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EDUCATION AND SOCIAL CHANGE IN THE GULF COUNTRIES : A CASE STUDY OF SAUDI ARABIA

THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF Doctor of Philosophy IN SOCIOLOGY

BY FAISAL MOHAMMAD RATHER

UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF PROF. NAZIM ALI

DEPARTMENT OF WEST ASIAN STUDIES & NORTH AFRICAN STUDIES ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY ALIGARH-202002 (INDIA)

2018 DEPARTMENT OF WEST ASIAN STUDIES & NORTH AFRICAN STUDIES FACULTY OF INTERNATIONAL STUDIES ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY, ALIGARH 202002

ANNEXURE – I Dated: ……………………………..

CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION

I, Faisal Mohammad Rather, Department of West Asian studies and North African Studies certify that the work embodied in this Ph.D. thesis is my own bonafide work carried out by me under the supervision of Prof. Nazim Ali at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. The matter embodied in this Ph.D. thesis has not been submitted for the award of any other degree.

I declare that I have faithfully acknowledged, given credit to and referred to the research workers wherever their works have been cited in the text and the body of the thesis. I further certify that I have not willfully lifted up some other's work, para, text, data, result, etc. reported in the journals, books, magazines, reports, dissertations, theses, etc., or available at web-sites and included them in this Ph.D. thesis and cited as my own work.

Dated ...... Faisal Mohammad Rather Enrolment no.: GD-3515 Faculty no.: ……………………………………………………………………………………. Certificate from the Supervisor

This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidate is correct to the best of my knowledge. Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh MuslimProf. Nazim University Ali (Professor) Department of West Asian Studies & North African Studies Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh

(Signature of the Chairman of the Department with seal) DEPARTMENT OF WEST ASIAN STUDIES & NORTH AFRICAN STUDIES FACULTY OF INTERNATIONAL STUDIES ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY, ALIGARH 202002

ANNEXURE – II

COURSE/COMPREHENSIVE EXAMINATION/PRE-SUBMISSION/ SEMINAR COMPLETION CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Faisal Mohammad Rather, Department of West Asian

Studies & North African Studies has satisfactorily completed the course

work/comprehensive examination and pre-submission seminar requirement, which is

part of his Ph.D programme.

Date : ……………………… Signature of Chairman

Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University DEPARTMENT OF WEST ASIAN STUDIES & NORTH AFRICAN STUDIES FACULTY OF INTERNATIONAL STUDIES ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY, ALIGARH 202002

ANNEXURE – III

Title of the Thesis : EDUCATION AND SOCIAL CHANGE IN THE GULF COUNTRIES: A CASE STUDY OF SAUDI ARABIA

Candidate’s Name : Faisal Mohammad Rather

The undersigned hereby assigns to the Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh

Ph.D. degree.

Faisal Mohammad Rather

Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Acknowledgements

I would like to record my sense of gratitude to my supervisor, Prof. Nazim Ali, for his generous, inspiring guidance, extensive cooperation and consistent, encouragement which steered me through difficult stages. His extraordinary desire to see students flourish will always be a source of inspiration for me.

I also express my deep sense of indebtedness to my teachers of the department particularly Prof. Fazal Mahmood (Chairman) Prof. Mohammad Azhar, Prof. Mohammad Gulrez, Prof. Shamir Hasan, Prof. Jawaid Iqbal, Prof. Ghulam Mursaleen, Dr. Rakshanda F. Fazili, Dr. Aziz ur Rahman and others for their invaluable suggestions and help in my research work.

Generous help of the staff members of Seminar Library of Department of West Asian Studies, AMU, Maulana Azad Library, AMU, Aligarh, JNU Library, New Delhi, Jamia Millia Islamia Library, in searching materials and providing comfortable environment for the research work is worth mentioning.

Language has its own limits; hence my words will not be able to express the contribution of my family members particularly my Parents and brother. Their blessings and unconditional support gave me the strength to carry out my research work. I am also thankful to my seniors and friends Dr. Mujahid ul Islam, Dr. Mafooz Alam, my friends Mr. Atik Ur Rehman, Mohd. Alam, Mohd. Javed, Nassar Ahmad Shah, Farooque Alam, and Mubasshir Khan, Mohd. Ishaque Malik, for their timely help and encouragement.

Faisal Mohammad Rather

Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University

ii PREFACE

In Saudi Arabia, the development of education along the lines of modernization revolutionized the national integration, cultural reformation and the collective identity formation process. This greatly broadened the cognitive frontiers of the people and curbed and neutralized all sorts of parochialism, segmentations, and social fragmentation. The efforts to develop human development through good education have been notably successful and Saudi citizens and others in the gulf countries, particularly in the GCC countries have achieved first class, modern social and economic infra-structures. In the educational sector the Gulf countries emphasized on expanding learning opportunities as well as increasing general literacy. Moreover, the educational structural advancement got a boost during the oil-boom years, which remains until today, and the educational programs initiated by the Gulf governments altered their economic foundations. A new stratum of the population, modernized and equipped with technical skills, in the Gulf countries is attributed to modern education.

Oil revenues and the expanding modern educational base have created a new and diverse stratum of professionals, managers, administrators, adequately trained teachers, lawyers, army officers, pilots, skilled workers, electronics engineers and technicians, planners, corporate managers and system analysts. The new dynamics of education and the social change brought by it has changed the social structure of these countries as new roles and specialization has been introduced in the entire aspects of social life in the Gulf countries. It is against this backdrop that the present study attempts to examine the nature, scope and dimensions of education and social change in the gulf countries especially Saudi Arabia.

The present study is divided in to six chapters and attempts to analyze the social change that has been brought by education in the gulf countries and Saudi Arabia. The first chapter is introductory and explanatory note on the study. The second chapter analyzes the conceptual framework on education and social change. The third chapter Maulanaanalyzes Azad the history Library, of education in Aligarh the gulf countries Muslim and Saudi ArabiaUniversity since its inception. The fourth chapter highlights and analyzes the socio-economic development through education and the fifth chapter focuses on the growth of education and women empowerment. The sixth chapter will include the concluding chapter comprising of the findings of the study.

i Abstract

In the contemporary post-modern world, economic and military might has overshadowed the cultural heritage. The Arabian Gulf countries fall in this category which is in possession of vast oil reserves and strong national defense and among the Gulf countries, Saudi Arabia, which is “known for its oil reserves and its military might, it’s easy to forget that the country also has a very strong cultural fabric that binds its society. It has a rich history of literature, theatre and dance. Unfortunately, in our current times the chatter around Saudi Arabia remains restricted to its economy and the cultural aspects of its society remain largely ignored.

Education and culture cannot be divorced from each other and education as a part of culture has the twin functions of conservation and modification or renewal of culture. It is the culture in which education germinates and flourishes and exerts a nourishing influence. Education is conceived as a systematic effort to maintain a culture. Prior to the discovery of oil the most prominent characteristic of this “conservation and modification or renewal of culture, or in other words the educational structure in the Gulf countries, especially Saudi Arabia, was its uninterrupted historical connection with the educational system of the Kuttub, a dominant source of producing knowledge in the Arabian Gulf countries.

Before enrolling the child with Kuttub, his or her education began at home as soon as the child could speak and the father was bound with the duty of teaching it al-Kalimah or the word La Ilah Illa Allah (no God but Allah) and when six years old child was held responsible for the ritual prayer. It was then that his formal education began.

Over a period of time, cities and townships were witnessing some twinges of transition, as far as the structure of education was concerned, for instance in 1925, the Directorate of Education was established [in the modern day Saudi Arabia and] was followed a year later by the Basic Instructions that laid the foundation for a Maulanacentralized Azad national Library,system of government. Aligarh However, Muslim a rapid transition University began to be witnessed in this conservative educational system of the Kuttub after the discovery of oil.

Nevertheless, with the dawn of the twentieth century, the conventional education system in the Gulf started to breakup. The disintegration process in Saudi Arabia

1 unlike elsewhere in the Gulf witnessed a slow pace given the religious character of its society. Until the mid-twentieth century, Sociologically, Saudi Arabia was still in an early stage of evolution where formal education had been until recently a narrow and limited series of courses in religion and elementary arithmetic and language.

Though late in the disintegration process, the breakup of conventional system in Saudi Arabia, like the other Gulf countries, factored on the internal and external elements which gave rise to the need to reform the traditional educational system. This was mainly due to the partial socio-economic progress the countries were witnessing. With the passage of time, as the gulf countries entered into multilateral trade relations, particularly with the western countries, gave rise to the notion of reforming the traditional education structure. The traditional education system in the Gulf started to witness tremendous transition with the western influence on its educational planning particularly in the aftermath of the second world war.

Since then, social change in the Gulf countries has become an undeniable fact. The irrefutable truth is that Saudi Arabia has witnessed a tremendous social change in its society in the post oil era due to oil boom and educational advancement. In the present day Saudi Arabia, the notions that were popularized by Philby and Dickson regarding the desert country has been rendered as outdated. Saudi Arabia has grown into a world in itself driven by new waves of social change. These waves of transition can be witnessed in abundance through the manifestations of change everywhere. In the nutshell, the educational advancement has engulfed the whole gulf.

Modern education has become the fate and fortune of the Gulf countries as an end has been put to the centuries old isolation where sleeping people have been awakened by the advent of new education and brought the country at the international scene. Usually, the chatter around Saudi Arabia has always been either oil or military, however, given the rich cultural and civilizational heritage it enjoys, the traditional educational system mixed with modern education has been helpful in changing the Maulanadiscourse Azad to a great extent.Library, Aligarh Muslim University

2 overall development of a nation. The advent of modern education led to a dramatic shift from traditional to an industrial stage.

Prior to the enhancement of the educational sector, Saudi Arabia lacked skillful indigenous manpower and the technological know-how. This had certain important implications such as it led the kingdom of Saudi Arabia to formulate its own policies and prioritize the agenda of development since the country was full of resources but the capital was being drained out of the country due to the hiring of expats. The kingdom was hiring manpower at a huge cost from outside.

Therefore, social change as a result education had its own form and content since the transformation began to affect the society from the grass root level. That is how education helped the Saudi society to move from tribal to post tribal society and eventually landing it in an industrial stage. Transition of this pattern due to education has transformed the society and economy to a great extent, if not completely, since Saudis have come out of the deserts and begun to live in cities, however, the still live by tradition.

One of the basic reasons for social change after the introduction of education was the advent of modern education and continues to be a dominant factor along with oil. Education has contributed to demographic, social and cultural aspects of Arabian Gulf life as well. The multi-faceted development has given birth to numerous degree of social change inside the Gulf countries. The transition in the Gulf countries is in continuous progress.

If one accepts that education is a time-intensive process that takes place in formal and informal settings, then the history of…education in Saudi Arabia may be traced back in history to the advent of Islam about fourteen hundred years ago. Since that time Mecca and Medina two of Islam’s Holy cities have assumed importance as centers of knowledge and places from which knowledge disseminated to the world and particularly to the Islamic world. For centuries each year millions of pilgrims would Maulanaflock to MeccaAzad and MedinaLibrary, and these Aligarhtwo cities constantly Muslim experienced University an infusion of knowledge from these visitors. There people from the world over would come together exchanging ideas and knowledge. Sometimes pilgrims stayed and became teachers spending their time writing books and learning from other scholars as well as teaching. … The Kutabs, ungraded Qur'anic schools that were attached to the Mosque

3 or were in the Mosques themselves, played an important early role in education. They usually consisted of one teacher with an advanced student who acted as helper. Studies in the Kutab centered on the Holy Qur’an with writing and arithmetic also given. Both male and female students received instruction in the kutabs but separately. The Kutabs remained popular in Saudi Arabia until the twentieth century when modern schools were developed.

The general aim of education as per the Saudi educational policy is to “have the student[s] understand Islam in a correct comprehensive manner, to plan and spread the Islamic creed, to furnish the students with values, teachings and ideals of Islam, to equip him with various skills and knowledge, to develop his conduct in constructive directions, to develop the society economically, socially and culturally, and to prepare the individual to become a useful member in the building of his community.”

According to a UNESCO report: the educational indicators show a remarkable growth, by all standards, as a result of free education availed to Saudi citizens, and the Social Change witnessed by the Saudi Society entail the process of restructuring the educational system and its development. This is remarkably observed in their government policy and the persistent and continuous increase in the budget allocations for education and the resultant extensive educational projects.” Nevertheless, the Gulf countries have been witnessing a swift social change as a result of education. The kingdom of Saudi Arabia as a result of modern education too has been witnessing a “rapid social change.”

Education had revolutionized the Saudi society and a major social change in its society was witnessed with “the emergence of Saudi women as a social force is one of the most dynamic of the many changes reshaping Saudi Arabia today,” and there are “Saudi women doctors, university professors, mathematicians, scientists, social workers, bank directors, journalists, college deans and radio announcers, to mention just a few of the new occupations into which they have moved. And the ranks of these Maulanaworking Azad women are Library, constantly being Aligarh replenished from Muslim a growing pool University of educated women.” In the nutshell, Saudi in particular and the Gulf countries in general have witnessed social change, majorly a product of education.

Nevertheless, it is important to understand that education develops individual psyche and initiate social change through innovation and development. For most of the Saudi

4 citizens the process of social change in the kingdom has thus far been gradual and largely conforming to the norms of the society. The Saudis have taken up modern education but have conserved and remained true to their tradition.

Thus, the basic nature of social change cannot be reversed in the gulf countries as it is in a process of continuation. The residents of Saudi Arabia are not in a position to retreat backwards. Education has made their retreat impossible even if their oil wells dry up due to structural changes brought there by education. The future of social change in the gulf will largely be determined by education in future both at indigenous, political or at the international level.

Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University

5 Contents

Page No.

Preface i Acknowledgement ii

Chapter I Introduction 1 - 25

Chapter II Education in the Gulf Countries : A History 26 - 54 1 Education System : An Overview 2 In Pursuit of Modern Education 3 Educational Change 4 Towards a Knowledge Based Society 5 Summary

Chapter III Education and Socio-Economic Development 55 - 78 1 An Overview 2 Reform Programs Implementation for Socio-Economic Development 3 Education and Eradication of Socio-Economic Disparity 4 Education and Infrastructural Development 5 Education, Economic Growth and Social Indicators 6 Summary

MaulanaChapter AzadIV Library, Aligarh Muslim University Growth of Education and Women Empowerment 79 - 102 1 The Concept of Women Empowerment 2 Background to Women Education 3 Education and Empowerment 4 Social and Economic Trends in Transition 5 Saudi Women Empowerment in the 21st Century 6 Summary

Chapter V Conclusion 103 - 107

Bibliography 108 - 121

Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Chapter - I

Introduction

Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Chapter - I Introduction

One does not have to be an educationalist to enter the lists in the great debate about the importance of education, and education policy, as a mechanism for solving social problems. Stephen Haseler1

John Dewy in his famous article “Education and Social Change” had been optimistic enough to conclude that the relationship of education and social change is possible. Writing about whether education can direct social change, he wrote that in the coming times this “will cease to be a question, and will become a moving answer in action.”2 Nevertheless, education is often called as the harbinger of social change, although, sociologists have held “differing views” regarding its relationship since “education assumed the form and proportions of a large organized sector in society.”3 In the Arabian Gulf countries, the “societies have been buffeted by the countervailing forces to a degree rarely seen elsewhere [which is] based on education…professional or vocational” training.4 In the words of Mahmoud Abdullah Saleh, the education in “Saudi Arabia is a study of educational progress almost unparalleled in history.”5 He further mentions that:

1 Stephen Haseler, “Education as a Vehicle for Social Change: The Greater London Lesson,” The Journal of Education, Vol. 159, No. 2, Comparative Education: British and American Models (1977),p.30, Accessed December 11, 2013, retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/42773061 2 John Dewey, “Education and Social Change,” Bulletin of the American Association of University Professors (1915-1955), Vol. 23, No. 6 (Oct., 1937),p.474, accessed December 11, 2013, retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/40219908 Maulana3 A. R. Kamat, Azad “Education Library, and Social Change: Aligarh A Conceptual Muslim Framework,” Economic University and Political Weekly, Vol. 17, No. 31 (1982), p. 1237, accessed December 11, 2013, retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/4371189 4 J.E. Peterson, “Some Reflections on social Change and Continuity in Oman and the Gulf,” 3rd Sultan Qaboos Academic Chairs Symposium on “Managing water Resources for Sustainable Development, University of Tokyo, (2014), p.2. 5 Mahmoud Abdullah Saleh, “Development of Higher Education in Saudi Arabia,” Higher Education, Vol. 15, No. 1/2 (1986),p.17, Accessed December 29, 2013, retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/3446739

1 flock to Mecca and Medina and these two cities constantly experienced an infusion of knowledge from these visitors. There people from the world over would come together exchanging ideas and knowledge. Sometimes pilgrims stayed and became teachers spending their time writing books and learning from other scholars as well as teaching. … The Kutabs, ungraded Qur'anic schools that were attached to the Mosque or were in the Mosques themselves, played an important early role in education. They usually consisted of one teacher with an advanced student who acted as helper. Studies in the Kutab centered on the Holy Qur’an with writing and arithmetic also given. Both male and female students received instruction in the kutabs but separately. The Kutabs remained popular in Saudi Arabia until the twentieth century when modern schools were developed.6

According to a UNESCO report: “the educational indicators show a remarkable growth, by all standards, as a result of free education availed to Saudi citizens,” and the Social Change witnessed by the Saudi Society “entail the process of restructuring the educational system and its development. This is remarkably observed in their government policy and the persistent and continuous increase in the budget allocations for education and the resultant extensive educational projects.”8 Nevertheless, the Gulf countries have been witnessing a swift social change as a result of education. The kingdom of Saudi Arabia as a result of modern education too has been witnessing a “rapid social change.”9

Maulana6 Ibid, p. 17-18. Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University 7 Ministry of Higher Education (1980), Progress of Higher Education in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia during Ten Years 1970-1980 (Riyadh, Ministry of Higher Education). 8 Saudi Arabia, “The Economic and Social Conditions and its Impact on the Education System,” UNESCO, (1996), p.1, retrieved from http://www.ibe.unesco.org/National_Reports/ICE_1996/saudiarabia96.pdf 9 Delwin A. Roy, “Saudi Arabian Education: Development Policy ,” Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 28, No. 3 (1992), p.492, accessed December 23, 2014, retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/4283504

2 Education had revolutionized the Saudi society and a major social change in its society was witnessed with “the emergence of Saudi women as a social force is one of the most dynamic of the many changes reshaping Saudi Arabia today,” and there are “Saudi women doctors, university professors, mathematicians, scientists, social workers, bank directors, journalists, college deans and radio announcers, to mention just a few of the new occupations into which they have moved. And the ranks of these working women are constantly being replenished from a growing pool of educated women.”10 In the nutshell, Saudi in particular and the Gulf countries in general have witnessed social change, majorly a product of education.

Significance of the Study

Francis J. Brown had remarked that education is a process that can transform the society as it can lead to behavioral changes among the individuals. It enables the individuals to partake effectively in the activities within a society and contribute positively to fulfill the goal of progress. Education is a major empowering tool that involves learning and students learn to take up roles in their later lives as responsible citizens. Social change begins with a collective transformation that is imparted in them through education which “has brought about phenomenal changes in every aspect of man’s life.”11 There has been a significant rise in education in the gulf countries irrespective of the classes and social status.12 A rise in “women’s educational attainment and labour force participation, as well as…civil society organizations and new social movements” have also emerged as a result of education which have led to a remarkable social change.13

Maulana10 Louay BaAzadhry, “The NewLibrary, Saudi Woman: Aligarh Modernizing in anMuslim Islamic Framework,” University Middle East Journal, Vol. 36, No. 4 (1982), p.502, Accessed January 23, 2014, retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/4326467 11 Namita P. Patil, “Role of Education in Social Change,” Educational E-Journal, vol. 1, no.2, (2012), 502, accessed December 23, 2015, retrieved from http://www.oiirj.org/ejournal/Jan-Feb- Mar2012IEEJ/38.pdf 12 Valentine Moghadam, Tabitha Decker, Chapter- II: Social Change in the Middle East, The Middle East and North Africa Review (2012-2013), 74. 13 Ibid. p.76.

3 fragmentation. The efforts to develop human development through good education have been notably successful and Saudi citizens and others in the gulf countries, particularly in the GCC countries have achieved first class, modern social and economic infra-structures. In the educational sector the Gulf countries emphasized on expanding learning opportunities as well as increasing general literacy. Moreover, the educational structural advancement got a boost during the oil-boom years, which remains until today, and the educational programs initiated by the Gulf governments altered their economic foundations. A new stratum of the population, modernized and equipped with technical skills, in the Gulf countries is attributed to modern education.

Objective of Study

The main objectives of the study are:

1. To study the functioning of educational system in the Arabian Gulf countries in general and Saudi Arabia in particular. 2. To study the extent to which government controls the educational system in Saudi Arabia. 3. To find out the progress of education in Saudi Arabia since its inception as a modern day nation. Maulana4. To study the Azad growth of Library, women education Aligarh and empowerment. Muslim University 5. To analyze the relationship and intensity between education and employment generation.

The study in its broader framework would also analyze the role of education in transforming the Saudi society for socio-economic development.

4 Methodology

The present study endeavors to find out whether education became the underlying factor for social change in the Gulf countries, with a special reference to Saudi Arabia, from a sociological perspective. The study will emphasize on the nature of social change through education. The focus of the study will be the primacy of “education and social change” and thus the study will employ a case study method to determine the role of education as a factor of social change in the Gulf countries. Efforts have been made to collect all the relevant data. The data includes government reports published from Arabian Gulf countries, reports and statements from embassies, reports and statements issued by United Nations, UNESCO, reports and policy paper of various research institutes, research papers and articles published in reputed journals, newspapers, magazines published internationally.

Hypothesis

There are several hypothesis on which the study is based:

Ho1. Social change is a product of educational achievement and economic stability.

Ha1. Social change is not a product of educational achievement and economic stability.

Ho2. Education has been a major determinant of social change as oil.

Ha2. Education has been less determinant of social change than oil.

Ho3. Education has been a major contributor to socio-economic development.

Ha3. Education has not been a major contributor to socio-economic development.

Ho3. There has been a significant rise in the female enrollment which has contributed to social change in the Gulf countries.

Ha3. There has been no significant rise in the female enrollment and social change Maulanahas Azad remained staticLibrary, in the Gulf countries.Aligarh Muslim University Organization of Study

The present study is divided in to six chapters and attempts to analyze the social change that has been brought by education in the gulf countries and Saudi Arabia.

5 The first chapter is introductory and explanatory note on the study. The second chapter analyzes the conceptual framework on education and social change. The third chapter analyzes the history of education in the gulf countries and Saudi Arabia since its inception. The fourth chapter highlights and analyzes the socio-economic development through education and the fifth chapter focuses on the growth of education and women empowerment. The sixth chapter will include the concluding chapter comprising of the findings of the study.

Education and Social Change: A Theoretical Framework

Education plays a vital role in the socio-economic and political development of a nation. At the outset of this recognition, attempts were made by the concerned governments to alter educational systems by initiating reforms. This led to a change in the traditional educational systems around the globe. The Arabian Gulf countries have also initiated certain reforms in an attempt to alter their educational system to meet the demands of the global market. Some Theoretical Frameworks could be applied to the study to understand the relationship between education and social change in the Gulf countries. A number of theories have been developed which highlight significant structural changes through within a society.

Evolutionary and Neo-Evolutionary Theory

Classical evolutionary theories heavily draw on Darwin’s work on biological evolution of living beings to formulate a sociological perspective regarding social change.14 Social change is characterized by the notions of progress or development and society is seen as a human entity with special features clearing the way for survival. Changes in society take place due to education as it is an integrative structure within a society and works to maintain stability. Education is one of the most flexible structures of a society, for instance it changed itself into primitive from simple and from simple to modern forms in response to other structural changes in Maulanasocieties. Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University This theory of social change was unsuccessful because the data that was accumulated by the anthropologists did not conform to social change in parts of Asia such as the

14 Talcott Parsons, “, "Evolutionary Universals," American Sociological Review, no.29 (June 1964),pp. 339-57.

6 modern day Saudi Arabia. As a result a new wave of sociologists began to revive and rework on evolutionary theory and came be known as new-evolutionists who sought to study social change through transition from uni-linear to multi-linear change process.15 According to Durkheim:

Educational practices are not phenomena that are isolated from one another; rather, for a given society, they are bound up in the same system all the parts of which contribute toward the same end… Each people [have their] own…moral, religious, economic system, etc. But on the other hand, peoples of the same kind, that is to say, people who resemble one another with respect to essential characteristics of their constitutions, should practice comparable systems of education. The similarities in their general organization should necessarily lead to others of equal importance in their educational organization. Consequently, through comparison, by abstracting the similarities and eliminating the differences from them, one can certainly establish the generic types of education which correspond to the different types of societies. . . . One would thus obtain the laws which emerged from one another. One would thus obtain the laws which govern the evolution of systems of education. One would [thus] be able to perceive…how education developed and what the causes are which have determined this development and which account for it.16

Nevertheless, Durkheim had tried to put forward the concept that evolutionary theory of education can become a useful framework for understanding the social change or development. His call to relate education and social change received wide recognition from scholars studying the aspects of education and modernization. Wilson identified “a set of criteria upon which the evolutionary stages of education may be established and to trace in broad outline a sequence of evolutionary stages of education from the least developed cultures to the most advanced.”17 He presented an argument that “functional requisites at a given level of culture” had made a “particular type of education necessary for that culture to exist.”18 He in actuality had tried to seek an “evolutionary theory of education” may be more than helpful in providing “us with insights and understandings about the nature of education which could not be Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University

15 M.D. Shipman. Education and Modernisation (London: Faber and Fabe, 1971). 16 E. Durkheim, Education and Sociology (Glencoe, III.: Free Press, 1956), pp. 95-98. 17 H.C. Wilson, "On the Evolution of Education," in Learning and Culture: Proceedings of the 1972 Annual Spring Meeting of the American Ethnological Society, ed. S.T. Kimball and J.H. Burnett (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1973)p.211. 18 Ibid.

7 obtained by other approaches”19 to study the process of social change. Nonetheless, given the complex nature of the theory, it had become difficult to test as it explained little about the relationship of education and social change.

Structural-Functional Theory

The focus of Structural-Functionalists has always been on the balancing mechanisms through which the societies maintain a uniform state. This theory views the society fundamentally as stable but complex in nature. According to the theorists of this thought, a conservative bias for adaptive change is observed and major forces of change such as education are viewed as an external force which requires no more than incremental adjustments.

The structural functionalists tried to produce a refined theory moving away from the evolutionary theorists to put forward their views on how educational system works in the process of social change and how the educational system changes by initiating new goals, strategies and tactics. Talcott Parsons while writing from this perspective produced a general model by operationalizing case studies concerning social change through education and “modernization.”20

Parsons viewed education as an important element through which individuals learn to know and command or develop commitment to the culture and traditions of the society. Society, on the other hand, depends on education to continue the socialization process which starts at the family level. Education provides the stable continuity in society’s structural transition which is an important element for social change. According to many theorists of this thought, social change occurs as a result of change in the educational sub-system which in result is a product of interaction between educational institutions and society.

Systems Theory

MaulanaThe theorists of Azadthis thought Library, have tried to move Aligarh away from Muslimdominant narratives University on education and social change which use theoretical models as their basis but on contrary attempted to build their framework on the concept of education and social

19 Op. Cit. 17, P.258. 20 R.W. Larkin, "Patterns Maintenance and Change in Education," Teachers College Record 72 (September 1970): 110-119.

8 change by using biology, cybernetics, and information and communication theories as their basis. According to this theory, a “more rapid adaptation of our public schools to the demands of a modern society” is the main requirement of social transition.21 Change in a society arises when it begins to malfunction and it is through research and development that the process of change begins.

However, this theory received criticism for being “naively profess-o-centric” and for its viewing education as a “manipulated object,”22 rather than an important object of development and change. It was also contended that this theory failed “to recognize that most people are attached to whatever they are doing because they believe in the value of it, not because they are resistant to change.” Nevertheless, system theorists tried to advance this framework by theorizing structural change process in the process of social transition, however, concluding that “structural change is the sine qua non of true growth, yet models that predict structural change have not been developed.”23

Marxist and Neo-Marxist Theory

Regardless of any ideological inclinations, Marxist theory is viewed as a legitimate philosophical and theoretical orientation. This framework had been employed to study the relationship between education and social change. As far as education and social change is concerned,

Social scientists have been addressing themselves to this issue ever since education assumed the form and proportions of a large organised sector in society. They have held vastly differing views on the relationship between education and society. At one end of the spectrumn education is considered to be the most important ‘ideological State apparatus’ devised by the ruling classes to ensure that society largely conforms to their ideas and interests. Gramsci is even more specific when he says that intellectuals or (the upper sections of) the product of the education system “are officers of the ruling class for the exercise of subordinate functions of social hegemony and political government’. Evidently, thinkers of this persuasion hold that Maulanaeducation Azad is anLibrary, instrument forged Aligarh by the ruling classesMuslim to serve and University preserve their

21 S. Bushnell and D. Rappaport, eds., Planned Change in Education: A Systems Approach (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1971). 22 A. G. Oettinger, Run, Computer, Run: The Mythology of Educatinal Innovation (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1969). 23 H.. H. Fox and G. Schacter, "Dynamics of Structural Change," Regional Science and Urban Economics, no. 5 (1974), p.41.

9 own interests, and thus largely to maintain the status quo in. the existing economic and political power structure. At the other end, are many social scientists, politicians, educationists and educational planners who consider education as a very important, if not the most important, instrument of social change. This, they maintain especially in the context of the Third World countries.24

Nevertheless, changes in society follow parallel when transition occurs in education. However, the Marxist and neo-Marxist theorists view the relationship of education and social change from a dialectical perspective that is to say, “society regards the ability to provide a better educational background [which is the] privilege of the rich rather than a right of every citizen. In short, only when there is a demand for educational reform by the polity, will educational reform succeed. The historical record bears out the view that the ‘turning points’ in the functions of schools coincide with major improvements that change [] the social order.”25 Nonetheless, education according to this theory is dominated by political and economic elites and the social change via education is rejected as metaphysical and a deterministic notion.26

Literature Review

Edmund J King. “Education and Social Change.”27

For an overall socio-economic and political development the importance of education has been acknowledged universally. As far as contemporary history of education suggests, education as a motor of social change is a recent phenomenon which, since the inception of the concept has attracted academic curiosity. This led to the emergence of certain academic professionals to signify the role of education in social change which later was affirmed by the United Nations as well. The author in the volume has tried to place various important issues related to education and social change in a cross and multi-cultural perspective. The author has tried to link the transformation of school system with the revolutionary developments as a result of it taking place in mostly every society establishing that education is definitely an Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University

24 A. R. Kamat, “Education and Social Change: A Conceptual Framework,” Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 17, No. 31 (Jul. 31, 1982), pp. 1237, retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/4371189 25 54 H. M. Levin, “Educational Reform and Social Change,” The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, vol. 10 (1974)p. 316. 26 9 N. J. Smelser, Sociological Theory: A Contemporary View (New York: General Learning Press, (1971), p.59. 27 Edmund J King, Education and Social Change, (Oxford: Permagon Press, 1966).

10 important instrument of social change. The book mostly deals with the development that took place in education and its structure, and has a major social significance. The author discusses educational planning which is a relatively new aspect of school systems in the first, second, or third world countries, was initiated in the first place to raise educational standards. The author also discusses the growth of comprehensive schools in many countries which has proved as a significant means of social change. The book also highlights the strength and weaknesses of a teacher concerning educational issues. School systems and educational problems have been discussed effectively, however, no theoretical or analytical framework has been provided. Nonetheless, the book has made a wonderful contribution to the understanding of the basic process and relationship between education and social change.

Margret Read. “Education and Social Change in Tropical Areas.”28

The book is a compilation of nine research papers and some lectures delivered by the author, Professor Read, over a period of ten years. The book primarily addresses people engaged in the development of education policy and planning in the tropical areas, however, there is nothing much to offer. The book has been written from an anthropological point of view which shows slow evolution of educational policy making in the tropical countries under colonial rule. Nevertheless, the book provides some helpful insight as to how in the tropical areas the educational policies were framed under colonial rule.

Geoffrey Elliot, Chahid Fourali and Sally Issler. “Education and Social Change: Connecting Local and Global Perspectives.”29

According to the editors of the book, “we have all been involved in educational initiatives with the aim of affecting change in society. In particular we have either been involved in work to enable disenfranchised learners to gain support from more effective programs of education or have been working on programs to support Maulanawidening Azad participation Library, and help create Aligarh the conditions Muslimfor developing educationUniversityinto a real tool for change.” The authors have tried to put forward an argument that education is the only possible solution to various social problems, since education

28 Margret Read, Education and Social Change in Tropical Areas, (London, Nelson, 1955). 29 Geoffrey Elliot, Chahid Fourali and Sally Issler, Education and Social Change: Connecting Local and Global Perspectives, (London, New York: Continuum International Publishing, 2010).

11 helps to reestablish, balance and adopt a global perspective along with catering to the local needs of the people. The book also touches theories at the level of cultural impact and policy implications.

Diane Perrons. “Globalization and Social change: People and Places in a Divided World.”30

In this book the author provides a refreshing insight on globalization and the widening social change as a result of it. A vivid description provided in the book regarding the underlying processes combined with original argument illustrated through various case studies places an emphasis on the socio-economic aspects of change through education. The inception of information and communication technology contributing to social change had been highlighted, but on the other hand it has been argued by the author that the social well-being is being hindered by neo- liberal model of development. No matter how much education remains within the confines of a given society’s traditions, it still plays an important role in increasing the effectiveness of citizens and a society’s socio-economic efficiency. Nevertheless, the improvement in waged work with higher productivity and learning of new skills, according to the author, is created through education and training. However, the author has placed more emphasis on economic stability as harbinger of social change than education.

James Wynbrandt. “A Brief History of Saudi Arabia, Second Edition.”31

According to the author, Saudi Arabia still faces the challenges of unemployment and does not provide an adequate educational system that would help to create necessary skillful labor to meet the demands of global market, although the Saudi society has been witnessing a swift transition after the late king Abdullah had assumed the office of full authority as a result of his limited educational reforms. However, the author does not refrain from highlighting certain key developments and achievements of the Maulanakingdom such asAzad the appointment Library, of the firstAligarh female Noor Muslim al Faiz as the University deputy minister for women education. The kingdom has the highest number of women in

30 Diane Perrons. Globalization and Social change: People and Places in a Divided World, (London, New York: Routledge, 2004). 31 James Wynbrandt, A Brief History of Saudi Arabia, Second Edition, (New York: Facts on File, 2010).

12 administrative positions-31 percent. The author also highlights the achievement of gender parity in education.

John L. Rury. “Education and Social Change: Themes in History of American Schooling.”32

According to the author, “Education and social change are facets of experience that some time affects our lives in dramatic fashion.” The book has produced an inset in which formal structure and practices of education have been linked with social change. The book, in this context, is a field of inquiry and explanation in the history of education. The author tries to highlight the might of penmanship and scholarship as a means to comprehend the present and contemplate the future of society. The author has given the impression that social change is a result of human action and the course of social change is difficult to alter but through education the alteration process becomes easy.

Madawi Al-Rasheeh, Robert Vitalis eds. “Counter-Narratives: History Contemporary Society, and politics in Saudi Arabia and Yemen.”33

Since the inception of the kingdom, the Saudi educational system has been more responsive to the indigenous demands of its society while keeping up with the standards of international and modern education. The kingdom, according to the author has used its resources for the welfare of its people to consolidate a unity between the monarchy and its subjects. This led the monarchy to glorify its pioneering role in the process of modernization. The editors’ mention about the opening up the country for tourists is the state’s attempt to accommodate the global capitalism but at the same time to provide an opportunity to the local populace to interact with the other cultures. The editors of the book however maintain that, “increased literacy, education, and exposure to sources of knowledge beyond state control, Saudi’s are no longer passive recipients of official narratives. They are more Maulanaexperienced Azad and articulate Library,in producing Aligarh their own version Muslim of ‘being Saudi.’” University

32 John Rury, Education and Social Change: Themes in History of American Schooling, (Mahawah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2002). 33 Madawi al-Rasheed, Robert Vitalis, Counter Narratives: History, Contemporary Society, and Politics in Saudi Arabia and Yemen, (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004).

13 Michael Fullan. “The New Meaning of Educational Change.”34

As the world entered into new millennium the interest of the governments in reforming their educational system reached new heights. According to the author, transition should begin at individualistic level in order to bring an overall social change in the society and this social change at individual level could be begun by education. The lessons learnt from reforming the educational system has resulted in educational change which has further been one of the most important factors of social change. According to the author, if one has to comprehend the bigger picture of social change, it should be viewed from the point of view of a teacher, student, parent or an administrator. The author stresses on long term incentives which could come through educational reforms in Saudi Arabia as it would generate more human capital. On the other hand, substantial oil revenues would come handy for the population to meet their immediate demands.

Valentine M. Moghadam. “Modernizing Women: Gender and Social Change in the Middle East, 2nd Edition.”35

According to the author, “The study of social change has tended to regard certain societal institutions and structures as central and then to examine how they change. Family structure, the organization of markets, the state, religious hierarchies, schools, the ways elites have exploited workers and peasants to extract surpluses from them, and the general set of values that governs society’s cultural outlook are part of the list of key institutions. Social change and societal development come about principally through technological advancements, class conflict, and political action. Change in women’s social positions has come about through a combination of long-term macro level processes—notably industrialization, urbanization, proletarianization, the demographic transition, globalization—and forms of collective action that include national liberation movements, revolutions, and social movements.” The author in this book has compared Middle East and North African women with the women of Maulanathe other third Azad world countries Library, with the objective Aligarh of showing Muslim their changing University and variable status. He has made a comparative study and ends up emphasizing the factors

34 Michael Fullan, The New Meaning of Educational Change, (London: Rutledge, 2001). 35 Valentine M. Moghadam, Modernizing Women: Gender and Social Change in the Middle East, (US: Lynne Rienner, 2003).

14 that explicate the difference in women’s status across the third world countries overtime.

Eleanor Abdella Doumato. “Women and Work in Saudi Arabia: How Flexible Are Islamic Margins?”36

According to the author, “Saudi Arabia’s education system is producing more employment-seeking graduates than the economy can absorb, while for women, cultural and legal constraints further hinder the growth of new employment options.” The author raises questions like can the kingdom respond to the desires of women “for more job options and still be credible guardians of society’s ‘Islamic margins?’” Doumato writes that women in particular are trying to find ways in which they could be of help to shape the future of their country positively and work productively. She argues that “conservative gender ideology promoted by the state and the state-funded Council of Senior ‘Ulama’ has broad public appeal, and…that gender is an indispensable tool for the state in dealing with political challenges, and a useful one for dealing with persistent economic problems.” The author concludes that separation in jobs where men and women work separately should end.

Madawi al-Rasheed. “A history of Saudi Arabia.”37

In this book the author has put forward a new interpretation of nation building in the kingdom of Saudi Arabia thus moving away from the dominant narrative where the focus had been on Ibn Saud’s genius for employing religion as a tool to unify the lands of what the kingdom is made up of today. The author discusses the success story of rulers, particularly their focus on education which ended up in a positive social change. Social change in Saudi Arabia has been slow and gradual and the author discusses at length Saudi’s investment in educational sector in particular during King Faisal’s reign.

Michael W. Kelly. “Saudi Arabia: Oil and Saudi Development.”38

Saudi Arabia has proved to be one of the most successful monarchies in the world. MaulanaAccording Azad to the author, Library, the government Aligarh has always Muslim faced problems University boldly with a

36 Eleanor Abdella Doumato, “Women and Work in Saudi Arabia: How Flexible Are Islamic Margins?” Middle East Journal, Vol. 53, No. 4 (Autumn, 1999), pp. 568-583, retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/4329391 37 Madawi al-Rasheed, A History of Saudi Arabia, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003). 38 Michael W. Kelly, “Saudi Arabia: Oil and Saudi Development,” Harvard International Review, Vol. 8, No. 4 (March 1986), pp. 38-40, retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/42763649

15 “certain degree of preparation.” For instance, the Saudi’s had developed non-oil industries during the growth period of 1973-1981 in the hope to assure long-term stability of their economy. According to the author, “in addition to improving the financial strength of the country, the Saudi economic plans were responsible for developing the nation’s infrastructure. For example, between 1975 and 1980, 2000 new schools were constructed, while many existing schools underwent extensive renovation.” The author has pointed out in the article that the members of the ruling family had realized that the future of the kingdom depends upon the performance of skilled work that could be developed through education which would result in the performance of economy.

Jessica Forsythe, “Middle East: Buffeted By The Winds Of Change.”39

According to the author, tensions in the Gulf region are simmering and the regimes are to be blamed for that. She quotes experts such as Kristián Coates Ulrichsen and Steffen Hertog who have argued “that this could lead to simmering political tensions boiling over in Saudi Arabia before the end of the next decade. This will undoubtedly have a spillover effect in the GCC countries.” According to the author, “Saudi Arabia will face the challenge of maintaining feverishly high public spending in order to continue to appease a growing youth with high expectations, high aspirations and no incentives to pursue either education or a job in the private sector. They are merely kicking the problem further down the road.” She finally concludes that the monarchy is only working for a short time survival of the monarchy.

F. Gregory Gause III. “Saudi Arabia over a Barrel.”40

“The Saudi ‘social contract’, established in the boom years of the 1970s, requires the government to provide jobs and services to its citizens,” according to the author. What really has been “fraying at the edges” has been the “social contract” as a result of intensive population growth and low oil revenues. According to the author, Saudi MaulanaArabia is not able Azad to “absorb Library, the ever-increasing Aligarh number of Muslimhigh school and Universitycollege graduates, unemployment is becoming a serious problem for younger Saudis. The Saudi private sector still prefers hiring foreign laborers, who accept lower wages than

39 Jessica Forsythe, “Middle East: Buffeted By The Winds Of Change,” The World Today, Vol. 67, No. 11 (November 2011), pp. 17-19, retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/41962596 40 F. Gregory Gause III, “Saudi Arabia over a Barrel,” Foreign Affairs, Vol. 79, No. 3 (May - Jun., 2000), pp. 80-94, retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/20049731

16 Saudi workers and are easier to control. The big public-works projects that once drove the Saudi construction industry have slowed. So when the government does get some extra money, numerous constituencies need servicing.” The author concludes that Saudi Arabia has been taking “baby steps” to over-come these issues which would not be of much help “to put the Saudi fiscal house in order.”

Michaela Prokop. “Saudi Arabia: The Politics of Education.”41

After the September 11, 2001, attacks the Saudi education system received wide spread condemnation for spreading anti-western sentiments and extremism as some Saudi nationals were involved in the terrorist attacks. According to the author, a number of questions have been raised “regarding the role of education within the Saudi political system [such as]: To what extent has the education system been shaped and used by religious, political and socioeconomic forces and interests? What are the domestic and global factors that are undermining the current system? What are the economic and social ‘side-effects’ of the heavy emphasis on religious teachings? What are the links-if any-between the education system and the message propagated inside the kingdom as well as abroad and Islamic extremism?” According to the author, these questions had proved to be starting point for discussions involving various stake holders “that will be important not only in respect of curriculum development but also for the emergence and involvement of a more active civil society.” The author concludes quoting the foreign minister, Prince Saud al-Faisal, who declared “We do not claim that we are living on an isolated island, as the whole world has become a small global village. However, our national educational curricula never urged extreme thinking.”

Mahmoud Abdullah Saleh. “Development of Higher Education in Saudi Arabia.”42

The article has sought to trace the development of higher education since the Maulanainception Azad of the kingdom Library, in 1932. The Aligarh author’s study Muslim is based on the Universitydiscussion that includes historical roots of education in Saudi Arabia is based on Islam, Islamic

41Michaela Prokop, “Saudi Arabia: The Politics of Education,” International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs 1944-), Vol. 79, No.1 (Jan., 2003), pp. 77-89, retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/3095542 42 Mahmoud Abdullah Saleh, “Development of Higher Education in Saudi Arabia,” Higher Education, Vol. 15, No. 1/2 (1986), pp. 17-23, retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/3446739

17 philosophy of education, the aims and objectives of higher education and modern universities. According to the author, the history of Saudi education stands unmatched in history and in the last few decades Saudi Arabia has made tremendous progress in education, probably unmatched during this period for any nation. According to the author its roots and the high esteem for education can be traced back to its Islamic heritage. The “rapid advancement in higher education can be substantiated by the phenomenal increase in student population, teaching staff, establishment of new universities, building of new campuses and the expansion of existing ones, and financial support made possible by the firm commitment of the leadership of the Kingdom. Education is playing a vital, valued and crucial role in the Kingdom’s total development.” He finally concludes with the assumption that “the continued commitment of the Kingdom to higher education [] will be noteworthy to see what advancements higher education will make in the next few decades.”

Rafeda Al-Hariri. “Islam’s Point of View on Women's Education in Saudi Arabia.”43

According to the author, “Islam encourages both men and women to obtain education and to work to have a good life. The Islamic attitude towards women working with men is, in fact, based on a positive commitment to a soundly based family and social pattern of life. Saudi Arabia takes account of the Islamic attitude towards women and social life, and applies these attitudes to its education.” She concludes that women education in Saudi as compared to first world countries, the girls education has made advances and is growing with each passing day.

Sultan Al-Hazmi. “EFL Teacher Preparation Programs in Saudi Arabia: Trends and Challenges.”44

According to the author, the teacher training program in Saudi Arabia is inadequate as teachers over the last few decades have mainly been graduates from colleges of Maulanaeducation. Faculties Azad of arts Library, affiliated with Saudi Aligarh universities Muslimoffering bachelor’s University and associate’s degrees in English language and literature are not doing enough to

43 Rafeda Al-Hariri, “Islam's Point of View on Women's Education in Saudi Arabia,” Comparative Education, Vol. 23, No. 1, Special Number (10): Sex Differences in Education (1987), pp. 51-57, retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/3099445 44 Sultan Al-Hazmi, “EFL Teacher Preparation Programs in Saudi Arabia: Trends and Challenges,” TESOL Quarterly, Vol. 37, No. 2 (Summer, 2003), pp. 341-344, retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/3588509

18 overcome that inadequacy. The author argues that no program initiated by the authorities is adequate enough to prepare EFL teachers in the Kingdom as the programs don’t offer recommendations for improving EFL teacher education. This calls “for a systematic approach to pre- and in-service education for EFL teachers.” Al- Hazmi concludes that Saudi Arabia requires urgent improvement in “its initial teacher education and its professional development programs for EFL teachers throughout their careers, and current weaknesses in pre- and in-service TEFL education programs should be dealt with. Ministry of education administrators need to support teachers in their efforts to improve their skills and performance so that they can better contribute to their country.”

Ibrahim A. Al-Shami. “The Need for Saudi Faculty and the Media for Instruction in Saudi Arabian Universities.”45

Saudi Arabia has, over the past few decades, witnessed rapid growth and expansion in higher education as new higher educational institutes had been opened in most parts of the country. In some cases, as in Dammam, Al-Hofouf, Makkah, Abha and Al- Gaseem, colleges were inaugurated at the same time. The first university in Saudi Arabia was established in Riyadh in 1957 and since then Saudi has witnessed rapid growth and expansion in higher education. The author has attempted to throw some light on the extent to which Saudi universities have attracted students’ enrollment by increasing the faculties within educational institutions. Another important issue which the author has discussed is the extent to which Arabic, the national language, is used as a medium of instruction in Saudi universities. The author suggests certain practical suggestions to help the higher educational system in Saudi Arabia to overcome some of the current problems such as in the universities sciences is taught in English, it might be advisable to begin English instruction in the elementary schools as well where the medium of language is Arabic. A thorough knowledge of English would help university students in the study of modern subjects according to the author. Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University

45 Ibrahim A. Al-Shami, “The Need for Saudi Faculty and the Media for Instruction in Saudi Arabian Universities,” Higher Education, Vol. 12, No. 3 (Jun., 1983), pp. 285-296, retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/3446500

19 Brian D. Denman and Kholoud T. Hilal. “From barriers to bridges: An investigation on Saudi student mobility (2006-2009).”46

Globalization is often thought to promote a single set of beliefs and customs wherein it rejects the need to protect regional cultures and traditions while propagating the idea of one world one society. According to the author, in the aftermath of 9/11, the rift between Western and Arab cultures deepened to such an extent that it gave rise to a patent need for cultural bridges to be mended and built again. The government of Saudi Arabia took the initiative and increased funding for higher education through grants and scholarships which enabled the Saudi students to pursue studies at overseas universities. On the other hand, number of non-Saudi students began enrolling at Saudi Arabian universities. According to the author, while the Saudi government is on a mission to improve the level of education for its own people, it is also being hoped that it may result in the improvement of international relations through the positive impact of sponsored students as who may act as goodwill ambassadors abroad. The notion of cooperation and acceptance, according to the author will definitely succeed by these measures. However, the author mentions that it has to be accepted that 9/11 has pitted Saudi Arabia and other Middle Eastern countries against the West. It therefore becomes more than necessary to entail new educational strategies which can provide some help to remove the barriers and enable to create bridges to fill the gaps.

George T. Trial and R. Bayly Winder. “Modern Education in Saudi Arabia.”47

According to the authors, education has developed in the Peninsula along two lines: traditional and formal. Formal education in Arabia has until recently been a confined and limited to a series of courses in religion and elementary arithmetic and language, open largely for male children only. The authors mention that in education, as in many other fields the influence of theologians cannot be underestimated and since they have chunk followers in Saudi Arabia makes them more powerful. These people Maulanaoccupy the place Azads of political Library, parties and socialAligarh groups and Muslimplay a greater University role in

46 Brian D. Denman, Kholoud T. Hilal, “From barriers to bridges: An investigation on Saudi student mobility (2006-2009),” International Review of Education / Internationale Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft / Revue Internationale de l'Education, Vol. 57, No. 3/4, Bordering, Re- Bordering and New Possibilities in Education and Society (2011), pp. 299-318, retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/41480118 47 George T. Trial, R. Bayly Winder, “Modern Education in Saudi Arabia,” History of Education Journal, Vol. 1, No. 3 (Spring, 1950), pp. 121-133, retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/3659167

20 formation public opinion and influencing the governments in the Western nations. Nevertheless, apart from this, the government education had introduced two new types of training, both administered by non-Saudis had become available in Saudi Arabia: vocational and military. According to the authors, “the vocational training is the result of Aramco’s desire for a larger number of trained Saudi nationals and attempts were made to offer education to the Saudis from outside haven’t achieved desired results thus far, however, “there is interest in such work on the part of at least one American educational organization, with much experience of education in Arab countries, and it is possible that an opportunity may present itself to this group in the future.”

Naomi Sakr. “Women and Media in Saudi Arabia: Rhetoric, Reductionism and Realities.”48

According to the author, certain contradictions are inherent in restricting the women in Saudi Arabia to create a space for renegotiations of women’s personal and political status in the kingdom. In this research article, several advances in women-media communication uncovers an irregular picture, whereby heightened visibility for women in the media was accompanied by rather little change in promotion of female media professionals to decision-making positions. The author concludes that modest innovations have taken place because of certain initiatives that are driven by the domestic and foreign policy interests of influential elements in the Saudi ruling establishment. Beside these was a parallel process of renegotiation for the status of all citizens, male and female, vis-à-vis government and the state.

SIHAM A. ALSUWAIGH. “Women in Transition. The Case of Saudi Arabia.”49

The author has attempted to elucidate the impact of socio-economic changes on the status of women in Arabia. The author has attempted to scrutinize the status of women in Saudi Arabia which is particularly “interesting in light of two factors: first, Maulanachanges Azad in Saudi Arabian Library,women’s Aligarh life styles are Muslim rarely describe dUniversityin relation to overall socio-economic changes, although these changes have been documented

48 Naomi Sakr, “Women and Media in Saudi Arabia: Rhetoric, Reductionism and Realities,” British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 35, No. 3, Gender and Diversity in the Middle East and North Africa (Dec., 2008), pp. 385-404, retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/20455617 49 SIHAM A. ALSUWAIGH, “Women in Transition: The Case of Saudi Arabia,” Journal of Comparative Family Studies, Vol. 20, No. 1 (SPRING 1989), pp. 67-78, retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/41601994

21 frequently in numerous books and article. She concludes that women’s life in Saudi Arabia has been influenced by socio-economic changes, particularly in the structure of their families, their marriages, and their educational opportunities. However, women are still locked into their traditional roles by the limitations of job opportunities on the one hand and considerations of traditional norms on the other. Thus, the pace of development in the status of women has been relatively slow compared to other changes in Saudi society.

Hilal Khashan. “A Study of Student Perceptions in a Saudi Arabian University.”50

According to the author, Saudi college education has a lot to address to numerous primary functional problems that are fundamental to its educational system. These include “students’ lack of adequate scholastic preparation to thrive in college, their unhealthy perception of faculty and administration, and their cheating and plagiarism. Other problems are the students’ deep-seated apprehension of examinations and their mechanistic method of absorbing academic knowledge, which inhibits the development of their analytical skills.” According to the author, in addition to this, the socialization process prevalent in Saudi Arabia intervenes negatively and robs students pursuing college education of its academic essence. On the whole, the author writes, “college students are mainly recruited from among the wealthy. Most students enter college without understanding their academic duties there. They also view college as a means for rapid prosperity.” The author concludes that if these functional problems are not properly and successfully remedied the colleges and universities in Saudi are not in a position to claim to have come at “‘par with the most distinguished universities of the world.’”

William A. Rugh. “Arab Education: Tradition, Growth and Reform.”51

In the recent past, Arab education has achieved substantial growth in quantitative Maulanaterms as well asAzad qualitative Library, terms as enrollments Aligarhat school, Muslim college and university University level show a substantial increase. According to the author this is verified by other indicators which show a dramatic expansion in both male and female education. Arab

50 Hilal Khashan, “A Study of Student Perceptions in a Saudi Arabian University,” Research in Higher Education, Vol. 21, No. 1 (1984), pp. 17-31, retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/40195599 51 William A. Rugh, “Arab Education: Tradition, Growth and Reform,” Middle East Journal, Vol. 56, No. 3 (Summer, 2002), pp. 396-414, retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/4329785

22 students have a choice to choose from different educational streams that are now available to them. This has resulted in a lively discussion about how to increase the quality of education further throughout the Arab world. This discussion emerged as business leaders in the Gulf countries began worry that university graduates are unprepared for the private sector, and that universities are engaged in irrelevant researches. According to the author, observers began to question the traditional system of rote learning and memorizing, and the absence of accreditation and objective evaluation, and considering reform measures. Despite the achieved substantial growth in the education sphere, questions were raised throughout the Arab world by thoughtful observers, especially in the private sector but also in government and academia, about the quality of education and the outputs of the system since employers began to complain incessantly about the job applicants that they have not learned skills that would come handy and are useful in the private sector. According to the author, they were compelled to hire foreign labor and appealed to the concerned authorities to initiate certain remedial training programs for the students. The lack of skillful labor has led to unemployment and graduated also are facing disappointment since they are not able to find jobs of their choice because they lack needed ability. This phenomenon has been becoming more and more apparent with each passing day as governments privatize enterprises and as globalization affects more businesses. According to the author, the transmission of knowledge has witnessed expansion, however, there are certain problems that still persist because of reliance on rote learning, and little production of new knowledge. Fahad Al Harbi. “The Development of Curriculum for Girls in Saudi Arabia.”52

The author has attempted to exemplify the expansion and progress of curriculum for girls in Saudi Arabia and how it received transformation overtime, however, not without being challenged by the conservatives present within the Saudi society. According to the author, numerous reasons were involved in the growth of girl’s education but myriad factors had been responsible for its hindrance as well. In the Maulanafirst place Azadthere was Library,opposition, the Aligarh second hindrance Muslim was that of Universitythe quality of education that was being provided to them, and the third and major obstacle in the progress of women education was negligence on part of the government. The author

52 Fahad AlHarbi, “The Development of Curriculum for Girls in Saudi Arabia,” Scientific Research (2014).

23 concludes that the government needs to take certain measures in order to overcome the problems.

Md. Mudassir Quamar. “Education as a Ladder for Saudi Women: An Overview.”53 In this research paper, the author writes that the quality of education and access to modern education available to Saudi women has improved dramatically over a period time and has resulted in an overall increase in the number of educated women within the country. This progress in women education, according to the author, has improved their socio-political and economic condition. However, a section within the Saudi society still is of the view that the rights Saudi women enjoy are insufficient and continually demands a further increase in the rights for women. The Kingdom has responded to these demands, but at the same time has also been compelled to back off from initiating some due to fear of backlash from conservative section present in the Saudi society. The concern of women’s rights in this regard has emerged as an important challenge to the stability of the Kingdom according to the author. The author concludes that Saudi Arabia is in dire need to come up with a nuanced response to the problem; or else it may result to be the precursor to an unmanageable disaster for the country.

Nagat El-Sanabary. “Female Education in Saudi Arabia and the Reproduction of Gender Division.”41 This author has attempted to explain the production and reproduction of divisions in gender and power relations through education in a traditional Islamic society Saudi Arabia. El-Sanabary writes that the country has drawn upon Islamic principles and utilized its oil wealth to expand and develop female education within the society’s traditional boundaries. Calling Saudi’s model of female education as unique among all Islamic countries, the author attempts to highlight its structure and strategies for the reproduction of gender divisions in the country through “(1) a dual system of male and female education; (2) a gender- specific educational policy that emphasizes women’s domestic function; (3) gender- Maulanasegregated schools Azad and colleges; Library, and (4) curriculumAligarh differentiation Muslim at the University various educational levels.” The author takes a tough stance by maintaining that Saudi education, a microcosm of Saudi Arabia society, has in actuality and intentionally set up these apparatuses and structures as a means of cultural conservation as well as a

53 Md. Muddassir Quamar, “Education as a Ladder for Saudi Women: An Overview, Journal of Arabian Studies,” vol.3, no.2, (2013), 265-277, DOI: 10.1080/21534764.2013.863680

24 means of social control. According to the author “the Saudi experience proves previous research findings that female educational expansion does indeed increase women’s social and occupational options, but does not necessarily alter gender and power relations” which should be put to end.

Nouf Alsuwaida. “Women’s Education in Saudi Arabia.”54 In this paper the author discusses the historical, political, ideological (value), and the policies of monarchy on women’s education in Saudi Arabia. The article attempts to explicate teaching and learning in Saudi and the growth of women’s higher education over time within the realm of Saudi cultural traditions and religious norms. The paper speaks at length about the “golden era” of women’s higher education and its progress which is compatible from a feminist theoretical framework put forward by the author in the research paper.

Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University

54Nouf Alsuwaida, “Women’s Education In Saudi Arabia,” Journal of International Education Research, vol.12, no.4, (2016),pp.111-118, retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1117657.pdf

25 Chapter - II

Education in the Gulf Countries: A History

Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Chapter-II Education in the Gulf Countries: A History

In the contemporary post-modern world, economic and military might has overshadowed the cultural heritage. The Arabian Gulf countries fall in this category which is in possession of vast oil reserves and strong national defense and among the Gulf countries, Saudi Arabia, which is “known for its oil reserves and its military might, it’s easy to forget that the country also has a very strong cultural fabric that binds its society. It has a rich history of literature, theatre and dance. . . Unfortunately, in our current times the chatter around Saudi Arabia remains restricted to its economy and the cultural aspects of its society...remain largely ignored.”1

Education and culture cannot be divorced from each other and “education as a part of culture has the twin functions of conservation and modification or renewal of culture. It is the culture in which education germinates and flourishes and exerts a nourishing influence . . . [Education] is conceived as a systematic effort to maintain a culture.”2 Prior to the discovery of oil the most prominent characteristic of this “conservation and modification or renewal of culture,” or in other words the educational structure in the Gulf countries, especially Saudi Arabia, was its uninterrupted historical connection with the educational system of the “Kuttub,” a dominant source of producing knowledge in the Arabian Gulf countries.

Before enrolling the child with Kuttub, his or her education began at home as soon as the child could speak and the father was bound with the duty of teaching it al- Kalimah or “the word La Ilah Illa Allah (no God but Allah)” and “when six years old child was held responsible for the ritual prayer. It was then that his formal education began.”3

Over a period of time, cities and townships were witnessing some twinges of transition, as far as the structure of education was concerned, for instance “in 1925, Maulanathe Directorate Azad of Education Library, was established Aligarh [in the Muslimmodern day Saudi University Arabia and]

1 Business Wire India, “The rich cultural heritage of Saudi Arabia,” The Hindu: Business Line, June 6, 2017, accessed January 4, 2018, retrieved from http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/business- wire/the-rich-cultural-heritage-of-saudi-arabia/article9721191.ece 2 Satish Kumar, “Culture and Education,” School of Open Learning: University of Delhi, (2018), accessed January 4, 2018, retrieved from https://sol.du.ac.in/mod/book/view.php?id=1449&chapterid=1335 3 Philip K. Hitti, History of the Arabs, (London: Macmillan and co. Ltd., 1949), p.408. 26 was followed a year later by the Basic Instructions that laid the foundation for a centralized national system of government.”4 However, a rapid transition began to be witnessed in this conservative educational system of the Kuttub after the discovery of oil.

1. Educational System: An Overview

Within the Arabian Gulf peninsula religion played a very important role in shaping the society and the Kuttub system in the Gulf Countries, during the course of history, had developed as a basic and religious institution of Islam and would embark on the teachings such as “Islam is a way of life. The basis of Islam is the Koran which to . . . Moslem is the word of God and final authority in many matters of daily activity. Second in importance to the Koran, as a guide for the believer, are the collections of sayings and actions of the Prophet Muhammad, each of which is called a hadith and each of which has its chain of authority going back to the Prophet.”5

Simple but vital in nature, the Kuttub served as an institution of Islamic education and worked by means of an independent and informal organizational structure. It’s “curriculum centered upon the Qu’ran as a reading text book. With reading went writing . . . [and] together with reading and penmanship, the students were taught Arabic grammar, narrations about the Prophets, particularly hadith related to Prophet Muhammad, and the elementary principles of arithmetic, rhetorics and elementary sciences. With the advancement of time, Philosophy, the Humanities, and Social Sciences were included in the curriculum.”6 The most striking feature of the Kuttub was its complete power over religion and academics, which rested in the hands of the teacher called as “Mullah;” demanding complete subordinacy of the students. The teacher was considered to be a role model and the learners, apart from studies, were expected to learn mannerism and the patterns of behavior from him.

Maulana4 Kingdom of Saudi Azad Arabia: Ministry Library, of Higher Education, Aligarh “Educational Muslim System in Saudi University Arabia,” Saudi Arabian Cultural Mission Washington, DC, (2006),p.1, accessed January 4, 2018, retrieved from http://www.sacm.org/Publications/58285_Edu_complete.pdf 5 George T. Trial, R. Bayly Winder, “Modern Education in Saudi Arabia,” History of Education Journal, vol. I, no. 3 (1950),p. 121, accessed February, 14, 2014, retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3659167 6 Zeenat Shaukat Ali, The Spirit of Education and Knowledge in Islam in Gert Ruppel, Peter Schreiner eds. Shared Learning in a Plural World: Ecumenical Approaches to Inter-Religious Education, (London: Litverlag Munster, 2003),p.51. 27 “Kataib” (plural of Kuttub) were spread across different regions in the Gulf and educated those who were interested in receiving an education. The Kuttub, as late as the twentieth century, was largely an individual enterprise and educated the children in a locality according to age old traditions until modern education was introduced in the region. This enterprise functioned either in the mosque, at the Mullah’s house or at his place of work as well as under the trees or in the tents on the outskirts of the towns.7

Largely religious oriented though, importance was given to learning mannerism and basic religious teaching. Development of writing skills and basic knowledge of mathematics was also provided by the Kuttubs that came handy in maintaining financial records and statements which held true for un-complex and un-compound financial transactions of the marketable and commercial towns and cities of Saudi Arabia. The aim of education in the Gulf region had its roots in “one of the most ancient concerns of mankind” i.e. “training and instruction of the young for the business of life.”8

Some traditional schools had begun to develop, but not without a complete breakaway from the customs, and provided post-primary level education to the students in subjects like history, geography, mathematics etc. however, these schools had also there base in theology and would be run by the Ulema in their houses or in the Masajid or mosques. “…the activities of education focused in the past in the mosques then the religious schools or the education’s houses that teach reading and the writing and the holy [Q]uran reading, and the education just before the start of the regular education in the kingdom.”9 Privately owned schools, such as al-Falah in Saudi Arabia, supported by individuals or Muslim communities by making voluntary contributions, were also functional and ran in several numbers.

7 John Andrews, David Shirreff, “Middle East Annual Review 1980,” (London: World of Information, 1979), p. 63. Maulana8 Robin JoanAzad Burns, “Education Library, and Social Aligarh Change: A Proactive Muslim or Reactive Role?” UniversityInternational Review of Education, vol. 48, no. 1/2, Special Retrospective Issue: Reflecting on Seven Decades in the Life of the Journal (2002), p.22, accessed January 2, 2014, retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3445325 9 Ministry of Education: Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, “The Achieved Progress in the Field of the Eradication of Illiteracy in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia from Germany 1997 AD to Brazil 2009AD,” Report published by the kingdom of Saudi Arabia (2008),p.7, accessed January 4, 2018, retrieved from http://uil.unesco.org/fileadmin/multimedia/uil/confintea/pdf/National_Reports/Arab%20States/SaudiAr abia.pdf 28 Students belonging to the elite classes were entitled for special education and taught by more learned Kuttubs. On the other hand, the teacher-taught affair was largely male dominated and girl’s education in the Gulf, and in particular Saudi Arabia, was socially unapproved with the only exception of being women belonging to the elite classes. Women belonging to the upper strata of the Arab society, “were welcome to all the religious instruction in the lower grades of which their minds were capable, but there was no special desire to guide them further along the . . . path of knowledge.”10 Kuttub held a central position in the traditional societies of the Gulf countries and the students after completing their education from this institution would enhance their religious stature and prestige in the society. Sociologically, the main function of education was to “enculturate . . . children . . . into full adulthood.”11

Nevertheless, with the dawn of the twentieth century, the conventional education system in the Gulf started to breakup. The disintegration process in Saudi Arabia unlike elsewhere in the Gulf witnessed a slow pace given the religious character of its society. Until the mid-twentieth century, “Sociologically, Saudi Arabia [was] still in an early stage of evolution . . . [where] [f]ormal education . . . [had] been until recently a narrow and limited series of courses in religion and elementary arithmetic and language.”12

10 Op. cit. 3 p.409. 11 Op. cit. 8. P. 22. 12 Op. cit. 5. P. 122. 13 Gawadat Bahgat, “Education in the Gulf Monarchies: Retrospect and Prospect,” International Review of Education, vol. 45, no. 2, (1999), p. 128, accessed June 10, 2013, retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3444942 29 Nevertheless, “Bahrain and Kuwait were the first Gulf Arab States to establish modern schools. In the former, Western missionaries opened private schools for both boys and girls in 1905, and in the latter, in 1912, merchants’ set-up a school called Al-Mubarakiya to teach clerical skills.”14 However, the establishment of modern schools had least effect on the on the age-old customs and social attitude. This became the prime reason why social norms and customs remained least affected. The other reason to this impediment was that no matter how humble family background an individual had or educated it was, one wasn’t able to acquire social status equivalent to that of a traditional elite. However, after the discovery of oil, the process of modernization of education was set in motion by initiating reforms.

This dramatic shift in the educational system of the Gulf States [was] different in many ways from the experience in other developing countries. After achieving political independence, most Third World states sought to develop their own human resources in order to be really independent from their former colonial masters. These countries, however, have suffered from a capital shortage. Simply stated, there are not enough financial resources to meet their ambitious plans. On the contrary, the six Gulf monarchies have enjoyed substantial surpluses of capital. Since the early 1950s, the Gulf regimes have accumulated huge wealth from oil revenues. After the boom in oil prices in the mid-1970s, the six Gulf monarchies had to deal with an unusual dilemma, what to do with the extremely vast revenues from oil export. It seems that they decided to invest in three interrelated major fields: the creation of socio- economic infrastructure and public bureaucracy, the development of the agricultural and industrial sectors, and the improvement of social services including health care and education system. Thus, the creation and expansion of the public system of education can be strongly attributed to the rise in oil revenues.15

During this period, the impact of education was telling as it led to a significant social change. Furthermore, the base for this transition was set in later part of the 1930’s when a social movement was launched by some notable people in Kuwait and elsewhere in the Gulf who demanded reformation in the educational structure and Maulanaadministrational Azad running. Library,16 Enormous Aligarh oil revenues Muslim turned the impossibilities University into potential for the governments to set in motion the long term plans of educational

14 Malcom C. Peck, Historical Dictionary of the Gulf Arab States, (Lanham, Maryland: Scare Crow Press, 2008), p. 85. 15 Op. Cit. 13. P. 128. 16 Mohammad al-Rumaihi, “The 1938 Reform in Kuwait, Bahrain and Dubai,” Journal of Gulf and Arabian Peninsula Studies, vol. 1, no. 4, (1975), p. 276. 30 developments at myriad levels. In Saudi Arabia, the first thoughtful step in the reformation of the educational system came in 1925, when the General Directorate of Education was established which was later replaced by the Ministry of Education. A:

Centralized educational policy was entrusted to the newly established Directorate of Education. The 1930s witnessed many changes in education: the first Religious Sciences School (1933); the issuance of rules for private schools (1934); and the first secondary school, Tahdeer Al-Baathat School, to prepare graduates for a university education (1935). In 1938, the General Directorate of Education was given full control over all education except for the military. Saudi Arabia’s first technical secondary school and school of higher learning, the College of Sharia (now, Umm Al Qura University), were founded in 1949. During the decade of the 1950s, three more colleges were granted charters, the Teachers’ College (1952), the College of Sharia in Riyadh (1953), and the College of Arabic Language in Riyadh (1954). In 1952, the United Nations reported that Saudi Arabia had 306 elementary schools, but illiteracy was between 92 and 95 percent. To combat such dire statistics, a Ministry of Education was established in 1953 . . . with the task of expanding and modernizing educational resources.17

During and before the rule of King Faisal, when he functioned as the crown prince, numerous schools were established under his policy of modernization of education in the kingdom under the broader Islamic frame work which earned him the name “founder of modern education” in Saudi Arabia. King Faisal “struck a skillful balance between modernization and the conservatism of a tribal and deeply religious society.”18 After assuming the office of full authority, he engaged in a rigorous state building effort by introducing an elaborate welfare system guaranteeing free education to all his subjects.19 During his decade long rule the “expenditure on education increased to an annual level of approximately 10 percent of the budget.”20 Five new universities namely; Islamic University of Imam Muhammad ibn Saud, Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University 17 Rebecca Marlow-Ferguson, “World Education Encyclopedia: A Survey of Educational Systems World Wide,” Farmington Hills: Gale Group, 2002), p. 1167. 18 “A biography of King Faisal: Unexpectedly modern,” The Economist, January 26, 2013, accessed August 19, 2015, retrieved from https://www.economist.com/news/books-and-arts/21570665-he- struck-skilful-balance-between-modernisation-and-conservatism-deeply 19 James Wynbrandit, A Brief History of Saudi Arabia, (New York: Facts on File Inc., 2010), p. 226. 20 Madawi Al-Rasheed, “A History of Saudi Arabia,” (United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 2002), p.121. 31 Riyadh (1953), University of Riyadh (1957), Islamic University, Medina (1961), University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran (1963), King Abdul Aziz Jeddah and Makkah (1967), were also established when he was the crown prince and later the king.21

Women education began to receive attention as the establishment of new educational system was underway. Some social and cultural constrictions still prevalent in the society were becoming an obstruction though, towards its functioning. Elsewhere in the Gulf, these constraints were not that telling in nature as compared to Saudi Arabia. The government’s plan to educate its female subjects had become a continuous target of conservatives, conventionalists and local population. Girls’ education was an “emotional” issue and such was the opposition to women education that when the first modern “girls’ school opened . . . King Faisal had to call out the National Guard”22 to disperse the agitating crowds protesting against such a move by the government.

Nevertheless, first non-government schools for girls, Darul Hanan and Nassif, in Saudi Arabia were opened in 1957 in Jeddah,23 however, without any controlling authority. Eventually,

The official recognition of women’s right to formal education was granted in 1959, when a royal speech was delivered stating that it had been decided, upon the wishes of the Ulama, to open government schools for girls under the control of a committee to be responsible to the Grand Mufti. A year later this committee was replaced by the General Presidency of the schools of girls . . . the expansion of female primary and secondary education ultimately led to the creation of college and university facilities for women.24

Thus, the new educational system that was brought into existence by the governments ended the age-old tradition of Kuttub educational system from the larger parts of Gulf societies. However, in Saudi Arabia the Kuttub functioned until 1980’s, where the Maulanaparents beforeAzad sending Library, their wards to Aligarhmodern schools, Muslim would employ Universitythe services of the Kuttub to teach their children religious education.

21 The World of Learning, 1980-1981, (London: Europa, 1980), p. 1123-1125. 22 Linda Blandford, “Oil Sheikhs,” (London: Widenfeld and Nicolson, 1976), p.106. 23 Shirley Kay, Social Change in Modern Saudi Arabia, in Tim Niblock eds, State, Society and Economy in Saudi Arabia, (Routledge, 2015), p. 177. Kindle Edition. 24 Ayman S. Al-Yassini, Saudi Arabia: The Kingdom of Islam, in Carlo Caldarola eds, Religions and Societies, Asia and the Middle East, (Berlin, New York, Amsterdam: Mouton, 1982), p.74. 32 2. In Pursuit of Modern Education

The Gulf Countries, in particular Saudi Arabia, had developed a resoluteness upon strengthening their educational system and stressed on the modernization of education by including modern science and technology in the curriculum. It had also been emphasized that it was State’s responsibility to provide education to all its citizens at all levels coinciding with the aim of bringing “up an Arab generation that is aware, enlightened, believing in God and faithful to the Arab homeland, trusting itself and its nation, conscious of its human and national message…”25 Nevertheless, unlike other Gulf States, Saudi Arabia selectively adopted the modern-western model of education following its religious ideological leanings. From a broader perspective, the Saudi education system had aimed to hold the fundamental religious values in its education and at the same time modernizing it.

However, this positioning ran contrary to the western model of education as it favoured the separation of sexes and emphasized separate education at all levels. Whereas, the aim of educating the males was to train them in all the fields, the education of females was brought in with a specific motive “related to the respected social status given to the women by Islam as a wife and as a mother who builds up youth. The Saudi woman [began] work[ing] as physician, a university professor, a teacher, a writer, and a critic, performing her social role in the suitable place” as prescribed by, and within the confines of the religion of Islam.26

Saudi Arabia, through government and private educational institutions expanded facilities especially in science and encouraged its citizens to pursue a career in this field of education. In the other Gulf countries, the monarchies had pursued a different approach and adopted a liberal outlook and orientation in their educational system. They promoted the fusion of secular and religious education. In Kuwait for instance, such an education came under the fundamental rights of an individual guaranteed by the State as a prerequisite for the advancement of society. The Article 13 of the MaulanaConstitution of Azad Kuwait mentions, Library, “Education Aligarh is a fundamental Muslim requisite University for the

25 Amos Jenkins Peaslee, International Governmental Organizations: Constitutional Documents, (Hague, Boston London: Martinus Nijhoff, 1979), p.25. 26 Data Center in Collaboration with the National Committee for Education, Culture and Science, “Development in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia 1408-1410 A.H/ 1988-1990 A.D., Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Education, Educational Development (Riyadh, 1990), p.10, accessed January 6, 2018, retrieved from http://www.ibe.unesco.org/National_Reports/SaudiArabia/nr_mf_su_1990_ea.pdf 33 progress of society, assured and promoted by the State,” whereas Article 14 states that, “The State shall promote science, letters, and the arts and encourage scientific research therein,” and Article 40 declares education as compulsory and free, and states “Education is a right for Kuwaitis, guaranteed by the State in accordance with law and within the limits of public policy and morals. Education in its preliminary stages is compulsory and free in accordance with the law. The law lays down the necessary plan to eliminate illiteracy.”27

Nevertheless, to develop a modernized educational system, the Gulf countries and Saudi Arabia were in need of a detailed and well planned strategy and its timely execution to have a positive and broader implication. The first step to this was the fulfillment of the objectives such as the “planning of education, compulsory primary education, diversified secondary and higher education, a better balance between the components of the educational system, programmes of adult literacy, promotion of education among women and provision for the handicapped.”28

Although, being oil economies but categorized among developing economies the major objectives of education in these states was “to train the leaders of development” which could lead to the utilization of the available resources efficiently. In this context, Saudi Arabia emphasized on four major objectives in their First and Second Development Plans: I) to achieve excellence in the field of education and training, II) to build an educational system more responsive to economic needs, III) to multiply the efficacy of educational administration and IV) to see stable quantitative growth of the educational system.29

Two more objectives were added in the third development plan which were “to provide equal access to at least basic education for all citizens” and equip them further “as future participants in the labour force by providing types of training which are responsive to the changing needs of the economy.”30 Nevertheless, the important among the objectives was the eradication of “illiteracy from the kingdom as quickly Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University

27 Kuwait – Constitution, accessed January 6, 2018, retrieved from http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/ku00000_.html 28 First Hand Report of the Third Regional Conference of Ministers of Education and Ministers Responsible for Economic Planning, Marrakash, United Nations (Paris, 1970), p.11. 29 Second Development Plan 1975-1980, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Riyadh, 1975. P.299. 30 Third Development Plan 1980-1985, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Riyadh, 1980. P.287. 34 as possible.”31 In the quest for the fulfillment of these objectives, Saudi Arabia spent $5 billion dollars on education alone in 1979.32

On the other hand, a new phenomenon was coming into existence in the Gulf countries representing the development of education in the post-oil era and marked by planned and organized efforts. Earlier, there was the lack of a collective effort on part of the governments and the society, and as a consequence the educational system remained under the monopoly of the Kuttub that was opposed to any new innovation. The new educational system opposed such domination completely and the development of education in the region, reflected in its new curriculum and in the management of its system, worked according to western models mostly but securing the traditional values. Unlike other Gulf States, the degree of adaptability to the modern educational system was less in Saudi Arabia given its religious character. The new structure assisted to allocate education in stages, and in a more balanced separation in various areas.

Nevertheless, modifications in curriculum had an impact on the course structure of primary, secondary and higher education. The conventional education based on religious learning courses was not stopped from being taught but underwent change. In late 1950’s UNESCO conducted a study of courses of primary schools in Saudi Arabia which revealed that out of 199 class hours 77 were devoted to religious subjects and 122 for non-religious subjects and training.33 Though secular subjects like sciences and social studies were taught alongside religious subjects, however, sacred texts like the Quran, Hadith and Fiqh were given much importance especially at the basic level. At the primary level, children had to undergo a heavy Islamic training without being introduced to any secular subject. Secular subjects were introduced later at the intermediate and secondary stages of which science dominated at the higher educational level. The introduction of modern education gave rise to the phenomenon of a new education in the Gulf region. The efforts of the governments led to the expansion of education at all levels, stages and fields. For instance: Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University General education (pre-tertiary) in the Sultanate of Oman has grown rapidly and is now available to all Omani nationals in the country. From a mere three primary

31 Saudi Arabia Monetary Agency: Annual Report 1981, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Riyadh, 1981. P. 85. 32 Middle East Review, (London: World of Information Publications, 1980), p. 63. 33 UNESCO, “Compulsory Education in Arab States,” United Nations, (Paris, 1956), p.51. 35 schools with 900 boys prior to 1970 to a post 1970 renaissance period of almost 700,000 students of both sexes and 1,020 schools, the general (pre-tertiary) education sector in the Sultanate of Oman has taken a proactive role in achieving (primary- preparatory-secondary) education for All. The role of education in the country’s socio- economic development has been among the many changes that have reshaped the Sultanate of Oman today. Following the accession of His Majesty Sultan Qaboos bin Said in 1970, general education has been available to all Omani nationals under a program of continuous and rapid expansion catering to all corners of the country. . . Sultanate of Oman has developed a relatively diverse system of public higher education [as well]. This diversity is made up of one public (Sultan Qaboos) university housing seven different colleges (namely College of Engineering, College of Science, College of Medicine, College of Agriculture, College of Education, College of Commerce & Economics and College of Art), a total of six Colleges of Education, five Technical Industrial Colleges, fourteen Health Institutes, one Sharia and Law college, one Institute of Islamic Studies, one Oman Academy of Tourism & Hospitality, One Royal Guard College, and one Institute of Bankers. . . In addition to the public higher education opportunities in the country, the government through the Ministry of Higher Education has a scholarship program that awards scholarships and grants for undergraduate and graduate studies. These academic awards are offered to outstanding students and are based primarily on academic achievement and merit.34

Furthermore, private schools, in the initial as well as in the later stages, contributed to the expansion of education in the region, however, its role was overshadowed by the contribution made by the public sector in spreading education. Nevertheless, education began to be pursued by both boys and girls in the rural as well as in the urban areas of the Gulf as the society began to open up. The number of school going youth grew at a greater pace not only in cities and towns but also in villages where the village dwellers had “access to schools in their own village[s] or a nearby village.”35 On the other hand, higher education in the Gulf was witnessing an immense transition and development, and in the subsequent years higher education became the basic center for social change. It was “due to the rapid expansion of the Maulanapublic sector Azad in the Library, 1970s and 80s withAligarh the influx ofMuslim oil wealth, the University vast majority

34 Salma M. Al-Lamki, “The Development of Private Higher Education in the Sultanate of Oman: Perception and Analysis,” International Journal of Private Education, (2006), p.56. 35 Motoko Katakura, Bedouin Villages: A Study of Saudi Arabian People in Transition, (Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1977), 168. 36 Saudi students [sought] public employment upon graduation.”36 Although, there were some problems faced by the public educational sector in the Gulf region and efforts by the respective governments were made to overcome those problems. To tackle such problems, elaborative programs for technical education were introduced. As Robert Looney has pointed out:

A number of companies in Saudi Arabia and the other Gulf States [] developed elaborate programs for technical education. The most notable and lavish is Aramco training program, designed to produce Saudi technicians. This program has been used as a model for similar programs in the region. The big push to localize the technical workforce came around 1980stemming from the enormous expansion of Aramco’s operations after the oil price rise []. At that time the annual training budget totaled $636 million. . . . Training of locals is part of most industrial joint venture schemes in the Gulf, either in-house or outside, often at overseas institutions.37

Nevertheless, Scholarships were also given to students to pursue studies oversees in Saudi Arabia and the other Gulf Countries. The rapid growth of education was sending illiteracy rates descending particularly after the post oil period. A study conducted by a Japanese sociologist in the village of Wadi Fatima in Saudi Arabia found that there was much seriousness among the villagers to educate their young and approximately 70 percent of children were enrolled in primary schools.38 The Saudi government made it obligatory to enroll children in schools between the age group of 6-15 and during the plan period of 1970-75, one out of every seven individuals in the country participated in the organized educational program.39

On the other hand, a major step was taken by the Gulf monarchies such as, Saudi, Oman, Qatar, UAE, Bahrain and Kuwait, who later in 1981 formed the Gulf Cooperation Council, to provide free education to their citizens, including higher education. For instance the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia bears “all costs of education at all stages and for all majors. Article No (233) of Educational Policy states that education is free of charge in all its types and stages. Moreover, the government gives Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University

36 Leigh Nolan, “Analysis Paper: Liberalizing Monarchies? How Gulf Monarchies Manage Education Reform,” Brookings Doha Center, (2012), p.12. 37 Robert E Looney, “Patterns of Human Resource Development in Saudi Arabia,” Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 27, no. 4 (1991), p. 675, accessed February 14, 2014, retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/4283469 38 Op. cit. 35. P. 173. 39 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Second Development Plan 1975-1980, (1975), p. 50. 37 incentive rewards for both boys and girls who go in for higher education.”40 Saudi Arabia had laid such foundations for the advancement of education as early as its inception in 1932, and five decades later, when the Kingdom had achieved enough in the educational sector, “in 1978, the Ministry of Higher Education issued a book detailing the educational policy of the Kingdom, enumerating its general principles,” and would continue until all the objectives are fulfilled, of which the most important are mentioned as below:

1. The objective of education in the Kingdom is to develop the correct understanding of Islam; the implantation and propagation of Islamic faith; bringing up children according to the values of Islam and Islamic tradition and its high ideals, and to equip them with knowledge and educational skills that are necessary for the building of the society both economically and socially. 2. Pursuit of knowledge is the divine duty of every Muslim. 3. Women have the right to receive education that is suitable to their natural endowments and which would prepare them for their role in life. 4. Religious studies are fundamental in all school years and stages from the primary stage to higher education. 5. Sciences and knowledge should be taught in an Islamic way, with regard to the treatment of their issues and matters, and the appraisal of their theories so that they evolve from Islam and are compatible with sound Islamic thought. 6. Arabic is the basic medium of instruction at all stages except when necessity demands otherwise. 7. Conscious and aware interaction with current international developments in various fields, in such a way that it is conducive to the achievement of welfare and prosperity of society and humanity.41

As for the other Gulf Countries:

Following Britain’s elegiac withdrawal from the Gulf in 1971, there were clearly fresh Maulanapriorities Azad for the Library, educational systems Aligarh in the newly independentMuslim Bahrain University and Qatar and in the newly created United Arab Emirates. First, given the ongoing reliance on foreign aid and its associated complications, a much larger homegrown cadre of

40 Salem Al-Khalidi, “Education Policies in the GCC States,” Gulf Research Center, (2007), p. 66 accessed June 24, 2016, retrieved from https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/97639/2007-01_Education_Policies_in_GCC_States_Digital_5830.pdf 41 Ibid. p. 11. 38 educated schoolteachers was required. Furthermore, on a more macro level, the citizens of these nascent ‘emirates’ needed to be rapidly trained to fill a wide range of public and private sector positions that were being created by the concurrent oil boom.42

After the Oil boom new windows of opportunities opened for the student enrollment in the Gulf Countries. In Saudi Arabia alone, from 1970-1980 there was an increase in the student enrollment which stood at 21.3 percent annually.43 According to the Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia in Washington D.C:

Saudi Arabia began focusing on higher education when the country entered a new era of rapid development in the early 1970s. In 1975, a separate Ministry of Higher Education was established. The Ministry launched a long-term plan to make sure that the Saudi educational system provided the highly skilled manpower the Kingdom needed to run its increasingly sophisticated economy. One of the plan’s first objectives was to establish new institutions of higher education throughout the country and expand existing ones. By 2014, there were 25 major public universities, a large number of vocational institutes, and a growing number of private colleges. . . Currently [in 2016], about 1 million students are enrolled at Saudi universities and colleges, compared to 7,000 in 1970 – a dramatic improvement. Of those, over half are female. Women attend all major universities, as well as numerous all-female colleges and private women’s universities. Saudi students also have the opportunity to pursue specialized graduate and postgraduate degrees abroad. Supported by government scholarships, thousands of Saudi students enroll in universities outside the Kingdom. The oldest university in the country is King Saud University in Riyadh. When it first opened in 1957, just nine instructors taught 21 students. Today, 65,000 students pursue degrees at the faculties of art, science, commerce, engineering, agriculture, medicine, dentistry, nursing, education, computer science and information science. The university offers doctorate programs in many fields and is particularly known for its engineering and medical schools. . . [Presently] [t]he

Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University

42 Christopher Davidson, “Higher Education in the Gulf: A Historical Background in Christopher Davidson, Peter Mackenzie Smith Higher Education in the Gulf States: Shaping Economies, Politics and Culture. eds.,” (London: Saqi Books, 2012). 43 Progress of Higher Education in The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia During Ten Years 1970-1980, Ministry of Higher Education, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, (1980). 39 largest university in the Kingdom is King Abdulaziz University in Jeddah, with over 70,000 students.44

There was also a rise in the number of Gulf nationals studying abroad. This remarkable trend in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia had already begun in 1928, when fourteen students were sent to Egypt on scholarship. As Saleh has pointed out:

In 1936, they sent a similar number and in 1943 a third group of fifteen students were sent to Egypt. In 1982 the Kingdom had 11,921 scholarship students studying abroad. The Arab countries had a total of 2,056 with the greatest concentration in Egypt with 1,390 students. Non-Arab countries had 9,965 with the greatest concentration 8,681 studying in the United States. . . In 1979-1980 about 20 percent of the students at the higher education level were studying abroad. . . Foreign students themselves [we]re seeking higher education in Saudi Arabia to partake of the wide offerings of the higher education there. In 1970 foreign students accounted for 18.6 percent of the total student enrollment, in 1975 the proportion of foreign students was 14.7 percent and in 1980 they were 23.9 percent of the total university enrollment.45

At the initiation of the second five year plan, the total spending on higher education stood at 1984 million Saudi Riyals, which increased to 5539 million Saudi Riyals in 1979-80, at the close of it.46 The budget was spent by Saudi Arabia on infrastructural developments and the up gradation of existing facilities which according to Saleh was a: “tremendous progress in education, probably unmatched during this period for any nation. Its roots and the high esteem for education can be traced back to its Islamic heritage. The rapid advancement in higher education can be substantiated by the phenomenal increase in student population, teaching staff, establishment of new universities, building of new campuses and the expansion of existing ones, and financial support made possible by the firm commitment of the leadership of the Kingdom. Education is playing a vital, valued and crucial role in the Kingdom’s total development.”47

Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University 44 Higher Education, Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia, Washington D.C, accessed June 24, 2016, retrieved from https://www.saudiembassy.net/about/country- information/education/higher_education.aspx 45 Mahmoud Abdullah Saleh, “Development of Higher Education in Saudi Arabia,” Higher Education, vol. 15, no. 1/2 (1986), p.22, accessed February 14, 2014, retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3446739 46 Op. cit. 43. 47 Op. cit. 45. P. 23. 40 The Gulf countries continued to invest substantially in the educational sector and in Saudi Arabia the expenditure as compared to the approximately 10 percent spending on education in 1982, the statics increased to 17.5 percent in 1992.48 Total expenditure on human resource development exceeded $13 billion annually which was reflected in educational enrollment. According to the Twenty Ninth Annual Report of the Saudi Monetary Agency published in 1990, the number of male and female students enrolled at various levels of education had gone up to three million at the beginning of the new decade. The report further mentioned that;

About 2.6 million male and female students were enrolled at the educational institutions supervised by the Ministry of Education, The General Presidency of Girls’ Education and the Ministry of Higher Education. Institution-wise breakdown of enrollments indicated that 2.4 million students (male and female) were studying at general education schools, 130,298 at higher education institute, 127,789 at private schools, 135,751 at adult education schools and 90,000 at schools run by other government agencies such as Ministry of Defence and Aviation, the National Guard and others. . . . The number of teaching staff was 152,673…denoting a rise of 3.1 percent. The number of students at the secondary level recorded highest growth rate (10.5 percent), followed by the intermediate level (9.5 percent) and the primary level (6 percent).49

The Arabian Gulf countries were now identifying the relationship between good education system and economic progress since there was sufficient research evidence that indicated to the fact that education, generally, is an essential ingredient for human development.50 Soon heavy educational reforms were in place and earnestness for such educational reforms in the Gulf Countries was “manifested in various initiatives aimed at improving the quality and quantity of education, especially with a rising population that represents a majority” in those States and “recent years [had] witnessed many Arab countries making efforts to develop and implement comprehensive education reform”51 The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia “sought to allocate

Maulana48 Mohammed Bosbait, Azad Rodney Wilson,Library, “Education, SchoolAligarh to Work Transitions Muslim and Unemployment University in Saudi Arabia,” Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 41, no. 4 (2005), p. 533, accessed February 14, 2014, retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/4284387 49 Twenty Ninth Annual Report 1410/1411 (1990), Saudi Arabian Monetary Agency, Research and Statics Department, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Riyadh, 1991), 118. 50 Robert J. Barro, xaiver Sala-i-Martin, Economic Growth, Second Edition, (Massachusetts: MIT Press, 2003). 51 Nabih Maroun, Hatem Samman, Chadi N. Moujaes, Rabih Abouchakra, “How to Succeed at Education Reform: 41 more funding for technical and vocational education, with an additional $1 billion to be spent…on technical colleges” as only “18 percent of those in higher education [had] [taken] science, math and engineering.52” As a result, the number of students and trainees pursuing technical education and vocational training “went up by 16.8 percent to 66.1 thousand” by the academic year of 2002 and:

The total number of both male and female students enrolled at the primary, intermediate and secondary levels of general education stood at 4.27 million . . . The number of male and female students enrolled at different levels of general education constituted 47.5 percent and 52.5 percent respectively of the total number of enrollment in general education. . . . The female students constituted 48.1 percent at the primary level, 45.6 at the intermediate level and 48.5 percent at the secondary level. The number of teachers (male and female) at the general education schools amounted to 361.5 thousand during the academic year [of] … (2002) increasing by 4.1 percent. . . . . Ministry of Education indicate that the number of special education schools and institutions up to the end of academic year…2002 stood at 399, of which 371 were for males and 28 for females.53

According to a UNESCO report, “in 1996/97, the average pupil teacher ratio was 14:1 (Schools for boys) and 12:1 (Schools for girls), and the average number of pupils per class was 20 (Schools for boys) and 21 (Schools for girls). In the same school year, the transition rate from grade 6 to the first form of intermediate education was 96.2% for boys and 99% for girls,” and the report also evaluated that in “1999/2000, there were 6148 schools for boys with 1,175556 pupils enrolled, and 6086 schools for girls with 1,084,293 pupils enrolled. There were 88,481 male teachers and 100,527 female teachers.”54

The Case for Saudi Arabia and the Broader GCC Region,” Booz & Company Inc., USA, (2008), p.1, accessed June 25, 2016, retrieved from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.585.515&rep=rep1&type=pdf Maulana52 Op. cit. 48.Azad P.534. Library, Aligarh Muslim University 53 Research and Statics Department: Saudi Arabian Monetary Agency, “Thirty Ninth Annual Report 1124H,” Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, (2003), p. 281-282, accessed June 25, 2016, retrieved from http://www.sama.gov.sa/en- US/EconomicReports/AnnualReport/Thirty%20Nineth%20Annual%20Report.pdf 54 UNESCO, “World Data on Education, VII Ed., United Nations, Paris, (2010/2011), accessed June 25, 2016, retrieved from http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/Publications/WDE/2010/pdf- versions/Saudi_Arabia.pdf 42 Nevertheless, Saudi Arabia had already earned the prestige to become “home to the first university in the Arabian Peninsula (King Saud University, 1957) (brackets in original),”55 whereas, another Gulf country, Kuwait defined its “aims and levels of higher education” in 1966 by establishing first University in the Sheikhdom.56 Similarly:

In 1973, Qatar’s first national College of Education was founded by decree of the Emir of Qatar, in his vision to place education as a priority in the country’s expansion. Among a small population, the College admitted a respectable 57 male and 93 female students in its first year. The country’s rapid development highlighted the need for the College’s expansion, to provide additional areas of specialization in line with the requirements of the population. Therefore, in 1977, Qatar University was founded with four new colleges; Education, Humanities & Social Sciences, Sharia, Law & Islamic Studies, and Science. From there, the institution rapidly expanded, with the founding of the College of Engineering in 1980 and College of Business in 1985. In addition, it originally supported several small independent research centers, and worked to establish a national community college; the College of Technology. . . [Presently] Qatar University comprises nine colleges: Arts and Sciences; Business and Economics; Education; Engineering; Health Sciences; Law; Medicine; Pharmacy; and Sharia and Islamic Studies. Over the years, the University has continually expanded its wide range of new programs—the largest selection in the country—while fastidiously seeking the highest international accreditations, and ensuring they are aligned with the growing needs of the labor market and the aspirations of the society it serves. It currently boasts a population of over 20000 students, and an alumni body of over 40,000.57

Likewise, the UAE University was established in 1976 and its “first class in the 1977/1978 academic session was a modest 502 students enrolled in the University’s 4 faculties”58 and four decades later in 2017, the University was ranked 5th in the Arab world and 390th internationally with “14000+” students on campus.59 In the same

Maulana55 Annalisa Pavan, Azad “Higher Education Library, in Saudi Arabia: Aligarh Rooted in Heritage Muslim and Values, Aspiring University to Progress,” International Research in Higher Education, vol. 1, no. 1, (2016), p. 91, accessed April 13, 2016, retrieved from http://www.sciedupress.com/journal/index.php/irhe/article/view/8680 56 Op. cit. 54. 57 Qatar University Web Page, accessed January 8, 2018, retrieved from http://www.qu.edu.qa/about/ 58 Embassy of the United Arab Emirates in Washington D.C, “UAE University in brief,” (2011), accessed April 12, 2016, retrieved from http://www.uaecd.org/uae-university 59 Cultural Division: United Arab Emirates University Home Page, January 7, 2018, accessed January 8, 2018, retrieved from https://www.uaeu.ac.ae/en/ 43 way, University of Bahrain in Bahrain and Sultan Qaboos University in Oman were established in 1986 respectively.

University education was given greater importance, since the Gulf Countries had been planning to introduce new sectors of economy which would demand “skilled jobs that could be undertaken by Gulf citizens, particularly in countries with larger populations, such as Saudi Arabia,” for more economic diversification,60 however,

While the six member states of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) have promoted economic diversification for many years, they have done relatively little to encourage it. Many possible measures have been ruled out because of the impact on existing social structures and religious life but most governments now recognize that more people need to obtain a university education if new sectors of the economy are to emerge and prosper. At the same time, greater control can be exerted over the education of their citizens if they attend institutions of higher education locally, rather than in the US, UK, Australia, or elsewhere in the world. The UAE is enjoying particular success in attracting new investment but Kuwait and Saudi Arabia are also keen to see new higher education institutions emerge to educate the workforce of the future.61

Nevertheless, throughout the 1980s in Saudi Arabia the student enrollment had risen significantly, however, funding was disproportionately disbursed and allocated among different educational programs.62 Besides, Ministries of Commerce and labor started to press for liberalization which led to the institutions focusing on the private sector in the late 1980s.63 Resultantly, “[b]y 2001, there were only 50,000 private sector jobs for every 100,000 university graduates,”64 as the economic sector wasn’t able to coup up with the growing demands of the pass outs that had pursued different programs of education; whereas, other Gulf Countries such as Qatar and UAE had already:

60 Neil Ford, “Education Reform in the Gulf States,” The Middle East Online: The Middle East MaulanaMagazine , Azad(2014), accesse Library,d May 11, 2016, retrieved Aligarh from http://www.themiddleeastmagazine.com/wp Muslim University- mideastmag-live/2014/07/education-reform-in-gulf-states/ 61 Ibid. 62 Nasser Ibrahim Rashid, “King Fahd and Saudi Arabia's Great Evolution,” (Joplin, MO: International Institute of Technology, 1987), p.123. 63 Steffen Hertog, Segmented Clientelism: the political economy of Saudi economic reform efforts. In: Aarts, Paul and Nonneman, Gerd, (eds.) Saudi Arabia in the Balance Political Economy, Society, Foreign Affairs. (NYU Press, New York, 2006), p. 139. 64 Op. Cit. 36. P. 14. 44 Implemented a variety of education reform initiatives…to address the severe disconnect between their educational systems and increasingly globalized labor markets. Qatar has pursued a dramatic transformation of its entire education system from K-12 through higher education since 2001. As a federated state the UAE has a diversity of models at work, from free zones in Dubai to Abu Dhabi’s more statist approach with selective private partnerships.65

3. Educational Change They accused us of being reactionaries. But what do they mean by this word? If protecting our freedom and independence, spreading education and enlightenment, providing health services and developing this country are reactionary measures, then we are proud of being reactionaries. King Faisal bin Abdul Aziz, 1963.66

It is a known fact that education is “characterized as an essential partner in securing long-term economic development,”67 diversification of economy, creation of jobs and overall development. Though steps in this regard, by the heads of the Gulf countries, were taken, however, it wasn’t before the oil boom that the educational sector was given much priority. It was due to the inflow of revenue which tripled and quadrupled in the following years and the chunk of which was invested in the educational sector. In Saudi Arabia, the government provided free education to its citizens at primary secondary and tertiary levels, while devoting “considerable resources to education, including higher education [which] represents more than 25 per cent of the Saudi annual national budget.”68 In Saudi Arabia, “the Ministry of Higher Education supervises all aspects of higher education learning administered by agencies such as the General Organisation of Technical Education and Vocational Training which undertakes sub-professional, skills, and trade training. All Saudi universities are fully funded by the government so there are no tuition fees; further, students at the higher education level receive a monthly remuneration ranging from SR 700 to SR 1000.”69

65 Ibid. p.21. Maulana66 Gerald De Gaury, Azad “Faisal: King Library, of Saudi Arabia,” (Louisville:Aligarh Fons Vitae, Muslim 2007), p. 156. University 67 Don Betz, “International Education and Strategic Partnerships- a Key to Success in Abdulla Y.Al- Hawaj, Wajeeh Elali, E.H. Twizzel eds., Higher Education in the Twenty-First Century: Issues and Challenges,” (Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2008), p. 5. 68 Aidd Mohammed Almalki, “Blended Learning in Higher Education in Saudi Arabia: A Study of Umm Al-Qura University, Ph.D. Dist.,” (College of Design and Social Context: RMIT University, 2011), p. 23, accessed June 29, 2016, retrieved from https://researchbank.rmit.edu.au/view/rmit:14613/Almalki.pdf 69 Ibid. 45 A tremendous effort was made by the Gulf monarchies to enhance their educational systems by introducing new educational reforms such as research and development initiatives and building numerous schools and other universities, both public and private. In UAE for instance; “all federal institutions of higher education are free for UAE nationals. They consist of the Higher Colleges of Technology (HCT), UAE University, and Sheikh Zayed University. Each federal institution is open to both genders and segregated at the undergraduate level.”70 Furthermore, in Higher Colleges of Technology (HCT) the largest higher educational institution in the UAE has an “enrollment of 16,000 students. Founded in 1988 with four campuses, HCT now includes 16 men’s and women’s colleges in Abu Dhabi, Al Ain, Madinat Zayed, Dubai, Ra’s al-Khaimah, Sharjah and Fujairah. The colleges offer more than 80 technical and professional degrees and certifications. More than 10,000 of the current students are female.”71 Following the UAE model, Saudi Arabia also made efforts to advance its educational sector and:

A number of education projects coincide with the development of the six economic cities that are being built across the country. The private sector has become intensely involved in the development of knowledge-based industries in the Kingdom through participation in several initiatives, such as King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), the education section of King Abdullah Economic City (KAEC), and institutions in Prince Abdul Aziz bin Musaed Economic City (PABMEC) and Knowledge Economic City (KEC).72

Policy makers in the GCC countries “developed extensive programs to send students abroad to receive…education at…prestigious institutions. These include various state-sponsored scholarship programs, such as those in…Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE.”73 Saudi Universities began collaborating with the institutions of the developed countries, such as the US, and focused on “developing undergraduate programs in disciplines such as health care, information technology, and engineering; exchanging

Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University 70 Op. Cit. 36. P. 28. 71 Education in UAE, Embassy of the United Arab Emirates, Washington D.C, (2015), accessed June 12, 2016, retrieved from http://www.uae-embassy.org/about-uae/education-uae 72 “The Education Sector in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia,” US-Saudi Arabian Business Council: Riyadh, (2009), p.1, accessed June 6, 2016, retrieved from https://www.us- sabc.org/files/public/Education_Brochure.pdf 73 Natalie Koch, “The shifting geopolitics of higher education: Inter/nationalizing elite universities in Kazakhstan, Saudi Arabia, and beyond,” Geo-forum Elsevier, vol. 56 (2014), p. 46. 46 expertise and information; as well as conducting research and facilitating scholarships so students are able to complete post-graduate studies abroad.”74

The Ministry of Higher Education in a report mentioned that “the number of Saudi students pursuing their education abroad at their own expense is only 11,606 individuals. The overwhelming majority of Saudi students studying abroad are sponsored by the Saudi government as part of the Scholarship Program of the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques. Among these there are 55,797 students and 8,518 employees, in addition to a total of 5,008 individuals studying language.”75 According to the report:

The Kingdom has accomplished unprecedented progress in a number of indicators, in comparison to the groups of countries, throughout the last two decades [1990-2009]. . . In analyzing the trends of student enrollment growth in institutions of Higher Education in the Kingdom, an increase in male and female student admission rate has been noticed. The increase in the total number of freshmen was at the rate of 479% throughout the last two decades. It is also worth noting that the rate of increase in the number of females surpasses that of males. It is worth noting that the student to faculty ratio between 1990 and 1995 was similar to international rates (13), but became (19) between 2005 and 2009. . . The number of universities more than quadrupled throughout the period of 1990-2009. Indeed, there were seven universities in 1990; currently, there are thirty-two, eight of which are privately owned . . . Analytical comparison of the Kingdom to the groups of countries chosen by UNESCO has revealed… that the Kingdom has surpassed the global mean regarding Higher Education enrollment for age group of 18 – 24; the Kingdom’s achievement of the first rank with respect to the gender equality index (the ratio of female students to male students) compared with the average in the groups of countries, whereby this ratio has reached 1.44 (in favor of females), thus surpassing the global rate (1.083) and the rate of western Europe and the United States (1.332); the Kingdom’s surpassing the global rate with regard to the gender equality index in the specializations of education (0.77 as against 0.74) and natural sciences (0.58 as 76 Maulanaagainst 0.43). Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University

74 Op. Cit. 72. 75 “Higher Education in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: Indicators and International Comparisons,” Ministry of Higher Education: Deputyship for Planning and Information, (Riyadh, 2010), p. 85. 76 Ibid. p. 3-4. 47 However, it was also found that the Kingdom had “performed below the global rate concerning the gender equality index in the specializations of the humanities (0.43 as against 0.65), social science, economics, and law (0.52 as against 0.55), engineering (0.01 as against 0.23), agriculture (0.33 as against 0.43), and medical sciences (0.46 as against 0.74).”77

In the Arabian Peninsula, there were growing discussions regarding the renovation of educational sector through reforms which had gripped the establishments for a long time. These discussions were generated from the demands for education at all levels, primary, secondary and higher, and more investments in the educational sector to produce more valuable workforce and rise-up to the challenges of globalization. Steps in that direction were taken and “a rapid growth of access to educational institutions, and significant growth in literacy, for females as well as males; governmental control and financing of most education, with a new trend to some privatization; the emergence of some Western-style educational institutions, and continuation of some religious-based ones” were witnessed and “Arab education” began to be “characterized, first of all, by a dramatic increase in access to education” as “the numbers of schools, teachers and students” started to grow “very rapidly.”78

In continuation with the dramatic increase in the access to education Saudi Arabia, in 2013, “achieved a remarkable literacy rate of 96 per cent” in which “about 99 per cent of children, including girls,” were “going to schools, with one or two new schools opening daily in the country.”79 On the other hand, religious institutions were also playing an important part in the advancement of education in the Kingdom and “a recent World Bank report suggested that the relatively high adult literacy rate of Saudi Arabia is derived from the successful use of religious organizations, particularly local mosques and local religious institutions such as Quranic schools.”80

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia had brought the illiteracy rates down “5,6%” by 2015, which clearly suggested that the “expansion of education reflect[d] the efforts of the Maulanacountry’s Azad leadership Library, to erase illiteracy Aligarh since the 1970s, Muslim when the University first education

77 Ibid. 78 William A. Rugh, “Arab Education: Tradition, Growth and Reform,” Middle East Journal, vol.56 no.3, (2002), p. 397, accessed February 17, 2014, retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/4329785 79 “Saudi Arabia's literacy rate reaches 96 per cent,” The Economic Times, September 12, 2013, accessed June 29, 2016, retrieved from https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/saudi-arabias-literacy- rate-reaches-96-per-cent/articleshow/22510529.cms 80 Ibid. 48 system for adults was established and authorities began to stress the need to raise literate generations. With an increased education budget in recent years, the current cost per student includes educators’ wages, materials such as pens and pencils, books and other required stationery tools, in addition to transportation, desks and other necessities during the education process.”81

Illiteracy rates in the Gulf countries were dropping heavily after certain rigorous educational reforms being implemented. For instance, “The illiteracy rate in the UAE has dropped to less than 1 per cent… The study was carried out by the Ministry of Education and other relevant bodies… The report coincides with UNESCO praising the UAE’s efforts to achieve the six “Education for All” objectives that were approved at the Dakar Conference in 2000. . . They include the expansion and improvement of education since early childhood, providing all children access to quality primary education, ensuring the provision of education requirements for children and adults through proper learning channels, acquiring necessary life skills, reducing illiteracy among adults and achieving equal basic education opportunities and continued education for adults.”82

4. Towards a Knowledge Based Society

Knowledge-based society is a strategic term which – like ‘postmodern society’, ‘postindustrial society’, ‘experience society’, ‘consumer society’, ‘risk society’, ‘media society’ or ‘information society’ and similar terms – aims to divert attention to a certain aspect. Aspects that are particularly highlighted by the term ‘knowledge- based society’ are knowledge and education.83

“It is said that knowledge, besides capital, will become an increasingly significant production factor of the modern society”84 Ever since the emergence of independent Gulf countries, the governments showed a keen interest in the development of their respective educational sectors. Devotion towards development and nurturing of

81 “Saudi Arabia: Illiteracy rate drops to 5.6%,” Arab News, February 12, 2015, accessed January 12, Maulana2017, retrieved from Azadhttp://www.arabnews.com/saudi Library, -arabia/news/703101Aligarh Muslim University 82 The National Staff, “UAE illiteracy rate drops to below 1 per cent,” The National, January 11, 2014, accessed May 29, 2016, retrieved from https://www.thenational.ae/uae/education/uae-illiteracy-rate- drops-to-below-1-per-cent-1.321126 83 Andreas Poltermann, “Education for a Knowledge-Based Society? A Concept Must be Rethought,” Heinrich Böll Stiftung: Serbia, Montenegro, Kosovo, April 17, 2014, accessed June 29, 2016, retrieved from https://rs.boell.org/en/2014/04/17/education-knowledge-based-society-concept-must-be-rethought 84 Ibid. 49 knowledge based society led to heavy investments in the educational zones. This put the Gulf countries in a distinctive and commanding position in the worldwide scenario of outstanding education. As is often assumed that investment in education is the investment in the future, new universities and colleges came into existence across the Gulf Countries.

Like every welfare country aiming at the wellbeing of its people, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, since its inception on 23 September, 1932, had been in a quest to make the country a knowledge based society. It is the world’s biggest oil producer “with 79 percent of the Saudi population under the age of 40, and 36 percent of the population younger than 15 years of age, the growth potential in Saudi Arabia is far too great to ignore. Currently, 1.15 million students are enrolled in higher education, with 5% in private institutions. Females make up 60 percent of the student population.”85 Also the number of public universities saw a significant rise from 3 in 1970 to 24 at the end of the first decade of new millennium, with a maximum growth rate of 212.5% from 1999 to 2009 which include “the Saudi Electronic University, SEU, an online university established by royal decree on 8 October 2011 and 9 private universities in the Kingdom, distributed throughout all 77 towns and governorates”86

To fulfill the objective of a knowledge based society, a highly trained faculty was recruited. It was estimated that nearly 80 percent of the faculty members were educated abroad in western countries, mainly US and England.87 In 2013, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia “approved 11 new research centers at Saudi universities” to “boost the Kingdom’s scientific and technological advancement.”88 The same year Saudi Arabia “passed a $219 billion budget for 2013, the largest budget in the Kingdom’s history” to be spent on education.89 The “government’s lofty funding of higher education and other training sectors illustrates the leadership’s awareness of how important those sectors are to the country’s progress. The budget’s 25 percent

85 “Enormous Saudi scholarship Programme extended to 2020,” International College of Economics and Finance, February 27, 2012, accessed May 29, 2016, retrieved from Maulanahttp://monitor.icef.com/2012/0 Azad Library,2/enormous-saudi Aligarh-scholarship-programme Muslim-in-the-spotlight/ University 86 Op. cit. 55. P.26. 87 Wagdy Sawahel, “Saudi Arabia: Rapid progress in developing higher education,” University World News, May 4, 2013, accessed July 11, 2015, retrieved from http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20130503124539242 88 “11 centers to give research impetus,” Arab News, August 2, 2013, accessed March 15, 2016, retrieved from http://www.arabnews.com/news/459963 89 “Rector Al-Omar lauds Kingdom’s historic KSU budgets,” King Saud University Web Page, January 5, 2013, accessed September 13, 2015, retrieved from https://news.ksu.edu.sa/en/node/102838 50 increase (to $54.75 billion) for education is 4 percent higher than last year, and in addition to strengthening the Kingdom’s educational foundation, the Rector believes this will offer other benefits. Additionally, the orientation to support education is a very good antidote to unemployment.”90 Students were also encouraged to study abroad, and enhance their skills further, by introducing certain scholarship schemes.

A central pillar of Saudi Arabia’s drive to become a knowledge-based economy over the last 10 years has been the King Abdullah Scholarship Programme (KASP). In the budget for 2015, the Ministry of Finance announced that SR22.5bn ($6bn) had been allocated for the year to fund 207,000 Saudi citizens living abroad, including the scholars and their dependents and guardians. The sum represented 2.5% of the entire national budget and more than 10% of the allocation for education. It did not include scholarships given to employees of government institutions whose education is paid for by other departments. The number of students benefitting from international scholarships has grown significantly since KASP was created in 2005. . . Each year Saudi Arabian students studying in the US are targeted at a jobs fair organised by the Saudi Arabian Cultural Mission, based just outside Washington DC. In May 2015, 130 companies had stands at the event and 14,000 graduates were expected to attend. Organisers said 4000 job vacancies had been on offer at the 2014 event. Saudi government organisations such as the Institute of Public Administration also offer support to KASP scholars. 91

KASP was a response “to concerns for the sustainable development of human resources in Saudi Arabia” and in 2005, “by launching the King Abdullah Scholarship Program…supported by the Saudi Government and implemented by the Ministry of Education (MOE),” it “would become an important source of support for the Kingdom’s public and private sectors by developing, qualifying, and preparing human resources. The program would achieve its objectives by sponsoring academically distinguished Saudi citizens to study in the world's best universities, in degree specializations that were selected in accordance with the needs of the Saudi

Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University

90 Ibid. 91 “Saudi Arabia's King Abdullah Scholarship Programme funds thousands of students to complete their studies abroad,” Oxford Business Group, (2018), accessed January 9, 2018, retrieved from https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com/analysis/wider-horizons-king-abdullah-scholarship-programme- funds-thousands-students-complete-their-studies 51 labour market. Upon completion, graduates would be expected to return to the Kingdom and contribute to the country's development.”92

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was enhancing its role further “in building knowledge society that is represented in planning to increase the participation level of all higher education institution in moving to knowledge economy.”93 The Kingdom’s Ninth Five Year Development Plan (2010-2014) pledged that 50.6 percent of the budget would “go to human resource development including education and training. This was an important step to further realize the Kingdom’s goal of creating a knowledge- based society.”94 The Kingdom, additionally, endeavored “to be a world leader, compete at the international level, and construct a knowledge society and knowledge economy.”95

Research is an important part of knowledge based societies and knowledge based economies. These societies are the ones equipped with inventions, discovery and scientific knowledge. Research also contributes in the elevation of human suffering. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, like other Gulf Countries, had made it a social and political responsibility to encourage university teachers and students to pursue research on social issues and publish their original findings. “One of the motives for doing research in Saudi universities are the writing of theses and dissertations; faculty member research for promotion purposes; funded research from the universities or outside bodies, and research for the sake of technology transfer and building knowledge society.”96

Like the other Gulf countries, Saudi Arabia had spread:

The planning culture and strength the belief of the importance of it as well as the need for develop learning; education; research; and society with the latest trends. It also works to enhance the participation of all administrative levels in all higher education institutions and other related parties in order to support the development programs and pave the way for implementation as well as eliminate change

Maulana92 “KASP AzadScholarship Program,”Library,Ministry ofAligarh Education: Kingdom Muslim of Saudi Arabia, University(2016), accessed January 9, 2018, retrieved from https://www.saudibureau.org/en/inside.php?ID=16 93 “The Current Status of Higher Education in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia,” Ministry of Higher Education: Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, (2013), p. 62. 94 Annemarie Profanter, “Achievements and Challenges in the Educational Realm in Saudi Arabia,” European Scientific Journal, vol. 1, Special Edition, (2014), p. 210, accessed August 13, 2017, retrieved from file:///C:/Users/qqqq/Downloads/4092-11924-1-PB.pdf 95 Ibid. 96 Op. Cit. 93 p. 84. 52 resistance, which is one of the main obstacles in implementation strategic plans. Strategic planning depends on data and accurate statistics and celebrates their roles in decision making support system and in predicting future challenges, in addition to suggesting practical solutions to decision makers. The Ministry’s bodies also have a pivotal role in enhancing the Ministry’s role in building knowledge society that is represented in planning to increase the participation level of all higher education institution in moving to knowledge economy.97

Nevertheless, in the words of Madawi Al-Rasheed and Robert Vitalis: “Saudi Arabia’s attempt to control the symbolic representations of the nation, its past, and heritage is bound to generate counter-narratives, challenging voices, and dissent. Thanks to increased literacy, education, and exposure to sources of knowledge beyond state control, Saudis are no longer passive recipients of official narratives. They are more experienced and articulate in producing their own versions of “being Saudi.”98

5. Summary The educational structure prior to the finding of oil in the Gulf countries, especially Saudi Arabia, was its constant historical connection with the educational system of the “Kuttub,” a central source of producing knowledge in the Arabian Gulf countries. Simple but important in nature, the Kuttub functioned as a traditional source of Islamic education and worked by means of an independent and informal organizational structure. However, the conventional education system in the Gulf started to breakup as the world entered into the 20th century.

The disintegration process in Saudi Arabia unlike elsewhere in the Gulf witnessed a slow pace given the religious character of its society. In 1925, the Directorate of Education was established in the modern day Saudi Arabia and in 1926 the foundation for a centralized national system of government was laid down. Under the establishment of new education system, women education was also initiated. MaulanaHowever, there Azad were social Library, and cultural Aligarh constrictions thatMuslim were becoming University an obstruction towards its functioning. Elsewhere in the Gulf though, these constraints

97 Ibid, p. 62. 98 Madawi Al-Rasheed, Robert Vitalis, Introduction to Counter-Narratives: History, Contemporary Society, and Politics in Saudi Arabia and Yemen by Madawi Al-Rasheed, Robert Vitalis eds., (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), p.8. 53 were not that telling in nature as compared to Saudi Arabia. The government’s plan to educate its female subjects had become a continuous target of conservatives, conventionalists and local population. A new phenomenon was coming into existence in the Gulf countries representing the development of education in the post-oil era and marked by planned and organized efforts.

Earlier, there was the lack of a collective effort on part of the governments and society and as a consequence the educational system remained under the monopoly of the Kuttub that was opposed to any new innovation. The new educational system opposed such domination completely and the development of education in the region, reflected in its new curriculum and in the management of its system, worked according to western models mostly but securing the traditional values. Unlike other Gulf States, the degree of adaptability to the modern educational system was less in Saudi Arabia given its religious character.

The new structure assisted to allocate education in stages and a balanced separation in various areas. Nevertheless, modifications in curriculum had an impact on the course structure of primary, secondary and higher education. The conventional education based on religious learning courses was not stopped from being taught but underwent change. Later, Saudi became the first country to have a University in the region and presently, in the new millennium, it is building a knowledge society that is represented in its planning to increase the participation level of all higher education institution in moving to a knowledge based economy.

Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University

54 Chapter - III

Education and Socio-Economic Development

Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Chapter-III

Education and Socio-Economic Development

Academics around the world are yet to arrive at a common consensus regarding the “meaning and measurement of socio-economic development and what actually constitutes ‘true development.’”1 While there is difference of opinions, however, a common consensus among the intelligentsia is on the fact that, “Socio-Economic development involves production, accumulation, and distribution processes… Sociological studies have emphasised the traditional-to-modern transition as part of the larger process of social change.”2

Though, “several studies have been made of the relationship between education and socio-economic development, [however,] most of these studies take into consideration only the quantitative aspects of education. So far, few attempts have been made to analyze the relationship between the quality of education and level of socio-economic development.”3 On the other hand, “Economists use education to explain growth unexplained by capital, and argue that it is a fundamental determinant of technological change. Sociologists have tended to endorse this view arguing by either invoking human capital theory, technological growth, or arguing from a modernization perspective that education increases entrepreneurialism and Western pro-capitalist values.”4

Nevertheless, in common parlance, socio-economic development refers “to the ability to produce an adequate and growing supply of goods and services productively and efficiently, to accumulate capital and distribute the fruits of production in a relatively equitable manner. The gap between rich and poor, developed and under developed, or

Maulana1 David Jaffee, AzadLevels of Library, Socio-economic Development Aligarh Theory, 2Muslimnd Edition, (Praeger: University Westport, 1998), p.3. 2 Ibid. 3 Héctor Correa, “Quality of Education and Socio-Economic Development,” Comparative Education Review, Vol. 8, No. 1 (1964), p. 11, accessed august 24, 2014, retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1186467 4 JULIA GARCIA, DEVITA GUNAWAN, VENNESSA JREIJ, THE INFLUENCE OF EDUCATION ON ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT, An Undergraduate Research Scholars Thesis, (Texas: A&M University, 2013), p.1. 55 First and the Third World nations reflects variations in these socio-economic capacities.”5

Additionally, “Traditional Economic theories developed since the 1960s within the endogenous growth theory promoted the concept of human capital, according to which education is considered as a means to ensure economic growth” and “education can play an instrumental role in two different ways: through economic production and through social change.”6 The social benefit of education i.e. development or “wellbeing in general, is enhanced through an improvement of social relations…for instance, the role that community actions can play is impressive.”7 Some authors have defined it as “social capital” which means “the possibility to find assistance in emergency situations.”8

1. An Overview

“Development,” as defined by Jan Drewnowski, “is a process of qualitative change and quantitative growth of the social and economic reality which we can call either society or economy. Because of the close inter-relation of economic and social elements no ‘purely’ social or ‘purely’ economic development is possible. Consequently, it is better not to speak of social development separately. It is a single process which is best called simply development.”9 According to Drewnowski, it can be said that socio-economic development can be identified with transition in the living standard and growth of values at quantitative level among the individuals in a society. Thus, “Socio-economic development…is a process of improvement in a variety of ways. It has to influence all aspects of human life in a country.”10

5 Op. Cit. 1. 6 Francesco Burchi, “Identifying the Role of Education in Socio-Economic Development,” Paper presented at the “International Conference on Human and Economic Resources, Izmir, (2006), p.193, accessed January 15, 2016, retrieved from https://www.die- Maulanagdi.de/uploads/media/Burchi_Intern.Conf.pdf Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University 7 Ibid, p. 197. 8 Ibid. 9 Jan Drewnowski, “Social and Economic Factors in Development,” UNRISD, Report No. 3, Geneva, (February 1966), p. 7. 10 Module-4: Contemporary India: Issues and Goals, “Socio-Economic Development and Empowerment of Disadvantaged Groups,” National Institute of Open Schooling, Ministry of Human Resource Development, p.222, accessed June 25, 2017, retrieved from http://www.nios.ac.in/media/documents/SecSocSciCour/English/Lesson-25.pdf 56 In the gulf countries, the socio-economic development has had a direct impact on the gulf society. According to Shahnaz Hamid: “The socio-cultural practices of [Saudi Arabia] have largely been seen as unique, especially when compared to that of the Western countries. The Saudi society is uniquely Islamic, with most of the laws governing the country derived from the Shariah laws. The economy of the country [remained] stable even during the 2008 economic recession that affected many countries around the world. Although oil remains the leading source of income, other economic activities such as agriculture and tourism also play an important role in boosting the economy…the [Gulf] region has been experiencing impressive growth in trade with other parts of the world. The country has also embraced the open market policy, a fact that has enabled foreign firms to invest in the local economy. It would, therefore, be argued that the socio-economic environment in this society has had a positive impact on the financial sector.”11

The gulf countries, in particular Saudi Arabia, has seen palpable success over the years in the development of socio-economic sector. According to Parviz Koushki, “the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia [has] changed beyond recognition. Population and economic growth have revolutionized land-use patterns and urban forms. Household structural dynamics in terms of income, car ownership and composition have assumed different dimensions.”12 According to a United Nations report:

Saudi Arabia is witnessing tangible economic prosperity and progress in all domains of socio-economic development, which produced substantial improvement in all human development indicators such as standard of living, health and education services, environmental conditions as well as potentials of comprehensive development. Over the period (1999-2010), the national economy achieved an average annual growth rate of 3.4%, with income per capita reaching around SR61,875 ($16,500) by the end of this period. Moreover, diversification of the economic base increased, with the share of non-oil sectors constituting some 75.7% of total GDP in 2010, despite the remarkable growth of the oil sector in recent years. MaulanaThe Azad Saudi economy Library, also realized Aligarh growing integration Muslim into the global University economy, with

11 Shahnaz Hamid, “Socio-Economic Background of Saudi Society and Its Impact on the Financial Sector,” International Journal of Business and Management, Vol. 9, No. 9, (2014), p.267, accessed December 15, 2015, retrieved from http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/ijbm/article/viewFile/35406/22083 12 Parviz Amir Koushki, “The effect of socio-economic development on household travel behavior in Saudi Arabia,” Socio-Economic Planning Sciences, vol.22, no.3, (1988), p.131, accessed December 24, 2014, retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/0038-0121(88)90014-6 57 the ratio of foreign trade in commodities to GDP reaching some 80% by the beginning of the first year of the Ninth Plan (2010). Concerning foreign trade structure, the non-oil merchandise exports share in total exports increased from around 8.5% in 2000 to some 14.3% in 2010. On the other hand, the share of imports of consumer goods in total imports has declined, which is an indicator of increased reliance on domestic products and their improved competitiveness.13

A positive social change is a direct result of educational achievement and economic progress and these successes would not have been possible without the enhancement of, and investment in the educational sector.

According to a 2017 Saudi Development report, “Few countries have undergone the spectacular rise in adult literacy that Saudi Arabia has experienced. Now considered a pioneer in global education, the Kingdom is a model of successful and inclusive educational strategy. In 1970, only 8 percent of the adult population of Saudi Arabia was literate. By 2014, over 94.4 percent of Saudi citizens were considered literate by United Nations standards.”14 The report further mentions that, “The Saudi government developed literacy plans sensitive to each region’s unique demographic and geographic characteristics,” and socio economic requirements. “Officials recognized that a female young adult in the Northern Borders Region has different educational needs than her counterpart in the metropolitan Riyadh Region. By offering enhanced financial and employment prospects, Ministry of Education personnel encouraged a significant enrollment increase in basic reading and writing classes,” to further the development of socio-economic agenda in the kingdom.15

These plans were developed as part of a well thought strategy after certain reports surfaced regarding the “role that schooling plays in the social and economic development of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia both historically and in light of new evidence from the Trends”16 which suggested that: “there are unique characteristics of

13 UNDP, “Saudi Arabia,” (2012), United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, accessed December Maulana16, 2015, retrieved fromAzadhttp://www.sa.undp.org/content/saudi_arabia/en/home/countryinfo.html Library, Aligarh Muslim University 14 “Saudi Arabia: Political, Economic and Social Development Report 2017,” Ministry of Foreign Affairs: Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, (2017), p.10, accessed October 29, 2017, retrieved from https://www.saudiembassy.net/sites/default/files/WhitePaper_Development_May2017.pdf 15 Ibid, p.10-11. 16Alexander W. Wiseman, Abdullah Sadaawi, Naif H. Alromi, “EDUCATIONAL INDICATORS AND NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN SAUDI ARABIA,” Paper presented at the 3rd IEA International Research Conference, (2008), p.1, accessed June 15, 2013, retrieved from http://www.iea.nl/sites/default/files/irc//IRC2008_Wiseman_Sadaawi_etal.pdf 58 the Saudi system that deserve attention. Policymakers would be wise to think about the culture of schooling that has developed in Saudi Arabia and discuss ways that the importance and value of education can become the core of school culture in the Kingdom. These results also suggest that perhaps primary and secondary education deserve the same sort of financial, political, and policy focus as higher education. It will indeed be difficult to become the educational center of the Middle East without a strong foundation of primary and secondary education and students from within Saudi Arabia itself.”17

Nevertheless, the growth of education, in general, in the gulf countries had witnessed tremendous growth in the recent past. According to William Rugh, “in recent decades, Arab education has achieved substantial growth in quantitative terms, with enrollments and other indicators expanding dramatically, including for females. Arab students can choose from different educational systems.”18 Since, the significance of education to national development is well-known, especially after the advent of modern mass schooling, there have been some exclusive features of the Saudi educational system regarding the culture of schooling towards the socio-economic development of the kingdom that has become an important part of the schooling values.

2. Reform Programs Implementation for Socio-Economic Development

Education is known to have an impact on socio-economic development and its standard and fineness linked with economic stability and technological innovation around the globe. The Gulf countries had experienced and witnessed speedy expansion, a resultant factor of reforms at both the policy making and implementation level in the educational sector. New management was initiated and transition in the existing measures was sought and introduced as the demands for quality education for Maulanaan overall Azadsocio-economic Library, development, Aligarh funding and Muslim well-organized University management were rising, which had “brought about significant economic and socio-psychological

17 Ibid. p.10. 18 William Rugh, “Arab Education: Tradition, Growth and Reform,” Middle East Journal, Vol. 56, No. 3 (2002), p.396, accessed February 2, 2014, retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/4329785 59 changes on more than one level,”19 in the gulf countries. In February 2007, the cabinet of Saudi Arabia:

Approved the King Abdullah Project for the development of public education, which involves the expenditure of $US 3.1 billion over a 5-year period for a major overhaul of the Saudi education system. Funds are specifically targeted for a range of related initiatives, including teacher training and professional development, curriculum and text book review, the provision of contemporary information technology for both teaching and learning (including internet services for teachers and students) and programs for developing innovative practice. While there is a particular focus on scientific and technological development in order to improve the international competitiveness of the Kingdom, there is also a significant allocation of funds for programs aimed at ‘deepening Islamic values, morals and allegiance to family, society and nation, and appreciating and preserving national achievements’. . . . All levels of Saudi higher education system are demonstrating a strong commitment to reach international standards in teaching, learning, research and curriculum development to provide graduates with learning opportunities that will enable them to compete internationally. At present, almost all Saudi universities have quality centers or units, quality deans or directors, and committees to work on quality at different levels.20

These were, among some pressing, issues that concerned the ministries engaged with the educational structure for the fulfilment of the socio-economic development project. Across the Gulf countries colleges and universities had grown immensely in both size and numbers along with the specializations and courses offered. The new management introduced the privatization of education at all three levels; primary, secondary and higher education, which gained popularity among the Gulf citizens, and since had been playing an important role in spreading education across the Gulf. Although, growth in combined and mutual creativities and programs between the Gulf States were brought into existence at different levels, however, very less had been applied at the system’s institutional levels. To coordinate with and, meet the Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University

19Shafeeq Ghabra, “Kuwait and the Dynamics of Socio-Economic Change,” Middle East Journal, Vol. 51, No. 3 (1997), p.369, accessed December 31, 2014, retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/4329085 20 Larry Smith, Abdulrahman Abouammoh, “Higher Education in Saudi Arabia: Achievements, Challenges and Priorities, in Larry Smith, Abdulrahman Abouammoh eds., Higher Education in Saudi Arabia: Achievements, Challenges and Opportunities,” (Dordrecht, Heidelberg, London, New York: Springer, 2013), p.4-8. 60 demands of higher education at a global level, various changes were introduced with an increased spending on higher education to raise the standard and compete at the international level. These initiatives also gave rise to the academic accreditation and quality assurance bodies in various systems and forms across the Gulf countries as a result of their growing demands.

Higher education is called as the harbinger to socio-economic development as it “instils confidence in the youths, enhances their skill levels and imparts scientific temper. [It] is an important phase in students’ life as they develop their personality and professional aptitude during the period.”21 “One of the main functions of higher education in general and post-graduation in particular is research and development activities. It contributes largely in the socio-economic development.”22

The higher education sector in the Gulf region needed restructuring which made it number one on the priority list of their respective governments so that growing social and economic developmental demands may be met and, the countries see a rise in the employment rates and the living standard of people. According to a World Bank report, the gulf region “has accomplished much: most children benefit from compulsory schooling, quite a few have opportunities to continue their formal education, and learning outcomes have improved. These achievements are impressive, particularly if one considers the starting point during the 1960s.”23 In Saudi Arabia, according to the report, “female higher education students outnumber male students by a significant margin. For the distribution of years of educational attainment,” Saudi Arabia has “improved considerably since the 1970s” and made the “most progress in raising adult literacy over the last 35 years” with a considerable achievement in the socio-economic sector.24

21 Special Correspondent, “Higher education plays a role in socio-economic development,” The Hindu, April 1, 2014, accessed June 13, 2015, retrieved from http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp- national/tp-tamilnadu/higher-education-plays-a-role-in-socioeconomic- development/article5857433.ece Maulana22 Omar SalemAzadBashehab, Library, Sanghamitra Buddhapriya, Aligarh “Status ofMuslim Knowledge Based University Economy in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: An Analysis,” Journal of Social and Development Sciences, vol.6, no.1, (2013), accessed June 26, 2015, retrieved from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/ec64/451529d1ac44a4848b104c44f2b973546564.pdf 23 The World Bank, “MENA Development Report: The Road Not Traveled, Education Reform in the Middle East and North Africa,” The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank, (2007), p.1, accessed March 12, 2015, retrieved from http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTMENA/Resources/EDU_Summary_ENG.pdf 24 Ibid, p.15. 61 Education had played a paramount role in the socio-economic development process in the kingdom of Saudi Arabia. In the social sector, the education levels of certain literates “demonstrated the government’s increased inclination toward placing” them “in key bureaucratic posts,”25 while education had also boosted the economic sector that was both traditional and modern in nature in the present day Saudi Arabia.

According to David Cole: the kingdom’s economy is in essence “dualistic,” in nature and consists of two “interacting systems” which can be called as the “‘modern’ and the ‘traditional’. The modern economic system includes some industry, elements of large scale modernized agriculture, financial and other services, capital-intensive trade and government. The oil industry is obviously an important element in the modern economic system. Other important elements are its very large foreign reserve holdings, probably the greatest in the world, the fact that it is the largest single provider of new investment funds flowing into the world’s economic systems, and its possession of one of the world’s largest foreign aid programmes. It is also a vital supplier of funds to international lending and developmental agencies. At the same time, it is a highly significant consumer of exported goods and services of industrialized nations.”26 As far as the traditional economy is concerned, it includes peasant subsistence, agriculture, trade etc.27

The kingdom of Saudi Arabia had long been working for its socio-economic development through education for a “greater economic expansion and sustainable growth … A strategic plan intende[s] to transform the Saudi economy – the Kingdom aims to create an economic structure, which provides opportunities for all. It has also put a great deal of importance on education to prepare its future generations for an environment where excellence is curiosity-driven and goal-oriented.”28

According to a report: “Saudi Arabia’s education system includes more than 30,000 public schools, large number of colleges, 25 public and 27 private universities. The

Maulana25 Toby Craig Jones, AzadDesert Kingdom: Library, How Oil and WaterAligarh Forged Modern Muslim Saudi Arabia, (Cambridge, University Massachusetts, and London: Harvard University Press, 2010), p.69. 26 David Cole, Pastoral Nomads in a Rapidly Changing Economy: The Case of Saudi Arabia in Tim Niblock eds., Social and Economic Development in the Arabian Gulf, 2nd ed., (Routledge: New York, 2014), p.107. 27 Ibid. 28Business Wire India, “Education: The pillar of Saudi Arabia,” The Hindu: Business Line, April 10, 2017, accessed May 25, 2017, retrieved from http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/business- wire/education-the-pillar-of-saudi-arabia/article9627217.ece 62 government grants monthly allowance of approximately US$ 200 to all university students as incentive to get their undergraduate degrees. Meanwhile, the emphasis is not just on domestic education. The enrollment of students in overseas universities has also been growing exponentially through initiatives such as the King Abdullah bin Abdulaziz Scholarship program that aims to support over 50,000 graduates from Saudi Arabia to go and study in the world’s top 500 universities by 2020. . . Education also incorporates the focus on development of ‘skill’, needed in a knowledge-based economy – where more emphasis is placed on the skills of individuals than on natural resources.”29

The Gulf countries had managed to raise the standard of social development and eradicated gender disparity to a large extent, an outcome of education and “Saudi Arabia has gone a long way to completely eliminate gender disparity at all levels of education. Expansion of female education has encouraged many Saudi females to join the labour force and seek employment and try to move away from the traditional sectors of education, health and social services.”30

3. Education and Eradication of Socio-Economic Disparity

According to a report published by the United Nations on inequality, “The implications of rising inequality for social and economic development are many. There is growing evidence and recognition of the powerful and corrosive effects of inequality on economic growth, poverty reduction, social and economic stability and socially-sustainable development.”31 The report further mentions that: “Educational achievement is a critical dimension of human well-being, not only in its own right but also as an important input to a person’s empowerment, capabilities and full participation in society. It is also a major driver of income and health outcomes. People who lack education or basic literacy skills face higher risks of ill-health and insecure employment, and are more likely to live in poverty. Education is one of the main determinants of future economic opportunity, as there is a strong connection Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University

29 Ibid. 30 M.A. Ramady, “The Saudi Arabian Economy: Chapter II- Reforms and Economic Planning,” Springer Science + Business Media, (2010), p.27. 31 Economic Affairs, “Inequality Matters: Report on the world Social Situation, 2013,” United Nations, (2013), p.21, accessed January 25, 2015, retrieved from http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/documents/reports/InequalityMatters.pdf 63 between levels of educational attainment and upward social and economic mobility.”32

In the field of education, the gulf countries had been fighting disparity within society and were close to successful in eradicating the social disparity such as gender inequality. This had nearly resulted in the eradication of economic disparity in the region. In Saudi Arabia too, according to a report published by the Ministry of education:

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia does not distinguish between the two genders in providing the educational opportunities, it seeks to achieve the equality between the two genders, although girls regular education delay which started in 1960, it could achieve quick growth which made it equalize with males education, the coming statistics indicators confirm with no doubt the credibility of that. The Kingdom's commitment to the directions of Islam, which does not distinguish between male and female in terms of rights and duties and that the right learning, it emphasizes in all regulations and policies that are so close educational policy of the Kingdom in 1962 and in all material did not differentiate between male and female but is generally no gender disparity and in the provision of services or opportunities between the sexes never. And seek the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia to provide a special opportunity for females to join education, and to continue learning and literacy Kabirat, believing in the importance of women in society and family, education with education the family become educated, cultured, the society become developed, more care would be given to children and sons and there would be integrated social participation.33

Nevertheless, “in just seven decades as a nation, Saudi Arabia has grown from an impoverished backwater of desert nomads to an economic powerhouse with an oil industry that brought in $300bn” in 2012, and “The Saudi government spends several billion dollars each year to provide free education and health care to all citizens, as well as a variety of social welfare programmes – even free burials. The government also provides pensions, monthly benefits and payments for food and utility bills to the Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University

32 Ibid. p.50 33 The General Administration for Eradication of Illiteracy Programs, “The Achieved Progress In The Field Of The Eradication Of Illiteracy In Kingdom Of Saudi Arabia From Germany 1997 AD To Brazil 2009AD,” Ministry of Education: Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, (2008), p.14, accessed July 11, 2014, retrieved from http://uil.unesco.org/fileadmin/multimedia/uil/confintea/pdf/National_Reports/Arab%20States/SaudiAr abia.pdf 64 poor, elderly, disabled, orphans and workers who are injured on the job. Much of the welfare spending comes from the Islamic system of zakat, a religious requirement that individuals and corporations donate to charity 2.5% of their wealth; the money is paid to the government and distributed to the needy.”34 Wide availability of educational services in all parts of the Kingdom had resulted in the acceleration of:

Socio-economic development, the Kingdom has made considerable progress in its efforts to contain and to restrict poverty to limited pockets. Within the framework of eradicating all levels of poverty, Saudi Arabia prepared the National Social Development Strategy. Led by the Ministry of Social affairs, the strategy adopts a comprehensive perspective with respect to the poverty problem and the mechanisms to be pursued in addressing the problem. Under this strategy, poverty rates will be reduced through improvement of living conditions of the poor. Efforts in this regard will seek to increase income levels of the poor, provide them with basic services, upgrade their education and health levels, develop their capabilities and skills and, enable their effective participation in the development process. However, the focus of the strategy is not confined to addressing the poverty issue, as it also stresses maintaining the living standard of other citizens, particularly middle income groups, with efforts seeking to help them avoid falling into the poverty trap. The Kingdom's efforts to contain poverty have borne fruit. Data available under the National Social Development Strategy indicate that the proportion of Saudi households living under the extreme poverty line (food poverty) stood at 0.08% in 2004, but declined to some 0.06% in 2009, amounting to a drop of 25%. Thus, The Kingdom has achieved the 1 MDG goal of eradication of food poverty well ahead of the target year of 2015. Another positive aspect in this regard is that the Kingdom has set the extreme poverty level at near two US Dollars per person per day, which exceeds the MDG level of one US Dollar. In Saudi Arabia, the percentage of families living under extreme poverty was 1.63% in 2004 to 0.8 in 2008, Prevalence of underweight children under five 5 years of age decreased from *6.4% in 2006 to 5.3% in 2010.35

On the other hand, the kingdom had been planning to “diversify its economy and Maulanacreate dynamicAzad job Library, opportunities throughAligarh its commitments Muslim to education”University and

34 Kevin Sullivan for the Washington Post, “Saudi Arabia's riches conceal a growing problem of poverty,” The Guardian, January 1, 2013, accessed August 23, 2014, retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jan/01/saudi-arabia-riyadh-poverty-inequality 35 United Nations, “Saudi Arabia: Eradicate extreme hunger and poverty, Where we are,” United Nations Development Programme, accessed September 12, 2013, retrieved from http://www.sa.undp.org/content/saudi_arabia/en/home/mdgoverview/overview/mdg1.html 65 “modernisation of curriculum and standards of Saudi educational institutions from childhood to higher learning. By 2030, Saudi Arabia aims to have at least five universities among the top 200 world universities rankings.”36

Alternatively, employment “holds another obvious attraction for young Saudis” in the public sector, because, according to 2016 salary statics the average wage was “1.7 times higher than in the private sector.”37 The kingdom had “invested billions of dollars to educate” its young citizens and “lead the planned transformation of the country from an oil-rich state to a diversified, knowledge-based economy.”38 Although, “economists have had difficulty in ascertaining the effect of investment in education on economic growth, and how significant the effect is,”39 however, benefitting from the educational progress in enhancing its revenue sector, “Saudi Arabia has used its sizeable revenues to build up strong external buffers and drive GDP growth through extensive spending programmes.”40

Nevertheless, the educational programmes initiated by the kingdom had been “directed towards work and fostering socio-economic development; to help the illiterate solve their social and economic problems and raise their economic capacity; [and] to integrate adult education and the eradication of illiteracy with the needs of society.”41 A strategy for change and development was incorporated and “put in place within the overall, long-term plan to keep pace with constant changes in science and technology.”42

36 QS Asia News Network, “Vision 2030: Saudi Arabia shifts from oil to higher education,” QSWOW News, December 19, 2017, accessed December 29, 2017, retrieved from http://qswownews.com/vision- 2030-saudi-arabia-shifts-oil-higher-education/ 37 “Expanding the role of the private sector in Saudi Arabia's education and training sector,” Oxford Business Group, accessed January 13, 2017, retrieved from https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com/overview/time-change-focus-beginning-shift-towards-expanding-role- private-sector-developing-education 38 “Saudi Arabia: Education & Training,” Oxford Business Group, accessed June 30, 2017, retrieved from https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com/saudi-arabia-2016/education-training 39 Nick Stadtmiller, “Saudi Arabia’s Economic Ambitions and Growth,” Global Policy, (October Maulana2017), p.15, accessed Azad December 18,Library, 2017, retrieved from Aligarh Muslim University http://www.globalpolicyjournal.com/sites/default/files/pdf/Stadtmiller%20- %20Saudi%20Arabia%E2%80%99s%20Economic%20Ambitions%20and%20Growth.pdf 40 “Saudi Arabia: Economy,” Oxford Business Group, accessed June 30, 2017, retrieved from https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com/saudi-arabia-2016/economy 41 Abdulrahman I. Al shaer, “Education for all programmes in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia,” UNESCO, (2007-2008), p.10, accessed February 26, 2014, retrieved from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001554/155498e.pdf 42 Ibid. p.1. 66 An overall intellectual and academic advancement within the gulf countries for social development was also being debated in the Arabian Peninsula which led the Ministry of higher education in Saudi Arabia launch a project named “AAFAQ” in 2006 that aimed at developing managerial and administrational along with academic leadership at institutional levels.43

For the further eradication of disparity and an overall socio-economic development, many ideas and proposals were initiated “with additional autonomy, transparency and fairness regarding various concerns and participation of all stakeholders” in the development.44 To train the young Saudis in socio-economic development process: “General authority for technical and vocational training has made agreement with some foreign technical institutions to establish institutes and two year collages. …Saudi Arabia has been considering since long the provision for allowing foreign higher education. …In 2016, the ministry of education announced…that the government intention is to allow foreign higher education to operate in Saudi Arabia. …it is known that foreign higher education can be of independent foreign institutions, American University of Cairo, Egypt, and American University of Beirut, Lebanon. It can be a sight allocated for foreign schools as in the education city as in Qatar or campuses or branches of foreign Universities as in the United Arab Emirates Model.”45

4. Education and Infrastructural Development

Education had played an important role in the industrial development and urbanization in Saudi Arabia, since oil based economic system needs a more mature educational system to keep up and compete with international standards of infrastructural development, an important requirement for social change. For instance, “between 1975 and 1980, 2000 new schools were constructed, while many existing schools underwent extensive renovation,” to prepare the youth for a “long term Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University 43 Omer al-Swailem, Geoffrey Elliot, The Learning Experience of Saudi Arabian Higher Education Leadership: Characteristics for Global Success, in Larry Smith and Abdulrahman Abouammoh eds., Higher Education in Saudi Arabia: Achievements, Challenges and Opportunities, (New York, London: Springer, 2013), p.43. Kindle Edition. 44 Abdulrahman M. Abouammoh, The Regeneration Aspects for Higher Education Research in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in Jisun Jung, Hugo Horta, Akiyoshi Yonezawa eds., Researching Higher Education in Asia: History, Development and Future, (Singapore: Springer Nature, 2018), p.330. 45 Ibid. 67 stability of economy.”46 In 2016, 7, 277,317 students were enrolled in schools.47 Education also paved way for the Saudis for further development in the construction area, as the country started producing some of the finest engineers in the field, such as Mahmoud Nassif, who had studied “engineering in the University of South California,”48 and was back in the kingdom to serve his country.

Nevertheless, the Saudi engineers had come up with certain projects of infrastructural development inside the country. Saudis used those projects “to develop a domestic construction industry,” and achieved a desired result by developing “hospitals, schools, and roads […as well as] also developed domestic companies capable of filling the role of the foreign contractors.”49 Without economic growth, the process of industrialization and urbanization is unthinkable of. The development and advancement of educational sector had paved way for economic development in Saudi Arabia. This led to a major change “…in the very structure of the economy…, major changes in social structure and in ideas and beliefs.”50 This shift from one stage to the other of social and activities led to a big entrepreneurial class under improved economic conditions; tribes, and other professional class and other cluster of people have been affianced in industry and commerce, since industrialization, urbanization etc. due to education have totally changed the previous social and economic order. These progresses indicate a transition in the structure of relationships among or within groups, economic structures and the power structure.

Additionally, education of scientific and technological applications have modernized the process of production of goods while rendering a massive progressive rate of economic growth. The services of education and its application in the oil induced industrialization has marked the starting of a number of developments in technology and a significant growth in per capita output, prompt enough to encourage more

46 Michael W. Kelly, “Saudi Arabia: Oil and Saudi Development,” Harvard International Review, Vol. 8, No. 4 (1986), p. 38. 47 “Number of Students in Saudi Arabia,” Statista, retrieved from Maulanahttps://www.statista.com/statistics/628665/saudi Azad Library,-arabia Aligarh-total-number-of-students/ Muslim University 48 Donita M. Moorhus, Robert P. Grathwol, Bricks, Sand, and Marble: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Construction in the Mediterranean and Middle East, 1947-1991, (Washington D.C: United States Army, 2009), p.262. 49 Op. Cit. 46. P.38. 50J.N. Bridge, “FINANCIAL STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT IN SAUDI ARABIA,” Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies, Vol. 4, Proceedings of the Seventh SEMINAR FOR ARABIAN STUDIES held at The Middle East Centre, Cambridge on 28th and 29th June, 1973, (1974), p. 10 68 changes in a short span of time occurring within each generation and during every decade. Thus, economic generation that has improved systematically via educational advancement, has become an inseparable part of the process of social change and transformation in the social structure.

The process through which structural changes appear in the social system is that of differentiation of roles allocated by the advancement of education. The differentiation of roles leads to structural differentiation. The model of structural differentiation induced through education is also an abstract theory of social change. When one social role or organisation loses validity under changing social and historical circumstances, it is distinguished by a definite and specific classification of events into different set of roles or organisations, which function more effectively in the new historical settings.51

According to a government report: “The distinguishing mark of Saudi approach to development is that its material and social objectives are derived from the ethical principles of Islam and cultural values of Saudi society. The principles and values are reflected in … the importance attached both to the social wellbeing and personal fulfilment of all citizens, and to the creation of a wide range of institutions and services freely provided for these purposes…”52

With the advent of modern education in the Kingdom, different sectors such as banking and monetary agencies also came into existence. “The position of the Saudi- Arabian Monetary Agency is crucial… Much of the development of banking services has occurred since I960, when the Saudi-Arabian Monetary Agency was established. This agency functions very much like a central bank, but also has had considerable influence on the structure of the financial system.”53

Educational system in Saudi, like the other Gulf countries, was training the young generations in the field of industrial development. According to Konrad Schliephake, Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University 51 Dietrich Rueschemeyer, “Structural Differentiation, Efficiency, and Power,” American Journal of Sociology, Vol.83, No.1, (1978), p.2. 52 “Chapter-I: Development and Development Planning in Saudi Arabia,” Ministry of Economic Planning, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, p. 3, retrieved from https://www.mep.gov.sa/en/AdditionalDocuments/PlansEN/3rd/Third%20Development%20Plan%20- %20Chapter%201%20- %20Development%20And%20Development%20Planing%20In%20Saudi%20Arabia.pdf 53 Ibid. p.14. 69 the industrial development has been a success story in Saudi Arabia where, “regional development in new industrial towns continues. . . . In the future ‘second generation’ projects using petro-chemical raw materials to produce urethane, aromatics, formaldehyde, polyester resins, fertilizers, but also consumer goods…will become more and more important…companies using private funds and credits by Saudi industrial development fund have applied for licenses and land in industrial area.”54 Furthermore, the production on new lines “in other sectors of the national economy will be the backbone of future development.”55 Additionally, “to facilitate industrialization, the Saudi government has provided the necessary infrastructure for industry in the form of industrial sites, transport and communication facilities, electrical power and water resources. Institutional support for financing and technical assistance were also provided. Furthermore, specific policies were adopted to increase the role of the private sector in undertaking industrial projects.”56

There were opinions emerging from within and abroad regarding the assessment of “future economic and social development of Saudi Arabia” that “the sincere efforts by the government to assure that all Saudi citizens receive an equitable share of the nation’s wealth and a full range of social services” should reach to them without any hindrances and that “the marked increases in education, urbanization and media exposure” which occurred have “resulted in sharply escalating demands for social services [and] meeting this demand is central to the development of Saudi Arabia.”57

Since the inception of the kingdom as a separate entity, the development planning in the kingdom has been “appropriate in view of the prevailing social and economic conditions. Planning focused on infrastructural development and investment in human resources.”58 Education had played an important role in improving the social and economic conditions inside the kingdom; a commitment made by the government that

54Konrad Schliephake, “Industrialization in Saudi-Arabia - a Success Story in the Heartland of Islam,” Geo Journal, Vol. 37, No. 1, The Muslim World (1995), p.142. 55 Ibid. Maulana56 Mohamed Ali Mirghani Azad, “Industrial Library, Development inAligarh the Kingdom of MuslimSaudi Arabia: Achievements University and Potential Critical Success Factors,” Geo Journal, Vol. 13, No. 3, the Arab Gulf States (1986), p. 261. 57 Abdelrahman Al-Hegelan, Monte Palmer, “Bureaucracy and Development in Saudi Arabia,” Middle East Journal, Vol. 39, No. 1 (1985), p.49, accessed April 3, 2014, retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/4326973 58 David G. Edens, William P. Snavely, “Planning for Economic Development in Saudi Arabia,” Middle East Journal, vol.24, no.1, (1970), p.28, accessed December 27, 2014, retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/4324550 70 it would “develop human resource through education… to complete the basic infrastructure which is required for the attainment of…goals.”59 Considerable “social capital has been created in Saudi Arabia over the…decades; vast outlays of funds have been made and the welfare of the people has unquestionably been improved.”60

It is said that “subject choice in education appears to affect employment prospects,” and the policy makers in Saudi Arabia had been more inclined towards technical and scientific education,61 however, arts and other fields had received attention too for the overall benefits and “over 60 per cent of those with arts qualifications were in employment” in the Kingdom.62 Nevertheless, education had produced much desired results in the Arabian Gulf States. In the kingdom of Saudi Arabia, “there has been much success in replacing non-Saudis with Saudis in government employment, with the vast majority of civil servants and teachers at all levels now local citizens,” and the government had also “set quantitative targets to encourage more employment of local citizens, the most important being the 20 per cent ceiling on the number of expatriates in the workforce by 2013.”63

Although, an unprecedented development in Saudi Arabia had occurred in which the kingdom was “facing mounting demands from groups of Saudi reformists, intellectuals, businessmen, and even members of the royal family to implement comprehensive structural reforms in the country,” and the economic forum demanded that the government’s control, which they characterized as ‘guardianship’ of the infrastructure, be lifted and that components of the infrastructure sector be opened to private investment.”64 However, “massive infrastructure projects were launched as a boom in development swept the Arabian Gulf, with Saudi Arabia setting up a series of economic cities — including the King Abdullah Financial District near Riyadh — and inviting international construction firms and architects to build Dubai and Abu

Maulana59 Op. Cit. Azad49. p.4. Library, Aligarh Muslim University 60 Ibid. p.27. 61 Mohammed Bosbait, Rodney Wilson, “Education, School to Work Transitions and Unemployment in Saudi Arabia,” Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 41, No. 4 (2005), p.539, accessed January 3, 2015, retrieved from www.jstor.org/stable/4284387 62 Ibid. 63 Ibid. p.536. 64 Nimrod Raphaeli, “Demands for Reforms in Saudi Arabia,” Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 41, No. 4 (2005), p.518, accessed January 31, 2014, retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/4284386 71 Dhabi-esque skyscrapers” and the Saudi economy had grown “five-fold,” to US$772.610bn in less than two decades in 2014.65

5. Education, Economic Growth and Social Indicators

Our religion . . . requires us to progress and advance and to bear the burden of the highest tradition and best manners. What is called progressiveness in the world today, and what reformers are calling for, be it social, human, or economic progress is all embodied in the Islamic religion and laws.

King Faisal.66

Both conventional and modern education, and later the discovery of oil gave birth to the economic and social development that was directionless within the traditional communities of Arabia. King Faisal, a conserver of both tradition and modernism: “felt obliged to announce the ten-point programme. This provided the first elements of infrastructure, expanded communications which helped to create a sense of national identity and reduced regionalism and consequently made the people more demanding of the benefits accruing from the oil revenues. It also provided for the development of education, created some social services, and enlarged the government administration, thereby creating more employment. To please the conservatives, Faisal ensured the continuing activity of the public morality Committees which he considered to be a stabilizing force asserting the dominance of traditional values.”67

After the World War II, in the field of economy, “the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia experienced spectacular increases in income generated by its oil resources. This increase in wealth gave birth to profound changes in every sector of the economy.”68 A tremendous amount of social change was witnessed among the indigenous tribes of Saudi Arabia due to educational and economic progress and the reforms in the educational sector had brought economic diversification. ‘“The process of modernising and diversifying the economy . . . has brought vast changes to the

65Orlando Crowcroft, “Saudi monarch bet big with vision for economy,” The National, January 23, 2015, accessed May13, 2016, retrieved from https://www.thenational.ae/world/saudi-monarch-bet-big- Maulanawith-vision-for-economy Azad-1.118064 Library, Aligarh Muslim University 66 Michel G. Nehme, “Saudi Development Plans between Capitalist and Islamic Values,” Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 30, No. 3 (1994), p.633, accessed April 3, 2014, retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/4283661 67 Ibid. 68 Jamal R. Nassar, “Reviewed Work(s): Saudi Arabia's Development Potential: Application and an Islamic Growth Model by Robert E. Looney; Saudi Arabia: Energy, Development Planning, and Industrialisation by Ragaei El Mallakh and Dorothea H. El Mallakh,” Third World Quarterly, Vol. 6, No. 2 (1984), p.509. accessed December 13, 2014, retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3991000 72 position and role of the Kingdom’s tribes.’”69 On the other hand, education had also succeeded in transforming the Saudi society through innovation, training and empowerment that had often been overlooked. “There have been some diversification successes, often overlooked: developing infrastructure and non-oil sectors (albeit largely energy-based industries such as petrochemicals and plastics); establishing new industrial cities at Jubail and Yanbu (centred around petrochemical production facilities); moving oil production further up the value chain from crude to refined; and increasing the number of Saudi nationals – especially women…working in the private sector.”70

According to Ibrahim Al-Shami, “the degree of social and economic development of a country has special bearings on the process of education and the provision of educational services. At the same time, educational equity is a prerequisite for change and social mobility; it is one of the basic principles of human rights. Nonetheless, any country that embarks upon a plan to educate all its citizens its citizens must expect to encounter difficulties.”71 So, the process of social change is a quid-quo-pro process or for that matter two way around course. If education adds to the socio-economic development of a country, the socio-economic development reciprocates to the further development of education.

Since, Saudi Arabia had achieved much through the renovation and up-gradation of the educational sector in socio-economic terms, much of the economy generated through research and development was invested in the same sector. “In the case of Saudi Arabia…it is apparent that an effort is being made to educate, to Ph.D. …with a modest annual increase in student enrollment, and a doubling of Ph.D. graduates annually…”72 As Al Rawaf and Simons have pointed out: “Education in Saudi Arabia is provided by the government, free of charge, to all Saudi children of Arabic- speaking residents who want it, from kindergarten up to and in secondary school. Elementary school caters for children from 6-12 years, inter school from 12-15 and

Maulana69 Ibid. p.510. Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University 70 Jane Kinninmont, “Vision 2030 and Saudi Arabia’s Social Contract: Austerity and Transformation,” Chatham House: The Royal Institute of International Affairs, (2017), p.3-4, accessed October 5, 2017, retrieved from https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/files/chathamhouse/publications/research/2017-07- 20-vision-2030-saudi-kinninmont.pdf 71 Ibrahim A. Al-Shami, “The Need for Saudi Faculty and the Media for Instruction in Saudi Arabian Universities,” Higher Education, Vol. 12, No. 3 (1983), p.291-292, accessed November 12, 2014, retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3446500 72 Ibid. p.292. 73 secondary, or high school, from 15-18. An elementary certificate is necessary in order to enter intermediate school and an intermediate certificate is required to enter secondary school.”73

Nevertheless, “under the present economic circumstances, academic performance and technical skills are increasingly important. With more and more job entrants…competition is fierce, and many of those Saudis who have been educated abroad or at the more ‘secular’ Saudi universities find it easier to get jobs in the private sector, where proficiency in English is often required. . . . The government has become increasingly aware of the need to [further renovate] the education system to ensure the economic survival of the country, and is emphasizing qualitative improvement,” and more stress given to “vocational and technical training.”74 According to Sanders and Barth:

One of the modern origins of interest in the relation between education and economic growth was the recognition of the obvious links among education, employment, and desired or planned economic growth…the process of economic development implies some rather distinctive shifts in structure of employment. For example…the proportion of the labor force engaged in agriculture declines while the proportion employed in manufacturing rises. Beyond this, it has been shown that as production processes become more complex technical specialization increases. Thus, the connection is extended from the education-employment link to economic development and change. Just as the size and structure of an economy can shape the distribution and quality of the labor force, so was it gradually accepted that the labor force, operating largely as a limiting factor, could significantly affect the level and composition of national output. This observation underlay the research centered in the problem of human resource development. If the relations between education and employment and between employment and economic development were not entirely clear in theory, they began at least to emerge for the practitioners of economic development.75

Maulana73 Haya Saad Al Rawaf Azad and Cyril Library,Simmons, “The Education Aligarh of Women in Muslim Saudi Arabia,” Comparative University Education, Vol. 27, No. 3 (1991), p. 287, accessed November 17, 2014, retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3099298 74 Michaela Prokop, “Saudi Arabia: The Politics of Education,” International Affairs: Royal Institute of International Affairs, Vol. 79, No.1 (2003), p.87-88, accessed August 24, 2014, retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3095542 75 Donald P. Sanders and Peter S. Barth, “Education and Economic Development,” Review of Educational Research, Vol. 38, No. 3, International Development Education (1968), p.214, accessed August 27, 2014, retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1169394 74 According to a government report: “The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has witnessed incredible transformation in the span of a single generation. The government has dedicated vast resources to enhance the wellbeing of the Saudi people. As a result of this strategic vision, quality of life indicators in health, education, and economic growth have shown rapid advancement that places Saudi Arabia in the highest category of human development according to metrics developed by the United Nations. This astounding progress has been lauded by international partners, whose engagement with Saudi Arabia has established the Kingdom as a wellspring of innovation and prosperity.”76 The report further mentions that:

The life expectancy of the Saudi people has dramatically increased from 52.7 years in 1970 to 75.05 years in 2015. . . . In 55 years, the infant mortality rate plummeted in Saudi Arabia as a result of far-reaching improvements in health practice. In 1960, there were 292 deaths per 1,000 live births in Saudi Arabia. By 2015, that number fell to 13 deaths per 1,000 live births. . . . In 1970, only 8 percent of the adult population of Saudi Arabia was literate. By 2014, over 94.4 percent of Saudi citizens were considered literate by United Nations standards. . . . The remarkable jump from a $42 billion GDP in 1970 to the astounding $753.8 billion in 2014 is evidence of the Saudi success story. . . . In 1980, Saudi Arabia maintained a Human Development Index value of 0.575, in comparison to its 2014 value of 0.837.77

Furthermore, according to the 2016, G20 Summit report:

Economic policies in Saudi Arabia continue to focus on safeguarding macroeconomic stability while pressing ahead with the economic transformation towards a more efficient and diversified economy. The drop in oil prices since July 2014, with its impacts on fiscal revenues and export receipts, has highlighted the importance of sustaining the fiscal and structural reform momentum with a view to broaden the sources of economic growth and enhance the economy’s resilience to external shocks in order to achieve higher and more sustainable growth over the medium term. In this context, the Council of Ministers endorsed in April 2016 Saudi MaulanaArabia’s Azad Vision Library, 2030. It is an ambitious Aligarh yet achievable Muslim development University agenda, which expresses the kingdom long-term goals and expectations and reflects the country’s strengths and capabilities. The vision seeks to build a thriving economy in which all citizens can have better opportunities through education and training. . . . The

76 Op. Cit. 13. P.1 77 Ibid. p.1-11. 75 Kingdom will implement a program of short vocational training courses that will support job seekers. These courses are designed to address skill gaps and other obstacles to employment by training high school dropouts and re-training and up- skilling adults who hold other educational qualifications.78

Economic indicators: Saudi Arabia79

GDP: Gross domestic product (million current US$) 2014 752460 GDP: Gross domestic product (million current US$) 2010 526811 GDP: Gross domestic product (million current US$) 2005 328461 GDP growth rate (annual %, const. 2005 prices) 2014 3.6 GDP growth rate (annual %, const. 2005 prices) 2010 4.8 GDP growth rate (annual %, const. 2005 prices) 2005 5.6 GDP per capita (current US$) 2014 24362.1 GDP per capita (current US$) 2010 18754.0 GDP per capita (current US$) 2005 13273.7 Economy: Industry (% of GVA) 2014 57.5 Economy: Industry (% of GVA) 2010 58.4 Economy: Industry (% of GVA) 2005 61.8 Economy: Services and other activity (% of GVA) 2014 40.6 Economy: Services and other activity (% of GVA) 2010 39.2 Economy: Services and other activity (% of GVA) 2005 35.0 Employment: Industry (% of employed) 2014 24.2 Employment: Industry (% of employed) 2010 20.4 Employment: Industry (% of employed) 2005 21.0 Employment: Services and other (% of employed) 2014 70.9 Employment: Services and other (% of employed) 2010 75.5 MaulanaEmployment: Services Azad and otherLibrary, (% of employed) Aligarh2005 Muslim74.4 University Unemployment (% of labour force) 2014 5.9

78 “2016, Growth Strategy: Saudi Arabia,” G-20 China, (2016), p.1-6, accessed February 15, 2017, retrieved from http://www.g20.utoronto.ca/2016/2016-growth-saudi-arabia.pdf 79 United Nations Statistics Division, “Saudi Arabia,” United Nations, accessed December 29, 2016, retrieved from http://data.un.org/CountryProfile.aspx?crName=saudi%20arabia 76 Unemployment (% of labour force) 2010 5.6 Unemployment (% of labour force) 2005 5.8 Labour force participation (female/male pop. %) 2014 20.0/78.9 Labour force participation (female/male pop. %) 2010 18.3/75.8 Labour force participation (female/male pop. %) 2005 17.5/75.4 Exports (million US$) 2015 201491.8 Imports (million US$) 2015 163821.0 Balance (million US$) 2015 37670.8

Social Indicators: Saudi Arabia80

Population growth rate (average annual %) 2010-2015 2.3 Urban population (%) 2015 83.1 Urban population growth rate (average annual %) 2010-2015 2.1 Fertility rate, total (live births per woman) 2010-2015 2.9 Life expectancy at birth (females/males, years) 2010-2015 72.5/72.8 Total dependency ratio (Pop. aged 0-14 & 65+ per 100 2015 46 pop. 15-64) International migrant stock (000/% of total pop.) 2015 10185.9/32.3 Infant mortality rate (per 1 000 live births) 2010-2015 15 Health: Total expenditure (% of GDP) 2014 4.7 Health: Physicians (per 1 000 pop.) 2013 2.5 Education: Primary gross enrolment ratio (f/m per 100 2014 108.3/109.2 pop.) Education: Secondary gross enrolment ratio (f/m per 2014 93.8/122.6 100 pop.) Education: Tertiary gross enrolment ratio (f/m per 100 2014 59.9/62.4 Maulanapop.) Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Intentional homicide rate (per 100 000 pop.) 2014 6.2 Seats held by women in national parliaments (%) 2016 19.9

80 Ibid. 77 Summary Statics: Saudi Arabia81

Region 2015 Western Asia

Surface area (sq km) 2014 2206714

Pop. density (per sq km) 2016 15.0

Capital city 2015 Riyadh

Capital city pop. (000) 2015 6370

Currency 2015 Saudi Riyal (SAR)

6. Summary

The Saudi education system had been focused on closing the skills gap and training students for the job market as well as working for the reduction of disparity, particular gender. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia witnessed incredible social change in terms of social and economic development through education. The government has dedicated vast revenues accumulated from oil and other resources or generated through education to improve the welfare of the Saudi people. In consequence of the kingdom’s strategic vision, the quality of social and economic indicators have shown rapid advancement and has placed Saudi Arabia in the highest grouping of human development according to metrics established by the United Nations. Few countries around the globe have undergone the amount of social change such as a spectacular rise in adult literacy that Saudi Arabia has experienced. Now considered a pioneer and an innovator in education globally, the Kingdom had become a model of successful and all-encompassing educational strategy. Less than five decades ago, in 1970, only 8 percent of the adult population of Saudi Arabia was literate. By 2014, over 94.4 percent of Saudi citizens were considered literate according to the United Nations standards. The kingdom has positioned itself to promote more socio- economic development as the population is aspiring for further social change through Maulanaeducation. Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University

81 Ibid. 78 Chapter- IV

Growth of Education and Women Empowerment

Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Chapter-IV Growth of Education and Women Empowerment

A fiery issue that erupted in the last quarter of the 20th century and since has remained in vogue has been that of empowerment. Sociologists have regarded empowerment as “the only answer to oppression, exploitation, injustice and other maladies with which our society is beset. The idea of empowerment contains, exciting possibilities. It seems somehow to fit our present…reality particularly well. But in its current, widespread use, the idea is new and, and with most attractive ideas that are new.”1

According to Andre Beteille: “Empowerment is about social transformation; it is about radical social transformation; and it is about the people- ordinary, common people, rather than politicians, experts and other socially or culturally advantaged persons. Above all, it is about power, although the concept of power contained in it is generally left unspecified. Empowerment is both a means to an end and an end in itself. The term adapts itself differently situations, and its signification is both variable and fluid. The idea of empowerment may be invoked in virtually any context: in speaking about human rights, about basic needs, about economic security, about capacity building, about skill formation or about the conditions of a dignified social existence.”2

According to Larysa Belskaya, the Vice-Chair of United Nations Commission’s Bureau, “empowering people for social change . . . requires a comprehensive set of policies and institutions. From education and health care to economic and social policy, activities that seek to empower people are expected to increase opportunities and improve people’s quality of life.”3 It was recognized “that that empowering people particularly women, to strengthen their capacities is a main objective of development and its principal resource. Empowerment requires the full participation

Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University

1 Andre Beteille, “Empowerment,” Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 34, No. 10/11 (1999), p. 589, accessed December 6, 2014, retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/4407729 2 Ibid. p.590. 3 UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, “Empowering People for Social Change,” United Nations, February 6, 2016, accessed January12, 2015, retrieved from http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/news/social/empowering-people-for-social-change.html 79 of people in the formulation implementation and evaluation of decisions determining the functioning and the well-being of our societies.”4

1. The Concept of Women Empowerment

Srilatha Batliwala points out that: “The concept of women’s empowerment emerged from several important critiques and debates generated by the women’s movement throughout the world during the 1980s, when feminists, particularly in the Third World, were increasingly discontent with the largely apolitical and economistic ‘WID’ [Women in Development], ‘WAD [Women and Development], and ‘GAD’ [Gender and Development] models in prevailing development interventions. . . . The spread of ‘women’s empowerment’ as a more political and transformatory idea for struggles challenged not only patriarchy, but also the mediating structures of class, race, ethnicity…which determined the nature of women’s position and condition in developing societies.”5 According to United Nations, “Gender equality is not only a fundamental human right, but a necessary foundation for a peaceful, prosperous and sustainable world. Providing women and girls with equal access to education, health care, decent work, and representation in political and economic decision-making processes will fuel sustainable economies and benefit societies and humanity at large.”6 The European Union had also called for:

Women’s rights and gender equality in terms of women’s empowerment and wellbeing, women’s full and equal participation in decision-making in public life, whether in the political, economic, social or environmental sphere, combating violence against women, access to quality education (at primary, secondary and higher levels) and training, promotion of universal health coverage through health systems which are public and free at the point of use, access to micro-credit facilities in order to combat poverty and social exclusion, access to effective, quality health care, universal access to and improvements in sexual and reproductive health and rights, the quality and stability of employment, equal pay, career development, the

Maulana4 Manoranjan Mohanty, Azad “On the ConceptLibrary, of ‘Empowerment,’” AligarhEconomic andMuslim Political Weekly University, Vol. 30, No. 24 (1995), p. 1434, accessed December 8, 2014, retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/4402876 5 Srilatha Batliwala, “Taking the Power out of Empowerment: An Experiential Account,” Development in Practice, Vol. 17, No. 4/5 (2007), p.558, accessed December 6, 2014, retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/25548253 6 UN Sustainable Development Goals, “Goal 5: Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls,” United Nations, accessed January 29, 2015, retrieved from http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/gender-equality/ 80 representation of women in politics and economic activity, and ownership and inheritance rights.7

Education has been both identified and advocated as the most important factor, by Nobel laureates, intellectuals, politically influential people etc., through which empowerment objective can be achieved. Nelson Mandela had once famously said, “Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world.”8 Education, recognized as the base for a positive social change through empowerment, may begin an “‘empowerment process’ if it expands women’s knowledge and understanding, self-confidence and awareness of gender equity.”9

In the Arabian Gulf countries a tremendous social change in terms of empowerment has occurred as “access to education has improved dramatically over the past few decades, and there has a number of encouraging trends in girls’ and women’s education.”10 Saudi Arabia had also witnessed a tremendous social change of an unthinkable degree many decades ago. In 2014, the world was taken by surprise with Saudi’s surprising social change when the Ministry of Education released statistics which showed that more than half of the students graduating from internal universities of the kingdom were its women subjects and “more than 35,000 Saudi women were enrolled in foreign undergraduate and graduate programs, with more than half studying in the United States.”11

Statistics issued by the Ministry of Education…revealed there are more Saudi women studying in universities than men… According to the statistics, Saudi women constitute 51.8 percent of Saudi university students. There are 551,000 women studying bachelor’s degrees compared to 513,000 men. The ministry reported 24,498

7 Naila Kabeer, Jessica Woodroffe, “Gender Equality: Challenges and achievements in the implementation of the Millennium Development Goals for women and girls from a European Union perspective,” European Union, (2014), p.22-23, accessed February 23, 2015, retrieved from http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/etudes/join/2014/493049/IPOL- FEMM_ET(2014)493049_EN.pdf 8 Bedford N. Umez, Your Excellency, (Page Free Publishing, Inc.: South Farmer street, 2005), p.7. 9 Katie McCracken, Elaine Unterhalter, Sergio Márquez, Agata Chełstowska, “Empowering women Maulanaand girls throughAzad education,” Library,European Union, Aligarh(2015), p.18, accessed Muslim January 29, 2016, University retrieved from http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2015/510022/IPOL_STU(2015)510022_EN.pdf 10 Farzaneh Roudi-Fahimi, Valentine M. Moghadam, “EMPOWERING WOMEN, DEVELOPING SOCIETY: Female Education in the Middle East and North Africa,” Population Reference Bureau, (2003), p.1, accessed December 4, 2014, retrieved from http://www.prb.org/pdf/EmpoweringWomeninMENA.pdf 11 Cynthia Gorney, “The Changing Face of Saudi Women,” National Geographic Magazine, February, 2016, accessed December 11, 2015, retrieved from https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2016/02/saudi-arabia-women/ 81 Saudi women are completing their graduate studies. A total of 16,221 are completing their master’s and 1,744 are completing their PhD. The ministry also reported Saudi women studying abroad are dispersed across 57 countries. The US has the largest number with 18,221 students. There are 6,754 Saudi women students in Europe, 2,923 in Canada and 1,445 in Australia and New Zealand. The Arab world has 5,369 Saudi women studying in the region. There are 812 Saudi women students in East Asia and 13 students in South Africa and Kenya, according to the statistics. The ministry also reported Saudi women are studying in various fields including education, social sciences, arts, business, law, engineering, natural sciences, agriculture, medicine and the service sector. The statistics also revealed there were 35,537 Saudi women studying abroad in 2014. A total of 3,354 were completing their bachelor’s degree, 15,696 were completing their master’s degree and 3,206 were completing their PhD.12

According to Saudi Press Agency:

University education for Saudi women in recent years has witnessed a tremendous development at the quantitative and qualitative levels, both in terms of development programs, specific initiatives or strategic plans for women since the foundation of the Kingdom … The Ministry of Education has worked hard to overcome the difficulties in front of Saudi women’s excellence in various stages of education, to promote their scientific and intellectual standards and emphasize their presence on the national development roadmap… [and] approved the Award [Princess] Nora Abdulrahman for excellence and leadership of women in the kingdom, in order to encourage women [for] scientific leadership locally and abroad. Women have accounted for a percentage of (51.8%) of the number of registered students in Saudi universities, and achieved a remarkable increase in the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques Program for Foreign Scholarships in the disciplines which were not available to them in the past [in] graduate studies, while in undergraduate studies, an increase in the number of female students enrolled reached in 2013 in public universities (551,192) students, while the number of women in 2012 was (511,593) students. Women’s education Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University

12 Saudi Gazette, “More women than men in Saudi universities, says ministry,” Al-Arabiya, May 28, 2015, accessed December 13, 2015, retrieved from http://english.alarabiya.net/en/perspective/features/2015/05/28/More-women-than-men-in-Saudi- universities-says-ministry.html 82 was not limited to the Saudi public universities, as private universities education is contributing to providing higher education for women.13

The statics had come as a contradiction contrary to the popular belief that the kingdom of Saudi Arabia was run by a regime oppressive towards women. The explanation for such a social change in Saudi Arabia is in “its traditionally high value in both Islamic and Arab culture. ‘Seek knowledge from the cradle to the grave’ and ‘seek learning even if it is as far away as China’ are among the Prophet’s oft-quoted sayings.”14 The government of Saudi Arabia had formulated planning to encourage its female citizens to pursue an education not only internally but oversees as well.

2. Background to Women Education

Seeking Knowledge is an obligation on every Muslim Man and Muslim Woman.15 Prophet Mohammad.

Saudi Arabia’s constitution in its chapter first and article one of General Principles proclaims that “The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is a sovereign Arab Islamic State with Islam as its religion,”16 so, “the Saudi educational system gives a central role to Islamic” guidelines and principles.17 According to Rafeda Al-Hariri: “Muhammad the Prophet has made many statements to give women their rights. He said, talking to his men, ‘The best of you is the best to his wives’. He said also ‘God commands us to treat women nobly’. ‘The more civil and kind a Muslim is to his wife, the more perfect of faith he is’. It is easy to infer that the Quran and the sayings of the Prophet are clear in stating that men and women are complementary to each other, and in their full cooperation and harmony lies the very purpose of life.”18 “Education is supposed

13 Saudi Press Agency, “Saudi women account more than 51% of university education seats,” Saudi Press Agency, May 26, 2015, accessed January 24, 2016, retrieved from http://www.spa.gov.sa/1365579 14 Sarah Drury, “Education: The Key to Women’s Empowerment in Saudi Arabia?” Middle East MaulanaInstitute, JulyAzad 30, 2015, accessedLibrary, November 25,Aligarh 2015, retrieved fromMuslim University http://www.mei.edu/content/article/education-key-women%E2%80%99s-empowerment-saudi-arabia 15 Sahih al-Bukhari, “Book 81,” Hadith no. 6541. 16 “Saudi Arabia’s Constitution of 1992 with Amendments through 2005,” Constitute Project, retrieved from https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Saudi_Arabia_2005.pdf 17Rafeda Al-Hariri, “Islam's Point of View on Women's Education in Saudi Arabia,” Comparative Education, Vol. 23, No. 1, Special Number (10): Sex Differences in Education (1987), p. 51, accessed October 5, 2013, retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3099445 18 Ibid. 83 to be given to all Muslims,” as the Prophet Mohammad had said, so, “both sexes are equal in searching for education.”19

During the 1930’s, Saudi Arabia introduced formal primary education. This marked the beginning of an extensive educational building programme in the kingdom.

Saudi Arabia’s first monarch, King Ibn Saud, regarded education as a means to foster national unity and to enlighten the Saudi people. In 1925, public education did not exist. There were only four private elementary schools in the entire country. Therefore, a centralized educational policy was entrusted to the newly established Directorate of Education. Although compulsory education was mandated for a six- year elementary education followed by a five-year secondary cycle, enforcement was difficult without an adequate number of schools. Saudi Arabia’s first educational system was modeled on Egypt’s system, which, in turn, was heavily influenced by the French educational model. Saudi Arabia’s educational system was designed to observe the teachings of Islam, disseminate knowledge, and construct schools. The 1930s witnessed many changes in education: the first Religious Sciences School (1933); the issuance of rules for private schools (1934); and the first secondary school, Tahdeer Al-Baathat School, to prepare graduates for a university education (1935). In 1938, the General Directorate of Education was given full control over all education except for the military. Saudi Arabia’s first technical secondary school and school of higher learning, the College of Sharia (now, Umm Al Qura University), were founded in 1949. During the decade of the 1950s, three more colleges were granted charters, the Teachers’ College (1952), the College of Sharia in Riyadh (1953), and the College of Arabic Language in Riyadh (1954).20

However, the United Nations in 1952, reported that there were 306 elementary schools functioning in Saudi Arabia but literacy was not more than 5 percent.21 Despite the establishment of schools and the face-lift of educational system, the kingdom wasn’t observing any positive change desirable to the government as far as education of the citizens was concerned. On the other hand, the government was also Maulanaplanning to educate Azad the female Library, citizens which Aligarh had come under Muslim heavy criticism University from the conservatives, conventionalists and local population. Resultantly, women

19 Ibid. 20 World Education Encyclopedia: A Survey of Educational Systems World Wide, (Vol.3), (Farmington Hills: Gale Group, 2002), p.1167. 21 Ibid. 84 education had to suffer some delay until the mid-1950s. The protests were so massive in nature that, to disperse the agitating crowds, Royal Guards had to be called in,22 and later in 1957, two private schools for girls were opened namely Darul Hannan and Nasif.23 Nevertheless, “in 1961, education for women was mandated, with the responsibility given to the newly created General Directorate of Girls Education. There was considerable resistance to female education within the kingdom, but it abated and during its first decade, 16 primary schools for girls were built with 148 staff members educating 5,200 females.”24

Subsequently, extensive reforms were introduced by the government for the empowerment of women citizens through education, however, citizens representing different quarters of the society were creating difficulties and hindrances. Although, female education was introduced but the rural parts remained largely untouched, since not many had accepted the idea of educating their women and girls and, “girls’ education remained unknown in the central part” of the Kingdom.25 It was only after full authority was assumed by King Faisal that in 1964 that education of girls was made a priority and “expenditure on education increased to an annual level of approximately 10 percent of the budget. Faysal…drew plans for more institutions to mark his commitment to education. Vocational training and institutions of higher education were built in addition to more than 125 elementary and secondary schools for girls.”26

During King Faisal’s “decade of rule, from 1964 until his assassination by a nephew in 1975, he struck a skilful balance between modernisation and the conservatism of a tribal and deeply religious society.”27 He “engaged in in an aggressive state building effort…to repair the effects of mismanagement. He instituted an elaborate welfare system, with guaranteed…free education for all Saudi citizens. In 1965, he formalized the state’s financial and budgetary plans. Under Faisal’s direction the central planning

22 Linda Blandford, Oil Sheikhs, (London: Widenfeld and Nicholson, 1996), p.106. 23 Shirley Kay, Social Change in Modern Saudi Arabia, quoted in Tim Niblock’s State, Society and MaulanaEconomy inAzad Saudi Arabia, Library,(London: Croom Helm,Aligarh 1982), p.177. Muslim University 24 Op. Cit. 20, p.1167. 25 Madawi al-Rasheed, A History of Saudi Arabia, 2nd edition, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011), p.117. 26 Ibid. 27 Review, “King Faisal of Saudi Arabia: Personality, Faith and Times. By Alexei Vassiliev, A Kingdom’s Future: Saudi Arabia through the Eyes of its Twenty Somethings, The Economist, January 26, 2013, accessed August 25, 2015, retrieved from https://www.economist.com/news/books-and- arts/21570665-he-struck-skilful-balance-between-modernisation-and-conservatism-deeply 85 organization was established and the first five year plan unveiled in 1970, covered…education . . . The plans also provided for the construction of schools and the provision of free education for all children.”28 “Faisal cautiously introduced social reforms such as…the right of females to receive an education.”29 As Rawaf and Simmons have pointed out:

In 1964 the first four government intermediate schools for girls were opened, with goals very similar to those of the elementary schools. But in the same year the first secondary school was opened with the goal of preparing girls for domestic roles and also for university studies. The increase in the numbers of these schools [showed] the real significance of the growth of secondary schools [] that they represented for the first time an acknowledgement of a wider role for girls than that of domestic duties. It can be said of the three groupings of opinion concerning girls' education described above, that the elementary and intermediate schools catered for those parents who wanted only that their daughters become better wives and housekeepers but that the secondary schools served the purposes of that small group of parents who wanted their daughters to be able to study up to and including college level. Indeed, the founding of secondary schools for girls opened up the definite possibility of a university education for women, because the secondary schools themselves needed university trained teachers and because many of the students who attended them wanted to continue their education at a higher level.30

Previously, the statuses of women education “restricted…more or less [to] informal education in home,”31 were actively participating in higher education and work. “The massive influx of petrodollars in the 1970s and early I980s provided the Saudis with

Maulana28 James Wynbrandt, AzadA Brief History Library, of Saudi Arabia, (NewAligarh York: Facts onMuslim File, 2004), p.226. University 29 Peter North, Harvey Tripp, Culture Shock! A Survival Guide to Customs and Etiquette: Saudi Arabia, (New York: Marshall Cavendish International, 2000), p. 21. 30 Haya Saad Al Rawaf, Cyril Simmons, “The Education of Women in Saudi Arabia,” Comparative Education, Vol. 27, No. 3 (1991), p.290, accessed October 5, 2013, retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3099298 31 George T. Trial, R. Bayly Winder, “Modern Education in Saudi Arabia,” History of Education Journal, Vol. 1, No. 3 (1950), p.126, accessed October 5, 2013, retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3659167 86 the money to invest heavily in”32 women education and “more and more Saudi women [became] highly educated and [began] pressing for more employment opportunities and a wider range of occupational choice.”33 Nevertheless, the social and cultural constraints were actually hindering the process of a positive social change but the Saudi women fought for their right to empowerment.

3. Education and Empowerment

Education was acknowledged as an important pillar of empowerment and with the inception of women education and necessary educational reforms, the empowerment mission of social change began to progress in a positive direction. “In addition, since 1964, women have been given scholarships to study abroad” by the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.34 Subjects offered to the women at the inception of their education was social sciences and arts. A substantial increase in the number of women students was observed over the years. As A. Hamadan has pointed out:

Since women’s education in Saudi Arabia officially began, educational levels have increased rapidly. The number of women’s institutions has grown from 15 in the 1960s to 155 in the 1970s…women’s education started with arts and education; all other fields were available only to men. 1986 statistics show that in 1970 the total number of girls in elementary schools was 246,559. That number had increased to 649,509 according to the 1989 UNESCO statistics. In secondary schools 185,902 girls graduated in 1982 and in the year 1986 the number had increased to 255,766. The first girls’ college was established in 1970 in Riyadh and admitted those with secondary level schooling. Approximately 10 similar colleges with the same requirements opened by the 1980s. Subjects included the arts, education, general science and sciences such as biology, mathematics, religion, Arabic, geography, history, English, psychology and home economics. Library sciences were exclusively offered at Riyadh’s college. The first university that has a women’s campus was Riyadh’s King Saud University, which opened in 1979. Subject areas included Arabic, English, history and geography. In the 1980s women’s campuses at King Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University

32 Michaela Prokop, “Saudi Arabia: The Politics of Education,” International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs, Vol. 79, No. 1 (2003), p.84, accessed May 30, 2015, retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3095542 33 Ibid. p.88. 34 SIHAM A. ALSUWAIGH, “Women in Transition: The Case of Saudi Arabia,” Journal of Comparative Family Studies, Vol. 20, No. 1 (1989), p.69, accessed June 26, 2014, retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/41601994 87 Saud University added colleges for public administration, medicine, dentistry, nursing, and education. The Jeddah campus of the University of King Abdulaziz, admitted women to economics in 1967, and the Dammam City campus of the King Faisal University in 1978 opened a centre for women which included colleges of medicine, nursing, agriculture, nutrition, home economics and education. King Saud University in Riyadh has two campuses one in Al-Qaseem (a city 400 kilometres from Riyadh) and a second one Al-Joof, a city on the northern part of the country. King AbdulAziz University has branch campuses in Madinah with women and men’s campuses offering mathematics, biology, medicine, computer sciences, and humanities. The College of Interior Design of Architecture followed in 1982. In 1975 Saudi women were allowed to enter medicine, and the first admission of women to the Faculty of Dentistry occurred in 1980. …In 1971, Umm Al-Qura University in Mecca admitted women to all departments except Physical Education, the training of judges and Islamic Economics. The University of Imam Prophet Mohammed Ibn Saud in Riyadh, a religious university, opened four of its departments to women; these were Shar’ia (the Islamic law derived from the Quran and the Hadith, D’awa (the spreading of the message of Islam), Al Ageda (belief of Islam), and Itejahat Mu’asera (contemporary attitudes)… in 2002, King Khalid University in Abha admitted women to computer sciences, biology and English. Some of these university campuses have residential accommodations for female students who do not live within travelling distances. . . Each student is paid approximately $300 CDN for science and medicine, and approximately $270 CDN for liberal arts per month. Over a hundred women’s colleges [and] over fifty community colleges [were functioning]. A number of private universities and colleges have also been established…35

Even though the Kingdom had “made substantial progress on female literacy and education, however, there was “still much to do.”36 Saudi women had begun to compete with their male counterparts and in many cases did consistently “better in standardized tests and grade promotion.”37 The job market began to open for the Saudi women and: “Saudi women did take jobs in the newly created all-female banks, services and education. Members of the wealthy elite invested their capital in small Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University 35 Amani Hamdan, “Women and education in Saudi Arabia: Challenges and achievements,” International Education Journal, Vol.6, No.1, (2005), p.51-52. 36 Safaa Fouad Rajkhan, Women in Saudi Arabia Status, Rights, and Limitations, M.A. Dist., University of Washington, (2014), p.3., accessed December 24, 2016, retrieved from https://digital.lib.washington.edu/researchworks/bitstream/handle/1773/25576/Rajkhan%20- %20Capstone.pdf?sequence=1 37 Peter W. Wilson, Douglas F. Graham, Saudi Arabia: The Coming Storm, (New York: M.E. Sharpe, 1994), p.243. 88 all-female businesses. Female owned and managed boutiques, sports centers and beauty salons in prestigious shopping malls mushroomed in Riyadh and Jeddah. It was estimated that in 1980, there were 11,847 Saudi women on government payroll working mainly in the fields of education, health, administration and social services.”38 The positive trend in education in bringing about social change continued throughout the 1990s as women literacy rates and their participation in the economic sector was touching new heights as a result of the educational reforms by the government.

Elsewhere in the Gulf countries there was a tremendous social transition taking place. According to Bahgat: “Over the last half a century the six member-states of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates (UAE), have witnessed a tremendous transformation of almost all aspects of socio-economic and political life. In the closing years of the millennium, the Gulf societies look very different from what they were in the aftermath of the Second World War. One of the most salient, and least analyzed, developments is the change in their educational system. In the late 1990s, the great majority of young Gulf citizens have the opportunity to receive formal education. Furthermore, the literacy rate among adults has more than doubled in the last few decades.”39 Bahgat further states that, “…until few decades ago the role of women, as defined by society, was being a good wife and a good mother. A fundamental social change in the contemporary [Arabian] Gulf is the emergence of women into the previously exclusively male world of public affairs.”40 Women’s opportunity in the labour market enhanced as a result of a result of the “impressive expansion of modern schooling for girls in a relatively short period of time,” and “more female students were enrolled in all levels of education.”41 Saudi women had steadily made their way:

Into new areas of private-sector employment that were unacceptable a generation ago, such as advertising, broadcasting, and journalism, while women work in at- home offices in professions that are closed to women, such as architecture. Women Maulananow Azad work in Library, shops that cater Aligarh exclusively to women,Muslim and there University are also entire

38 Op. Cit. 25. P. 147. 39Gawdat Bahgat, “Education in the Gulf Monarchies: Retrospect and Prospect,” International Review of Education, Vol. 45, no. 2, (1999), p.128, accessed October 5, 2013, retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3444942 40 Ibid. p.133. 41 Ibid. p.134. 89 shopping malls catering exclusively to women and employing only women. The hotel industry has received permission from the Ministry of Commerce to recruit women to work in marketing banquet facilities and in coordinating women’s functions.3 Banks for women provide employment for a few but, more importantly, alleviate women's dependency on a male guardian for access to their own money. The public-sector is still the biggest single employer of women, (in fact it is the biggest employer in the country) and the vast majority who work are in the sex-segregated education system where their numbers are growing as Saudis replace foreign nationals. In 1994, about 70 percent of women teachers in the public schools were Saudi nationals, and in 1996 almost 58 percent of female college and university instructors held Saudi nationality.42

The Gulf women had begun to question the restrictions over their education and empowerment and according to them, to these restrictions there was no proof in the religion of Islam. “Islam recognizes that women have an independent status from men and gives women equal…legal, political, economic, and social rights. The main obstacle that prevents women from fully participating in nation building is not Islam but a ‘rigid clinging to the Saudi traditional way of life…’”43 After the advent of Islam, which previously was near missing in the non-Islamic Arabia, women joined men in public discussions, “managed business, helped to construct mosques and fought battles,” and left their mark as known “theologians, historians, calligraphers, teachers and poets.”44

More, new and revived policies were introduced by the Arabian Gulf countries for the empowerment of women as the world was preparing its entry into new millennium. The number of female students in higher education had quadrupled in the gulf countries and consequently, there was a scarcity of jobs in the market. In Saudi Arabia too, women enrollment and later their participation in economy was on a rise and the paucity of jobs hit the Saudi market as well. The government of Saudi Arabia modified its official national policy that was aimed at privatization of its public sector Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University

42 Eleanor Abdella Doumato, “Women and Work in Saudi Arabia: How Flexible Are Islamic Margins?,” Middle East Journal, Vol. 53, No. 4 (1999), p.569-570, accessed October 5, 2013, retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/4329391 43 Review by: Christine Eickelman, Women in Saudi Arabia Today by Mona AlMunajjed, Middle East Journal, Vol. 52, No. 2 (1998), p.296, accessed May 21, 2014, retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/4329202 44 Ibid. 90 to create new jobs for women, giving birth to “Niqaat System” or Saudization or the Saudi nationalization scheme.

Saudiazation; “the process of replacing foreigners with indigenous workers, is intended to open up more space in the workforce, and at least some of these future job-openings have been specifically ear-marked for women. At a meeting of the Council of Ministers in 1997, King Fahd stated that 79 percent of the 660,000 jobs held by foreigners and slated to be ‘Saudi-ized’ should go to women,” and “the absolute number of women in public sector employment” went up.45 The late king “‘Abdullah who, in 1999, [was] acting as regent on behalf of his ailing brother, King Fahd, ha[d] in fact made statements which suggest[ed] royal support for women’s empowerment. ‘Issues like driving cars by women and women [obtaining] ID cards are comparatively simple, the Prince [had] said.’ ‘The most important thing is their full participation in the life of the society.”46

4. Social and Economic Trends in Transition

As the participation in national economics of women in Arabian Gulf countries was increasing different labour laws were introduced by the governments that were benefiting, empowering and progressive in nature. In Saudi Arabia: “The number of ‘mixed spaces’ that enable women to be employed has increased steadily. These fields of employment include hospitals, head offices of banks, and other private firms. Interestingly, for women who do work in these spaces, there are progressive policies that support her maternal and familial responsibilities. Women in Saudi Arabia are entitled to ten weeks of maternity leave, in some cases with full pay. Women are also given daily time off from work to breastfeed their infants once they do return to work. Employers must pay for medical coverage, and they are prohibited from terminating a women’s employment based on illness or pregnancy-related leave. . . It is interesting to note that…women in Saudi Arabia still own close to 40 percent of nation’s private wealth. 47 Maulana” Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University

45 Op. Cit. 42. P.571. 46 Ibid. p.581. 47 Susan M. Shaw, Nancy Staton Barbour, Patti Duncan, Kryn Freehling-Burton, Jane Nichols eds., Women's Lives around the World: A Global Encyclopedia, Vol.1, (California: Abc-Clio, 2017), p.168. 91 The progress in women education had begun to prove as a source of women empowerment as it brought economic prosperity. “Women’s education, along with economic prosperity has initiated changes… in fact, education has been a contributing factor in the actual changes” in the lives of Saudi women.48 Nevertheless, the Gulf countries at large were witnessing a swift development in the infrastructure of female education at primary, secondary and territory levels. For instance in Saudi Arabia, “In 1963–4…there were only twenty-six schools for girls at primary intermediate and secondary levels, and they were mainly confined to the Hejaz region. By 1970–1, the number had increased to 432, and during the course of the next two decades rose considerably to reach 6,734 during 1990–1. As a result, the enrolment of female students in higher educational institutions also experienced growth. In 1980–1, a total of 16,079 female students graduated from universities across the Kingdom, while the number of female students studying in various colleges and universities reached 56,905 during 1990–1, and grew to 66,978 in 2000–1.”49

Saudi Arabia’s economic planners had recognized “that if women are going to be educated at public expense, as they now are in increasing numbers, they will expect to work and the country will need their economic output. Society has increasingly accepted the idea that women will work outside the home. They have long been employed in medicine and education.”50 Nevertheless, one of the biggest outcomes of women education was the minimization of gender bias.

The government of Saudi Arabia had observed how women work force was adding to country’s progress in socio-economic terms, as the women had proved to be force to reckon with in the labour market.

Saudi Arabia is branded as an ultra- conservative country by global as well as domestic media where the status of women is alleged to be very pathetic. But its liberalized policies, economic growth and increasing political participation of women during the last decade display a consistent positive trend. Undoubtedly this is Maulanaachieved Azadby its visionary Library, leaders; their consistent Aligarh strategies Muslim exploring the human University and

48 Op. cit. 34. 49 MD. MUDDASSIR QUAMAR, “Education as a Ladder for Saudi Women: An Overview,” Journal of Arab Studies, vol. 3, no.2, (2013), p. 266-267, accessed January 16, 2015, retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21534764.2013.863680 50 Thomas W. Lippman, “Saudi Women Shatter the Lingerie Ceiling,” Middle East Institute, February 27, 2012, accessed January 21, 2014, retrieved from http://www.mideasti.org/content/saudi-women- shatter-lingerie-ceiling 92 natural resources at their disposal. Particularly concerning women s rights most of the times stories published in all types of media builds a negative image but the overall growth and development of the Kingdom contradicts this stigma. . . Presently women empowerment seems to be topmost on the agenda of Saudi government. Although stereotyped voluminous amount of articles, reports and opinions are published in media and on social networking sites, very few studies have been carried out on this issue.51

Additionally, “girls’ schooling in elementary, secondary, high school and university” had remained under the supervision of the “Department of Religious Guidance until 2002,” when “the girls’ education was moved under the Ministry of Education.”52 Post-2001, “women’s higher education began flourishing, and now most universities have a campus for girls. Also, girls could now major in medicine, biology, and computer science in most of those campuses. . . In 2006, King Abdullah’s scholarship was established. The scholarship is offered for study in universities around the world. Girls are given same chance that boys are, with more flexibility for girls.”53 Women in Saudi Arabia were grabbing the opportunities provided by the government for their empowerment thoroughly. According to a Saudi government report:

Currently, more than 300 higher education colleges exist for women in the country alongside universities, and women represent more than 56.6% of the total number of Saudi university students and more than 20% of those benefiting from overseas scholarship program. The percentage is expected to increase in the coming years with the establishment of a number of new universities in major cities in the kingdom. Saudi women have dazzled international observers by becoming pioneers in variety of fields, most prominently science and research, and by receiving international awards and earning patents. These achievements have been reflected in international reports and statistics. The 2009 Global Education Digest of UNESCO showed that Saudi women come remarkably ahead of western women in terms of obtaining academic degrees. Also the 2009 Global Gender Gap report ranked Saudi Arabia at 25th among countries in terms of the gap between the two sexes in university Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University

51Riyazuddin Qureshi, “Human Resources Development and the status of Women Labor Force in Saudi Arabia: A Critical Analysis,” International Journal of Current Research and Academic Review, Vol.2, no.4 (2014), p. 145-146, accessed March 31, 2016, retrieved from http://www.ijcrar.com/vol-2- 4/Riyazuddin%20Qureshi.pdf 52 Fahad Alharbi, “The Development of Curriculum for Girls in Saudi Arabia,” Creative Education: Scientific Research, vol.5, (2014), p.2021-2022. 53 Ibid. p.2025. 93 registration. The Kingdom thus ranked ahead of a number of advanced countries such as the USA and Germany.54

The educational structure in Saudi Arabia had passed “through a new era because of its young and growing population and prospering knowledge-based industry. The Kingdom has recently stated a complete overhaul of its educational system at a cost of US$3.1 billion, which made Saudi Arabia the 8th highest education spender in the world,” and “Saudi women are vigorously pursuing higher education especially in science at a rate greater than Saudi men & Western women.”55 Samar Fatany, a Saudi radio broadcaster and author of Saudi origin mentions that:

In the field of science, 40 per cent of Saudi doctors are women and there is an increasing number of successful women who have acquired global recognition as scientists and researchers and have inspired many Saudi women at home…Dr Khowla Al Kurai, consultant and principle clinical scientist and cancer researcher at King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Centre (KFSHRC), for her distinguished contributions in the field of medical research [had brought laurels to the kingdom]. Professor Samira Islam, the head of the Drug Monitoring Unit at King Fahd Research Centre has made significant contributions in drug safety by defining the Saudi profile for drug metabolism. Another Saudi achiever is Dr Samia Al Amoudi, an obstetrician, gynecologist and assistant professor at King Abdul Aziz University, known for her breast cancer advocacy. A breast cancer survivor herself, Samia has received several awards for her courage and hard work for the amelioration of Saudi society…Maha Al Muneef, the executive director of the National Family Safety Programme and councillor of the International Society for the Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect [had also contributed towards Saudi society].56

Nevertheless, “a new school curriculum was devised in 2004 to make school education both inclusive and modern.”57 As part of the empowerment agenda, the

54 “Women in Higher Education: Saudi Initiatives and Achievements,” Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, MaulanaMinistry of Higher Education,Azad(Riyadh, Library, 2010), p.1, retrieved Aligarh from Muslim University http://womeninscience.rasit.org/files/women_in_higher_edu_Saudi_Arabia.pdf 55 Samira Ibrahim Islam, “Saudi women: Opportunities and challenges in science and technology,” Education Journal, vol.3, no.2, (2014), p.71, accessed december31, 2015, retrieved from http://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.edu.20140302.15.pdf 56 Habib Toumi, “Saudi women excel in science and medicine,” Gulf News, August 31, 2012, accessed May 23, 2014, retrieved from http://gulfnews.com/news/gulf/saudi-arabia/saudi-women-excel-in- science-and-medicine-1.1068301 57 Op. cit. 49. P.268-269. 94 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia “implemented a number of political and economic reforms to encourage political participation, promote economic growth, increase foreign investment and expand employment opportunities. The kingdom is updating and modernizing its academic curricula,” for the intellectual enhancement of its citizens.58

5. Saudi Women Empowerment in the 21st Century

In a historic decision made in 2011 by the Kingdom, women were allowed to register themselves for municipal elections and the electoral process, first time in the history, and the women from Makkah and Madinah became the first to enroll them with the election office. Women were also allowed to stand as candidates and contest in the elections by the year 2015.59 According to Quamar, these “municipal elections in Saudi Arabia held on December 12, 2015 were significant because for the first time women participated both as voters and candidates. An important development so far as broadening the legitimacy of the electoral process is concerned… Nonetheless, seen within the context of…reforms and priorities of the monarchy, one can argue that the municipal elections are a work in progress.”60

The women in Saudi had termed their participation in the elections as a powerful step.61 According to Lulwa Shalhoub, “hopes and expectations were raised as history was being made in the Kingdom, with Saudi women celebrating and exercising their long-awaited right to elect and get elected, and hence to participate in their country’s politics. . . Upon being elected and appointed, the 38 women members across the Kingdom started holding meetings with their male counterparts to discuss projects in their areas. . . Masouma Al-Reda, one of two elected female municipal council members in Al-Ahsa, devoted this year to empowering women who are skilled in handicrafts. She worked on setting up markets around the houses of families that produce products and handcrafts at home.” 62

58 Saudi Arabia: King Fahd Bin Abdul Aziz Al-Saud Handbook, 4th ed., (International Business MaulanaPublications: Azad Washington Library, D.C, 2011), p.52. Aligarh Muslim University 59 “Saudi women register to vote in municipal elections,” Al Jazeera, August 19, 2015, accessed December 31, 2016, retrieved from http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/08/saudi-women-vote- municipal-elections-150819132015637.html 60 Md. Mudassir Quamar, “Municipal Elections in Saudi Arabia, 2015,” Contemporary Review of the Middle East, December 21, 2016, retrieved from http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/2347798916664623 61 “Municipal Elections raise prospects for Saudi Women,” Yahoo News, August 19, 2015. 62 Lulwa Shalhoub, 95 According to Al-Suraihi, “this is not surprising. It is actually a natural product of kingdom’s social, cultural and economic progression. This dynamic progression will see increased recognition for Saudi women and misconceptions about them will be corrected.”63 Nevertheless, in yet another historical decision made by the Saudi government, “women will be permitted to drive cars from June [2018]. At present, regulations regarding this are being worked upon.”64 According to Nilofar Suhrawardy, “The hard truth is that in most non-Arab countries, a stereotyped image about Saudi Arabia prevails. . . There is also the perception that women here are discriminated against.”65

Despite the hue and cry around the world regarding the suppression of women by the kingdom, the government of Saudi Arabia had initiated a number of policies that were aimed at empowering its women subjects. “There was already a difference in the situation of Saudi women” through major decisions that were made by the government, and “some of the most remarkable of these have been permitting women to work as sales persons in stores and super markets and providing funding for young women to be educated in foreign universities, especially in the US and Europe.”66

On the other hand, Saudi rulers had professed time and again their commitment about empowering their women subjects. They have been firm believers of women rights and empowerment. The former king of Saudi had said, about the empowerment of women, “I believe strongly in the rights of women, my mother is a woman, my sister is a woman, my daughter is a woman, [and] my wife is a woman.”67 Saudi Arabia, since its inception had improved the position of women and offered them better education and employment prospects and worked towards the reduction in of discrimination of any sort or of any form.68

63 S. Al-Suraihi, “Women and Municipal Councils,” Saudi Gazette, August 4, 2015. 64 Nilofar Suhrawardy, “SAUDI WOMEN BEYOND THE WHEEL,” The Pioneer, December 1, 2017, accessed December 5, 2017, retrieved from http://www.dailypioneer.com/columnists/oped/saudi- women-beyond-the-wheel.html Maulana65 Ibid. Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University 66 N. Al-Osami, “Women’s Empowerment in Saudi Arabia Needs a Strategic Vision,” Saudi Gazette, March 27, 2015. 67 AFP, “One day women will drive, Saudi king says,” October 14, 2005, accessed September 24, 2015, retrieved from http://www.abc.net.au/news/2005-10-14/one-day-women-will-drive-saudi-king- says/2124474 68 Angus McDowall, “Saudi King Abdullah was a cautious reformer,” Reuters, January 23, 2015, accessed December 23, 2016, retrieved from https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saudi-succession- abdullah-obituary/saudi-king-abdullah-was-a-cautious-reformer-idUSKBN0KW00720150123 96 Rima al-Mukhtar has observed: “Saudi women have taken remarkable steps toward successful achievements . . . Political participation is one of the most significant rights that Saudi women have gained… Saudi women have proven they are qualified to hold leading positions and becoming fully involved in both Shoura and municipal councils helps them gain their social, political and civil rights… Saudi women are now lawyers, engineers, scientists and successful businesswoman and we are asking for more. Now that women do not need permission from their male guardians to apply for a job or start a business, we also ask that we be given other benefits that do not need the authorization of our male guardians like going on a scholarship for female students and going to the Saudi courts, where women need to accompanied by male guardians. . . When you empower women, you empower the whole society because it reflects on the economic development of the Kingdom. Women’s participation is a must in all areas.”69

Social change in the guise of women empowerment through education had touched new heights as the number of working women was increasing. Neil Bunting, while writing in article in The Telegraph mentions:

As an international school teacher in Saudi Arabia, I want to bust a myth: Saudi Arabia, in my opinion, is not a hardship posting. Particularly, it is often portrayed as being extremely challenging for women, but…the scare stories are inaccurate. For example, women can ride around in a taxi without a chaperone, and there are increasing numbers of women working in Saudi now. Indeed there are huge numbers of well-educated Saudi women completing university. The country is undoubtedly changing. As a long-term expatriate I find myself getting irritated by the way that the kingdom is often misrepresented by Western mainstream journalism and television news. It gets little coverage except when there is a bad news story, such as perceived human rights violations, or a story about women not being allowed to drive.70

A major breakthrough in the Saudi women empowerment came in February 2009, Maulanawhen “an Azad expert on Library,girls’ education becameAligarh Saudi Arabia’s Muslim first woman University minister…

69 Rima al-Mukhtar, “Empowering women: Kingdom leads the way,” Arab News, May 16, 2012, accessed November 13, 2014, retrieved from http://www.arabnews.com/saudi-arabia/empowering- women-kingdom-leads-way 70 Neil Bunting, “Why expat life in Saudi Arabia is more fun than you might think,” The Telegraph, December 14, 2015, accessed February 23, 2016, retrieved from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/expat/before-you-go/why-expat-life-in-saudi-arabia-is-more-fun-than-you- might-think/ 97 Nora bint Abdullah al-Fayez, a US-educated former teacher, was made deputy education minister in charge of a new department for female students, a significant breakthrough in a country.”71 According to Sarah Drury: “few would dispute the progress on women’s education… Other notable achievements include[] opening Saudi Arabia’s first coed university, The King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), near the coastal city of Jeddah, in 2009, and the world’s largest female-only university, the Princess Nora Bint Abdulrahman University, in the more conservative capital of Riyadh. . . it must be said that progress has been made, with women’s participation rates actually tripling over the past few decades and women taking on new types of professions, from Olympic athletes to supermarket cashiers. Indeed, Saudi feminist Samar Fatany credits [the government] with extending women’s work opportunities beyond the education and medical sectors into areas such as banking, IT, architecture, and science.”72

The kingdom of Saudi Arabia had, “introduced major reforms in education and the economy…corrected the status of women and integrated them into the workforce…allocated a large budget to reform the judiciary, enacted labor laws to boost the economy and encouraged foreign trade and investments,” and a “national Dialogue” on “women issues” was also “created so that people can be exposed to other viewpoints.”73 Mounira Jamjoon, while writing in an article, has pointed out: “Women in Saudi Arabia shape their agenda according to where they choose to take on their new challenges, what they prioritize, when they let go, and how they win. . . Economic empowerment offers a win-win scenario for Saudi Arabia and its women. It promotes gender equality and helps the country to diversify away from petroleum, a longstanding national goal. Rising numbers of well-educated women enlarge the

Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University

71 Julian Borger, “Saudi Arabia appoints first female minister,” The Guardian, February 16, 2009, accessed January 15, 2016, retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/feb/16/saudi- cabinet-woman-minister 72 Op. Cit. 14. 73 “The Legacy of King Abdullah: A Conversation with Samar Fatany,” Saudi-US Relations Information Services, April 10, 2015, retrieved from http://susris.com/2015/04/10/the-legacy-of-king- abdullah-a-conversation-with-samar-fatany/ 98 national talent pool, allowing reduced dependence on expatriates,”74 and “thus due to state policies women have broken out of the domestic sphere.”75

Nevertheless, Saudi women had become “optimistic that empowerment among them is growing,” with “several Saudi business women [making] it to the world’s most influential women’s list. They have also taken steps to own businesses and be part of the Kingdom’s highest legislative body — the Shoura Council. In fact, Saudi women are one of the most economically powerful women in the Middle East… Saudi businesswomen possess bank savings worth more than SR45 billion and SR8 billion in investment funds. Moreover, women’s real estate investments amount to nearly SR120 billion. The report also notes that Saudi women own 40 percent of the family- run companies in the country.”76

Saudi women had exceled in the fields of their own choice earning honours and fame around the world. “Samira Ibrahim Islam — Noted Saudi pharmacology researcher and professor” became “first woman in Saudi Arabia to earn a Ph.D.; introduced formal university education for girls in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia…when she became the first woman from her country of Saudi Arabia to earn a Ph.D., noted pharmacology researcher and professor Samira Ibrahim Islam…wells up with pride and emotion: ‘It was big news in my country’… Samira was also the first Saudi woman to complete a basic education, to earn a Bachelor’s degree, and to become a full professor. She is also responsible for introducing formal university education for girls in Saudi Arabia.”77

It was a remarkable achievement that “15 women in science were chosen from candidates around the world to receive special support and recognition at the L’Oreal and UNESCO ‘For Women in Science Awards 2000’ in Paris – over a quarter of the

74 Mounira Jamjoon, “Make Saudi women visible -- boost the economy,” Canadian News Network, January 23, 2013, accessed March 12, 2015, retrieved from http://edition.cnn.com/2013/01/22/business/opinion-mounira-jamjoom/index.html Maulana75 A. L. Renard,Azad “Only Library, for Women: Women, Aligarh the State and Refo Muslimrms in Saudi Arabia,” UniversityMiddle East Journal, vol.62, no.4, (2008), p.617. 76 Fadia Jiffry, “Despite constraints, Saudi women upbeat about empowerment,” Arab News, September 29, 2013, accessed December 21, 2015, retrieved from http://www.arabnews.com/news/466163 77 USA Science & Engineering Festival, “Women Who Changed the World Through Science & Engineering: Samira Ibrahim Islam,” Science Blogs, November 15, 2012, accessed January 31, 2016, retrieved from http://scienceblogs.com/usasciencefestival/2012/11/15/women-who-changed-the-world- through-science-engineering-samira-ibrahim-islam/ 99 women honoured were from the Middle East region. While one of the major awards (a Helena Rubinstein Award nomination) went to a Gulf scientist – Professor Samira Ibrahim Islam of Saudi Arabia for her incredible contribution to the sciences in her home country.”78

According to a report:

In recent years…Saudi women have made achievements unmatched by many in the Arab world, including their male counterparts, who have started to witness the field of opportunity for shrink as women prove to be respectable rivals in various fields. A recent report in Time Magazine… by Andrew Lee Butters, argues that significant positive developments in women's rights are taking place in Saudi Arabia… The latest example of excellent achievements is seen in the likes of Ms. Ghada Ba-Aqeel, who was recently awarded the ‘Best Women's Business’ in the world, by the Youth Organization of Global Business (YBI), an unprecedented achievement in the Arab world. Women such as Professor Ghada al-Mutairi and Professor Hayat Sindi are also notable examples of Saudi women who have made significant achievements in academic and scientific research and even Ms. Mawadda Nour, 23, being crowned ‘Miss Arab World 2009’ at a pageant in Cairo is a notable achievement. Meanwhile, Professor Sindi made a grand accomplishment for Arab women and Saudi women in particular by pioneering a device with a team of researchers that makes medical analysis tools more available, easier to produce and in the size of a fingertip. Sindi and her team won the first prize in two international awards for her innovative ‘Diagnostic-For-All’ device. As for Professor al-Mutairishe heads a research center in California after winning the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Director’s Pioneer Award Program. The three-million-dollar grant was given to 32 professors for winning the best scientific research that discovers an object that reflects rays and treats illnesses without the need for surgery. Also in the medical field, Dr. Howaida Obaid al-Qethamy rose up as another famous Saudi surgeon who has distinguished herself in pediatric and neonatal heart surgery and won the King Faisal order of merit, fourth grade, for becoming the top pediatrician in the Middle East and second Maulanain the world. AzadAdded toLibrary, those medical and Aligarh scientific achievements Muslim is the se lectionUniversity of Ms. Umaima al-Khamis’ novel al-Warfah (The Leafy) to be listed for the Arabic Booker Prize 2010, also known as the International Prize for Arabic Fiction (IPAF). Also in academics, Dr. Soraya Al Turki--Professor of Anthropology at the American

78 “Women in Science,” alshindagah.com, retrieved from http://www.alshindagah.com/sept2000/women.htm 100 University in Cairo-- shines as an exemplary Saudi academic who lectures at universities worldwide from Harvard to George Washington. Other female figures have also made remarkable contributions to the rise of Saudi women in different fields to the heights of human achievements despite the supposed constraints of traditions and social customs.79

Due to the “supportive government policies, women now hold 20% of seats on the Shura Council, account for 57% of university graduates and represent 27% of Saudis employed in the private sector . . . the number of women working in the private sector is up 716% since 2010… women are changing the face of finance and media. Sarah Al Suhaimi became CEO of NCB Capital, the $12bn investment arm of the country’s largest bank. Somayya Jabarti became the first female editor in chief of Saudi Gazette, a leading English-language newspaper... Women are rising in science and ICT. At Flat6Labs Jeddah, 36% of the technology start-ups are led by women.”80

The landscape of Saudi women empowerment had changed dramatically, and according Rahila Zafar, an Arab author, “bright Saudi women that could work elsewhere if they wanted to, but are excited to be part of change and new opportunities that they’re seeing happen within their country.”81 Social change brought by the empowering prospects through education across the gulf countries:

Had major effects on the situation of Saudi women in their homes and communities…female education has opened new options for Saudi women. On the private level, it has increased women’s negotiating power within the family. It has also given them greater mobility: hundreds of thousands of go out daily to either school or work. . . . On the public level, education has made it possible for thousands of Saudi women to enter the labour force.82

79 Fahad Saud, “Saudi women rise up after years of absence,” Al Arabiya News, Last updated November 3, 2010, accessed January 23, 2015, retrieved from Maulanahttps://www.alarabiya.net/articles/2009/11/21/91996.html Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University 80 “Women rising ... empowerment is just the beginning,” The Economist, August 10, 2014, accessed April 13, 2016, retrieved from http://gelookahead.economist.com/slideshow/women-rising- empowerment-just-beginning/ 81 Jane Mosbacher Morris, “Arab Women Rising’ Profiles 35 Female Entrepreneurs Changing the World,” Huffington Post, Last updated April 30, 2014, accessed January, 15, 2016, retrieved from https://www.huffingtonpost.com/jane-mosbacher/arab-women-rising-profile_b_4868409.html 82 Nagat El-Sanabary, “Female Education in Saudi Arabia and the Reproduction of Gender Division,” Gender and Education, vol.6, no.2, (1994), p.145. 101 6. Summary

As is the case with every nation-state in the world, Saudi Arabia too had been working for the enhancement and advancement of its public sector. At the initial stages, education was predominantly male oriented, however, due the reformation policies of the government women were enabled to receive an education too. This step of the government to educate its female citizens was met with fierce opposition from the local population and, the women and the government had to fight their way through. The women of Saudi Arabia, who were keen to receive an education an empowerment, did not see Islam as a hindrance in their development. According to them, there were certain pre-Islamic customs that were still followed which prevented the society from progressing. Education brought the empowerment of Saudi women to a reality and the women in the kingdom became a force to reckon with in the labour market. Saudi women did not excel only internally but earned honours internationally as well. However, “the way that the kingdom is often misrepresented by Western mainstream journalism and television news”83 reduces the appreciation for kingdom’s efforts as well as the recognition of women empowerment in Saudi Arabia.

Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University

83 Op. Cit. 70. 102 Chapter - V

Conclusion

Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Chapter - V

Conclusion

Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Chapter V

Conclusion

Social change is caused due to different reasons, thus making the causes diverse in nature. The process of social transition have been recognized as either a short-term development or long-term progress. Transition can be either be recurring or may move in one direction. The apparatuses or instruments of social change can vary or at times can be interconnected with each other. Various mechanisms collectively combine to form one descriptive model of social change. For example, innovation through education can be inspired by competition.

Social change in actuality is itself structured, to the degree that transition is slow, gradual and interconnected. Since the mid twentieth century, a shift has occurred that emphasizes from “structure” to “change” in social theory. Transition on dissimilar levels such as social change aspects in day to day life and short lived alterations and lasting developments in society at large has become a matter of much attention in the study of society.

In the contemporary times social change in the Gulf countries has become an undeniable fact. The irrefutable truth is that Saudi Arabia has witnessed a tremendous social change in its society in the post oil era due to oil boom and educational advancement. In the present day Saudi Arabia, the notions that were popularized by Philby and Dickson regarding the desert country has been rendered as outdated. Saudi Arabia has grown into a world in itself driven by new waves of social change. These waves of transition can be witnessed in abundance through the manifestations of change everywhere. In the nutshell, the educational advancement has engulfed the whole gulf.

Modern education has become the fate and fortune of the Gulf countries as an end Maulanahas been Azad put to theLibrary, centuries old Aligarh isolation where Muslim sleeping people University have been awakened by the advent of new education and brought the country at the international scene. Usually, the chatter around Saudi Arabia has always been either oil or military, however, given the rich cultural and civilizational heritage it enjoys,

103 the traditional educational system mixed with modern education has been helpful in changing the discourse to a great extent.

For the first time in the modern history of Saudi Arabia other than oil, the transformation due the educational advancement has had a significant implication. Education is called as the vehicle of social change and an important element in the overall development of a nation. The advent of modern education led to a dramatic shift from traditional to an industrial stage.

MaulanaNevertheless, theAzad advent of Library, education helped Aligarh Saudi Arabia toMuslim come out of the University tribal stage and enter into an industrial one as the conventional educational system in the Gulf country started to breakup. The disintegration process in Saudi Arabia unlike elsewhere in the Gulf witnessed a slow pace given the religious character of its society. In 1925, the Directorate of Education was established in the modern day

104 Saudi Arabia and in 1926 the foundation for a centralized national system of government was laid down. Under the establishment of new education system, women education was also initiated.

However, there were social and cultural constrictions that were becoming an obstruction towards its functioning. Elsewhere in the Gulf though, these constraints were not that telling in nature as compared to Saudi Arabia. The government’s plan to educate its female subjects had become a continuous target of conservatives, conventionalists and local population. A new phenomenon was coming into existence in the Gulf countries representing the development of education in the post-oil era and marked by planned and organized efforts.

Nevertheless, The Saudi education system had been focused on closing the skills gap Maulanaand training Azad students Library, for the job market Aligarh as well as Muslim working for the University reduction of disparity, particular gender. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia witnessed incredible social change in terms of social and economic development through education. The government has dedicated vast revenues accumulated from oil and other resources or generated through education to improve the welfare of the Saudi people. In

105 consequence of the kingdom’s strategic vision, the quality of social and economic indicators have shown rapid advancement and has placed Saudi Arabia in the highest grouping of human development according to metrics established by the United Nations.

Few countries around the globe have undergone the amount of social change such as a spectacular rise in adult literacy that Saudi Arabia has experienced. Now considered a pioneer and an innovator in education globally, the Kingdom had become a model of successful and all-encompassing educational strategy. Less than five decades ago, in 1970, only 8 percent of the adult population of Saudi Arabia was literate. By 2014, over 94.4 percent of Saudi citizens were considered literate according to the United Nations standards. The kingdom has positioned itself to promote more socio-economic development as the population is aspiring for further social change through education.

The women of Saudi Arabia, who were keen to receive an education and become empowered as a result of it, did not see Islam as a hindrance in their development. According to them, there were certain pre-Islamic customs that were still followed which prevented the society from progressing. Education brought the empowerment of Saudi women to a reality and the women in the kingdom became a force to reckon with in the labour market.

MaulanaSaudi women didAzad not excel Library, only internally Aligarh but earned honours Muslim internationally University as well. However, “the way that the kingdom is often misrepresented by Western mainstream journalism and television news” reduces the appreciation for kingdom’s efforts as well as the recognition of women empowerment in Saudi Arabia.

106 Education attained the role of an influential instruments of social change in Saudi Arabia, and it wouldn’t be wrong to place it at par with oil. If oil brought the influx of revenues, education generated human capital, if oil brought infrastructural development, education developed the brains to run them. The aspirations of ordinary Saudi citizens due to education have been mobilized. The reforms initiated by the kingdom of Saudi Arabia have played a very vital role in conserving heritage and at the same time cooperating with education to initiate social change.

Saudi educational system received an overall overhauling through proper, extensive legislations and effective implementation which to the credit of the kingdom was done timely at the much needed level. These legislations or reforms were implemented cautiously given the complex nature of the Saudi societal structure.

Nevertheless, it is important to understand that education develops individual psyche and initiate social change through innovation and development. For most of the Saudi citizens the process of social change in the kingdom has thus far been gradual and largely conforming to the norms of the society. The Saudis have taken up modern education but have conserved and remained true to their tradition.

Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University

107 Bibliography

Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University Bibliography

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