurative carvings is – once again – in Germany, including Blaubeuren, Do- offered by Swedish Gotland, whose nine- beran and Maulbronn, monastic church- ty-one medieval country churches pos- es rich in medieval furnishings are rather sess a total of eighty Romanesque and ear- a rarity in Scandinavia, exceptions being ly Gothic stone fonts, which amounts to a Løgumkloster in Denmark and Vadstena survival rate of 73%.85 The earliest fonts on in Sweden. Cathedrals offer a similar pan- Gotland, in the Romanesque style, stand orama with the “Domkirchen” of north- out due to their exuberant sculptured ern and eastern Germany being particu- decorations. The pedestals of the fonts in larly outstanding, such as Halberstadt, Etelhem, Gerum, Stånga, Vänge and else- Havelberg and Lübeck. Sweden no doubt where feature violent scenes of combat offers the best competition, with valuable with snakes and other monsters threaten- ensembles surviving in Lund, Strängnäs ing each other as well as helpless human and Västerås. In urban parish churches, en- beings and other creatures as an evocation sembles preserved in the Nordic countries of evil that snaps at the soul of the new- do not even come close to Germany’s richly born. Many of the Gotland fonts are est examples such as Annaberg (St Anne’s), remarkable for their strong narrative ele- Nuremberg (St Laurence’s and St Sebald’s), ment, their bowls and even the slanted un- Rothenburg ob der Tauber (St Jacob’s), dersides being entirely covered with reliefs Schwäbisch Hall (St Michael’s) and Stend- depicting Biblical scenes. Another feature al (St Mary’s). The only category in which which makes the Gotland fonts stand out the wealth of Scandinavian churches ri- in the Lutheran context is the fact that vals that of Germany is that of rural parish many have maintained their original posi- churches, particularly in parts of Denmark, tion on a podium in the western part of the in southern Sweden and – first and fore- nave (fig. 22).86 In addition, some are still most – on Gotland. covered by their original lids.87 Medieval survivals in German churches are generally richer and more varied than Conclusions those in Scandinavian countries. With re- From the above it may be concluded that gard to altar decorations, Germany and the balance between surviving medieval Scandinavia are more or less on a par. Both Fig. 22. Etelhem (Sweden), village church, interior looking east with baptismal font, stone, church furnishings in Lutheran churches possess a wealth of medieval altars and ret- 12th century. Photo Justin Kroesen.

30 iconographisk post nr 3/4, 2018 nordic review of iconography 31 justin kroesen The Survival of Medieval Furnishings in Lutheran Churches ables that is unparalleled in Europe, per- of outstanding medieval church interi- haps with the exception of eastern Spain. ors, including Danish southern Jutland, Although Germany’s medieval altarpiec- Scania (which was a part of Denmark un- es are more varied and show a wider icon- til it came under the Swedish crown in Notes ographical variety, the Nordic countries 1658), and Gotland. The almost one hun- 1 After Fritz 1997. On a critical note, it has been The impact of the Reformation on Gotland’s offer richer evidence of their forerunners dred country churches of this Baltic is- rightly observed, for instance, that many medie- churches was studied by Staecker 2007. val objects have not been continuously present in 13 For England: Duffy 1992. A useful panorama on and early development with the survival of land arguably offer the best impression of church space but were stored away at some point this process in Switzerland and France is provid- many altar frontals, wingless retables, and what a furnished high-medieval church after the Reformation, often over the church ed by Dupeux et al. 2000. Iconoclastic rages also tabernacle shrines. Medieval Sacrament interior looked like – not only in Scandi- vaults, only to be reinstalled during the nine- occurred occasionally in Germany, especially in houses and choir stalls are much more of- navia, but in the whole of Europe. These teenth or twentieth century. the Southwest. ten found in Germany, and the same is mentioned medieval “Kunstlandschaften” 2 The focus is on liturgical fittings; other relevant 14 For a brief analysis of this process, see: Mullett categories, such as building forms and parts, vault 1999. true of choir partitions. In turn, the cat- can certainly be compared to Germany’s paintings, liturgical vessels (vasa sacra) and tex- 15 For this process in Germany, see: Engelberg 2005. egory of roods offers a more balanced pic- richest regions, including Franconia and tiles have not been taken into account. I thank Exceptions to the rule exist, of course, including ture. With regard to elements in the nave, Saxony-Anhalt. On the other hand, out- Ebbe Nyborg in Copenhagen, Stephan Kuhn Kalkar (St Nicholas’) and Xanten (St Victor’s), including pulpits and side altars, Germa- standing ensembles such as at Doberan in Bergen and Peter Tångeberg in Lästringe for both on the Lower Rhine. ny again possesses by far the larger stock are exceptional also in the German con- their critical reading of the manuscript. 16 On the destruction of medieval art in France, see: 3 The spread and variety of different categories of Réau 1959. of preserved examples. Finally, baptis- text, and some parts of Lutheran Germa- church furnishings is formulated in general terms, 17 Münzenberger et al. 1885–1890. Interestingly, mal fonts have survived in great numbers ny are even conspicuously poor in terms and specific examples are only mentioned when both authors were Catholic priests. The best Eu- in both Germany and the Nordic coun- of medieval survivals, such as most of the these are of significance to the entire understand- ropean overview of the evolution of extant medi- tries, with Germany unambiguously offer- states of Hesse and Württemberg. And fi- ing of their characteristics and development. eval altars remains: Braun 1924. ing the most complete overall panorama. nally, it should be pointed out that some 4 Kroesen 2005, Kroesen 2017. 18 Wolf 2002. 5 In order to avoid confusion with the Roman 19 I am indebted to Peter Tångeberg and Ebbe Ny- Within Scandinavia, Gotland deserves individual churches in Scandinavia pre- Catholic Church after the Counter-Reforma- borg for their information. special mention for its outstanding wealth serve unique medieval interior ensembles tion, the British historian Eamon Duffy uses 20 The same can roughly be said of retables in North- of Romanesque font sculpture. The overall that are worth the trip (in Michelin-terms: the useful term “traditional religion” to describe ern Germany. conclusion must be that Lutheran Germa- “vaut le voyage”). Here, we may recall a the Catholic church of the Middle Ages (Duffy 21 On such processes, see now: Wangsgaard Jür- ny’s wealth of medieval church furnishings number of churches mentioned, includ- 1992). In this article, however, I will maintain the gensen 2018. term Catholic to designate the medieval church 22 See: Plahter et al. 2004. surpasses that of Scandinavia; apparently, ing Sankt Olof in Scania and Trondenes under Rome. 23 Jørgensen 1991. the Reformation generally led to further- in northern Norway. The view of the chan- 6 See, for example: Heal 2005, Michalski 1993. 24 The examples from Lisbjerg and Odder are now reaching implications for material culture cel of the last mentioned church, Europe’s 7 Schmidt 1997. in the National Museum in Copenhagen while in the Nordic countries than in Germany – northernmost preserved medieval build- 8 See now: Weilandt et al. 2018. the one in Sahl is still in the church. The classical at least some important parts. ing, is without parallel even among Ger- 9 Meller et al. 2008. study of these altars is Nørlund 1968 (1926). See 10 See especially: Schleif 1990. also: Jorn et al. 2000. On a critical note, it should be pointed many’s Lutheran churches (fig. 20). 11 On surviving interior fittings in rural churches 25 Andersen 2015. The shrine from Urjala is now in out that comparing present-day Germany across Europe, see: Kroesen et al. 2012. the National Museum in Helsinki (Inv. nr KM to the Scandinavian countries of today evi- 12 Many Danish churches are described in detail in 4563:1) and the one from Fröskog is preserved dently implies a certain amount of anach- the ongoing book series Danmarks kirker that in the Historical Museum in Stockholm (Inv. was started in 1933. All the churches of Gotland nr 14965), while the example from Hedalen, al- ronism, especially since medieval Ger- are briefly described in German in Lagerlöf et al. though dismantled, survives in the local stave many never existed as a country. On a re- 1991. A survey of the unique medieval church in- church. gional level, Scandinavia offers a number teriors of Gotland in English is still a desideratum. 26 These statistics were collected by Peter Tångeberg

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and myself in the context of an ongoing research 44 The largest number of medieval screens (now) alleled in Germany. A rare disc cross from c. 1230 76 On vanished side altars in Danish churches, see: project on this type of altar decoration. without lofts are found in England, where they is found in the church of St. Maria zur Höhe in Bisgaard 2001. 27 Examples are found in the churches of Ardre, are estimated to amount to more than five hun- Soest (Westphalia). 77 Altars and their furnishings in southern Sweden Lojsta, Sundre, Tofta, Träkumla, Vallstena and dred. See: Bucklow, et al. 2017. 64 Kroesen et al. 2012, 234–261. In Italy a number of were studied by Karlsson 2015. Vamlingbo. In addition, the Historical Museum 45 See: Schmelzer 2004 (with catalogue on pp. 166– twelfth-century pulpits are preserved. 78 Von Bonsdorff 2015. in Stockholm possesses an eighth example from 195) and Jung 2013. 65 Numbers mentioned by Rademacher 1921, 141. 79 Numbers taken from Stolt 2001, 55. On side al- Ganthem. See: Tångeberg 2005. 46 Untermann 1996. 66 Halbauer 1997. tars on Gotland, see: Kroesen 2010b. 28 See: Jacobs 1998. 47 On the East Frisian screens, see: Kroesen et al. 67 On medieval benches in rural parish churches, 80 Further Danish examples of painted side altar 29 See for a survey: Boodt et al. 2007. 2011, 165–171.. see: Kroesen et al. 2012, 262–283. niches include Butterup (Zealand), Hvorslev 30 In Germany, most Southern Netherlandish altar- 48 For a study of screens – or rather their absence – 68 The last mentioned church became Protestant in (Jutland), Stenlille (Zealand) and Tørring (Jut- pieces are found in the – predominantly Catholic in Sweden, see: Nilsén 2003. 1544 and has been a simultaneum serving both land). – Rhineland. 49 See: Nyborg 2017. the Lutheran and the Catholic communities 81 For a survey, see: Drake 2002. 31 Leeuwenberg 1959, Olstad 2013, Kausland 2017. 50 Inv. nr 17274. since 1685. 82 On medieval fonts in Germany, see: Schlegel 32 Inv. nr 20504. In Borbjerg and Vejrum the trip- 51 Hoff 2003. Similar screens in England include 69 Traces of similar fixtures were discovered in sev- 2012. tych was inserted in a later altarpiece after the Kirkstead (Lincolnshire), Stanton Harcourt eral churches on Danish Zealand, including Blis- 83 Schleswig stretches over both sides of the present Reformation. (Oxfordshire) and Thurcaston (Leicestershire). trup and Gundsømagle, see: Olsen 1967. In gen- German-Danish border, and fonts of a similar 33 One such altarpiece is preserved in the church of 52 Hoff 1991, Schjetlein Johannessen 1962. eral on seating in Danish medieval churches, see: type are also found in Danish southern Jutland. St Mary in Danzig, present-day Gdańsk in Po- 53 For Tingvoll, see: Hoff 2006. Skov 1979. 84 On Danish fonts, see: Mackeprang 1941, on their land, turned Lutheran during the sixteenth cen- 54 This type of access is characteristic of English me- 70 Similar pillar bases are also found in several Eng- survival: Wangsgaard Jürgensen 2018. tury. dieval churches. lish churches, see: Kroesen et al. 2012, 265–266. 85 The first study of the medieval fonts of Gotland 34 See: King 1965. 55 The latter (Inv. nr T 4652,2) originally belonged 71 Examples are found in Eskelhem, Hejdeby and was Roosval 1918. Romanesque and, above all, 35 The most comprehensive survey of this topic is to the church at Horg (Trøndelag). Tofta, all on Gotland, and from Rennebu in Trøn- Gothic fonts from Gotland were also exported Timmermann 2009. 56 Ebbe Nyborg has proposed the useful term “chan- delag, now in the University Museum of Bergen widely, especially around the Baltic Sea, see: Berg- 36 Several further examples are kept at the Historical cel arch crucifix” (in German: “Chorbogenkruzi- (Inv. nr MA 40). gren 2002. Museum in Stockholm, from Överjärna (Söder- fix”), see: Nyborg 2001, 25. 72 On side altars in medieval churches, see: Kroesen 86 On these aspects, see: Fåhraeus 1974. manland), Tryde (Scania) and Väte (Gotland). 57 On early roods and Calvary groups (1100–1300), 2010a. 87 Medieval font lids are found in Bro, Endre and 37 Kroesen et al. 2014. see: Beer 2005 (with catalogue on pp. 495–840) 73 Schleif 1990. The influence of the wealthy patri- Hejdeby. They also occur in some Norwegian 38 Kroesen 2018. and Lutz 2004. cians who had founded these altars shortly before stave churches, including Hedalen and Øye, both 39 See: King 1965. 58 The screen in St Peter’s is of brick while the the Reformation certainly played an important in Oppland. 40 Scholarly interest in choir stalls has a long tradi- screens in St Jacob’s and St Mary’s are of wood role in their preservation. Medieval side altars tion in Germany. Early surveys include Neugass with iron trellises. with their original retables are rare today in Cath- 1927 and Busch 1928. 59 On medieval church furnishings in Schleswig- olic churches too. The wealth of St Laurence’s in 41 See: Loose 1931 and Kroesen et al. 2012, 155–167. Holstein, see: Teuchert 1978. Nuremberg is paralleled in Catholic Germany 42 The latter occurred in Blaubeuren and Maulbronn, 60 See: Nyborg 2001, Wangsgaard Jürgensen 2018, only by St Victor’s in Xanten and St Nicholas’ in both in Baden-Württemberg, for example. In the Plate XXXVIII. Kalkar, both on the Lower Rhine. Nordic countries, practically all monasteries were 61 Blindheim 1998, Hohler 2017. 74 Kroesen 2010a, 59–62. not only closed down but also demolished at the 62 Liepe 1995, Wolska 1997. On Swedish medieval 75 On such patterns, see: Kroesen 2010a, 95–112. behest of the monarchy. wooden sculpture, see: Andersson 1966, Anders- Parallels are only rarely found in Catholic church- 43 Kroesen et al. 2012, 164–166. A number of stalls son 1980, Tångeberg 1989. es, examples being the village church of Pipping in Danish village churches are known to have 63 On this type of rood, see: Wolska 1997, Nyborg and the castle chapel of Blutenburg, both in the been transferred from dissolved monasteries. 2001. These ring and disc crosses are hardly par- outskirts of Munich.

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