Mississippi State University Scholars Junction
MAFES Technical Bulletins Agricultural Economics Publications
9-1-1949
Farm Practices and Organization In the Southern Sand-Clay Hills of Mississippi
D.W. Parvin
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Recommended Citation Parvin, D.W., "Farm Practices and Organization In the Southern Sand-Clay Hills of Mississippi" (1949). MAFES Technical Bulletins. 8. https://scholarsjunction.msstate.edu/mafes-tech-bulletins/8
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lOt---- Operating Cost
Ye.chine 2.50 3.50 Hand Picking Rates per cwt. of Seed Cotton (dollars)
Figure 5. Comparison of costs of harvesting cotton by machine and by hand, w ith 3 rates for hand- picking. Machine harvesting cost based on seasonal picking volume of 108 bales per machine. The cost of harvesting cotton by machine in 1947 was equivalent to a hand picking rate of $2.65 per cwt. of seed cotton. BULLETIN 466 SEPTEMBER, 1949
Farm Practices and Organization In the Southern Sand-Clay . Bills of Mississippi
By D. W. PARVIN
MISSISSIPPI STATE COLLEGE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION FRANK J. WELCH, Director STATE COLLEGE MISSISSIPPI ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many technical workers of the Experiment Station and specialists of the Extension Service contributed to this report by making available information, either directly through consultation or indirectly through published reports. Those who gave of their valuable time for consultation include W. S. Anderson, W. B. Andrews, H. W. Ben-- nett, W. C. Cowsert, R. C. Eckhardt, J. L. Fletcher, T. N. Jones, H. V. Jordan, H. H. Leveck, R.H. Means, J. F. O'Kelly,’ M. A. Payne, A. T. Ringrose and 1-j. B. Vander-- ford of the Experiment Station and Arlis Anderson, E. E. Grissom, L. A. Higginsi, Chesley Hines, W.R. Thompson and J.P. Yount of the Extension Service. The personnel of the county agricultural offices in Newton County gave valuable a£sistance in selecting the sample and in locating the sample farms. Milk plant man-- agers provided information regarding sales by individual farmers. Appreciation is extended to Dr. Roscoe J. Saville, Head, Department of Agricul- tural Economics and Mr. H. P. Todd of the Department of Agdcultural Economics, for suggestions in the organization and development of the study and for critically appraising the manuscript.
CONTENTS Page Introduction ------········—------— -- ················································ 3 Method of Study ...... ------...... 3 Physical Resources ------···············-·-·······---·-·---·····------— - — ··········································-·······················5 Population ····-···-···------— ---- ~~------·········-···-············--·················— ········-----········-······· 6 Indu strial De velopment ·-··-···········------···········— — —— ···················-···············---- 6 Marketing and Processing Facilities and Services ······------············-·······················8 Trends in Farm Organization and Man agement -·····················································-························· 8 Land Use ______------···-·······— ------·······-—· ·············-····-·························---- 8 Size of Farms ------····--·········-····---—------··························11 Tenure and Color of Farm Operator —··········------··——········- ······-···············································-····················· 13 Farm Income --···-··--·····-···············— -—------················-·····----···········-·······-·-·------··-···························-·····15 Farming Practices in 1946 ·····-······-----·------··--········-········-·············-·········15 Crops ______----···········-···· ______—------····························-····-········--·········---····--···········---- 15 Livestock ····-----··--···-··········~ ——------········- ----·-----—~ _____ JS Labor and Power ----- ———------·······-··· ------····-·······················-·····-·····-····-····-········-···············21 Improved Farming Practices ·—-—-——·------—-— -- --···········-···········-···············-·················22 Crops ····················------~ -· —------········- ········--··----················-··-······················· 22 Cotton ------·-··------···············-·-·······················-·········---··········22 Corn ------— ------···-··-·----- ············································································ 24 Sweetpotatoes ------················------_ —-- ~ ········-- --····························-·········24 Oats for Grain and Grazing or Grazing Only -···--··-····-······················- ······································ 24 Lespedeza After Oats ‘------·- ···············- ············-·······················-·····----······24 Sudan Grass ··—···--····-·-··············-··-·········-············------—------·-··········-························-··································-···2 6 Permanent Pasture _ —---- ~-----··-··-····-······------—- ·········---········-·······························26 Farm Woodland ----··········-·············•--······------— ------·······---·----······················-····-·····-·········26 Livestock ------— — ------··········- ········- ·········-········-·····················-·····································27 Milk Production ·-···········------·············-···---—------····-······································· 27 Beef Production -----············— ··· ------····-··························-·····- ···------··········--······-··-·····················2 8 Poultry Production ··-··········------——---···········------····-·········-················· ·······-···········30 Pork Production ·······················-___ —------—·------·······························------················-··················-································· 30 Suggested Reorganization of Typical Farms ·--························-········--·-·-·······-··········-···············-··········· 31 Typical 40 •Acre Farm ···-·························------——------——— - ·-----······················-·············33 T ypi cal 80-Acre Farm ···-·------·······························-········-·············-···········-·······-- ······································37 T y pical !60•Acre Farm ··-··-····-························-----····-·— —-—----- ··············-·····································39 Typical 360•Acre Farm ·····························------·------····················----·····-··········-········-························ 41 Summary ----·····························································—------— ------··- · ··-····- ··-··················································-···············-·43 Appendix ------························--······················································------— ------———~ ——- ······-····················--·-······-·46 FARM PRACTICES AND ORGANIZATION IN THE SOUTHERN SAND-CLAY HILLS OF MISSISSIPPI By D. W. PARVIN Efficient farm practices and farm or- 6. To indicate the extent to which ganization are important considerations farm income could be increased for in-- in all types of fanning areas; however, dividual farms typical of each size group they should be given special considera- through better farm organization and tion in the southern part of the Sand- improved farm practices. Clay Hills, because of the small size of Method of Study the m:ijority of operating farm units. All Newton County was selected for study farm resources in this area, as represent- as being fairly representative of condi- ed by Newton County, must be used as tions in the southern part of the Sand- efficiently as possible if farm income per Clay Hills. See figure 1. There are two farm family is to compare favorably soil areas in Newton County-the Cen- with that of other sections of the country tral Prairie and the Sand-Clay Hills. The where a larger land area is available field study was limited to the latter area, per family. Operators of small farms which makes up about 90 percent of the must invest more capital per acre in the county. form of fertilizer, seed, equipment, build-- In collecting information in the field ings, livestock, feed, etc., and in general the following schedules were used: (1) follow a more scientific and intensive A crop enterprise schedule to record system of farming than operators of crop practices and production per acre larger units if they are to have compar-- for the major crops; (2) A labor and mule able incomes. power requirement schedule to record The primary purpose of this study is the time required to perform standard to bring together available information operations on farms using mule power; relating to the agriculture of this area ( 3) A labor and tractor power require-- and to demonstrate insofar as possible its ment schedule to record the time required application in improving farm produc- to perform standard operations on farms ~ion and income. More specifically, the using tractor power; (4) A livestock following objectives were set up to guide enterprise schedule to record livestock the course of study. practices and production for the major 1. To provide a general description of livestock enterprises; and (5) A farm or- the area and its resources. ganization schedule to record the present 2. To determine present farm prac-- organization, production and cost items tices and the relationship of variations used in production for farms in each in these practices to production. major size group. 3. To determine labor and power re- In selecting the sample for fie ld study, quirements fo r maior farm operations five independent samples were drawn in with different types of power. order to hold individual interviews within a reasonable time limit. A few farmers 4. To bring together in one publica- were drawn in two separate samples; tion available information on improved none appeared in over two samples. The farming practices for the major crop and samples were selected in the following livestock enterpmes adapted to this manner: area. 1. Crop enterprise schedule. The in- - 5. To determine the present farm or- dividual farm cards in the PMA office ganization for each of the major size were arranged according to size and a 4 groups. percent sample drawn by selecting each "
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Figure 1. Newton County, outlined in white on the above map, was the location of the economic study reported in this publication. FARM PRACTICES AND ORGANIZATION IN THE SAND-CLAY HILLS 5
twenty-fifth farm. Farms having less 60, 80, 120, 160, 240, or 360 acres of farm than 10 acres were eliminated before the land were taken from the files and a sample was drawn because most of the random sample of 10 farms was farms in this group would probably be taken from each size group, For the classified as part-time or semi-retirement 240 and 360 acre size groups it was farms. necessary to include farms having slight- 2. Labor and tractor power require- ly more or less land than the specified quirements schedule. A list of farmers acreage in order to have enough farms in the county having tractors was made from which to draw the sample. up from the file of farmers receiving When it was necessary to drop a farm gasoline for tractors during the rationing from any of the original five samples period and from information furnished for any reason, it was replaced by a farm by county agricultural workers. It was in the same community which had the recogni"zed that this was an incomplete same characteristics. list, but it was felt that more than half The total numbers of usable schedules of the farmers owning tractors were in-- obtained were as follows: Crop enter-- cluded. This list when completed con-- prise, 170; labor and mule power require- tained the names of 130 farmers. A ments, 31; labor and tractor power - twenty-five percent sample was drawn re- quirements, 28; livestock enterprise, 43; from the list after the farms had been and farm organization, 66. arranged according to size by selecting A larger number of schedules each fourth farm. was taken in each instance but a number had to be discard- 3. Labor and mule power require-- ed because of incompleteness or other ment schedule. This sample was drawn reasons. in the same manner as the crop enter- Data related to the general character- prise sample except that the farms known istics of the area were taken from the to have tractors were eliminated from United States Census and publications of the group and only a 2 percent sample the United States Department of Agri-- was taken. culture. 4. Livestock enterprise schedule. A Physical Resources complete list of Newton County farmers selling dairy products was obtained from From 1936 to 1946 the frost-free sea-- processing and fluid milk plant records. sons in Newton County ranged from 184 The farms were arranged according to days in 1943 to 255 days in 1946, and the amount of milk sold and a twenty- averaged 222 days. The last killing frost five percent sample drawn by selecting in the spring occurs in March or April each fourth farm. The study of livestock and the first killing frost in the fall in enterprises was limited to dairy farms be-- October or November. The normal an-- cause dairying is by far the most im-- nual rainfall is 58.7 inches. The falls are portant livestock enterprise in the county. usually dry and there are frequent late summer droughts. 1 5. A ten percent sample of the 1943 Newton PMA worksheets, which gave total land County lies in the central part in farms, was arranged according to of the Coastal Plain physiographic soil division. acres of farm land. The farms tended to The soils in the county develop- concentrate around 40, 60, 80, 120, 160, ed from two widely different geologic formations. 240 and 360 acres and it was decided to About 90 percent of the county limit the farm organization study to is comprised of soils that develop--- these 7 size groups. All PMA - work- 1 Weather Bureau, United States Department sheets in the county office showing 40, of Agriculture, 1936-1946- . 6 MJSSISSil'PJ AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN ed from Coastal Plains sands, sandy_ clays, joyed relatively high farm incomes since and heavy clays. The other 10 percent is they shifted from a strict cotton economy comprised of soils that developed from to more diversification. Much of the soft limestone, marls, and extremely land in this section is rough and severely plastic clays over limestone. The county eroded and is suitable only for the pro-- is in the form of a square, and a small duction of perennial crops like kudzu portion in the Southwest corner of the and trees. 2 county lies in the Central Prairie soil Population area, and the remainder lies in the Sand-- The density of population in Newton Clay Hill soil area. County of 42 persons per square mile is Soils of the Sand-Clay- Hills. The geo- sLghtly higher than for the Shortleaf logical materials found in this area in Pine Area as a whole and slightly lower Newton County are sand, sandy clays, than for the State (table 1). Total popu- and heavy clays which occur in various lation in Newton County increased 23 proportions. In some places sandy parent percent from 1900 to 1940. This increase materials predominate, and in other areas was considerably less than for other parts the heavy materials predominate. Natur-- of the State. The farm population in ally light-textured soils developed from Newton County decreased 29 percent the sandy materials, and clay soils de- from 1940 to 1945 which was. a slightly veloped from the heavy parent material. higher decrease than took place in the The predominating soils that develop-- Shortleaf Pine Area and the State ( table ed from the light-textured parent materi- 2). In 1940, 65 percent of the people in al are as follows: (1) Hill soils-Orange-—- this county were white. This was the burg, Ruston, Faceville, Ora, Savannah; same percentage that was reported for (2) Terrace or Bench Soils-Cahaba, the Shortleaf Pine Area, but it was con-- Tilden, Kalmia, Prentiss, Stough, Myatt; siderably higher than that reported for (3) Bottom Soils-Ocklocknee,— Iuka, the State as a whole. The total popula- Mantachie, Bibb; ( 4) Colluvial Soils-— tion of Newton County was classified as Ducker, Jamison, Guntown. rural in 1940 as contrasted to 87 percent The predominating soils that developed rural for the Shortleaf Pine Area and 80 from the heavy sandy clays and clay are percent rural for the State. Seventy-four- as follows: ( 1) Upland Soils-— Boswell, percent of the population in this county Sawyer, Susquehannah, Shubuta, Cuth-- was classified as rural-farm which was bert; (2) Terrace’' Soils-Flint, — lzagora, slightly higher than for the Shortleaf Leaf, Byars; (3) Bottom Soils-Urbo,— Pine Area and considerably higher than Chastain. for the State. The Sand-Clay- Hills Soil Area is Industrial Development adapted to a general type of farming. In Newton County is predominately ag-- this section cotton and corn, along with ricultural, and there has been relatively some hay and fruits, have been the main little industrial development. In 1940, cash crops in the past. At present, how-- 67.4 percent of the people employed in ever, many farmers have developed good Newton County were engaged in agri-- pastures on their small farms and have culture, as compared to 60.8 for the Short- gone into the dairy business. At the pres-- leaf Pine Area, 57.7 percent for Missis-- ent time the farmers in this section of sippi, 31.5 percent for the ~outh, and 18.5 the county are getting their farm income percent for the United States (table 3). from three main sources. These are cot- ton, dairy products, ;and timber. This 2 Five preceding paragraphs prepared by H. B. combination of enterprises seems to work Vanderford, A ssociate Professor of Soils, Missis- very nicely, and many farmers have en- sippi State College. FARM PRACTICES AND ORGANIZATION IN THE SAND-CLAY HILLS 7
Table 1. Total population: Composition and trends, Newton County, Mississippi, 1900-1940,- with ______co_m_ parisons. Newton Shortleaf Item County Pinc Area Mississippi Percent increase from 1900 tu 1940: Total population ------______23 28 41 White population _____------______33 39 73 N egro population ------______11 12 18 Rural population ------______------23 17 22 Urban population 1 ______------______0 268 261 Percent of 1940 population that was: White ______65 65 51 Negro ______------______35 35 49 Rural ______---- ______100 87 80 Rural-farm ------______------74 71 64 Rural-nonfarm ------______26 16 16 Population per square mile ( 640 acres) ______42 40 46 Source: U. S. Census. 1 All persons living in in corporated places of 2500 or more. There were nu incorporated places of 2500 or more in Newton County in 1900 or 1940.
Table 2. Farm population, Newton County, 1940-1945- , with compariso_n_s_.____ _ Area ,--1940--j--- 1 ~-j Percent decrease Newton County ------______17,9 10 12 ,761 29 Shortleaf Pine Area ____------__ —______340,600 252,950 26 Mississippi ------______- 1,4 03 ,142 1,050 ,4 44 25 Source: U. S. Census. The data for 194 0 and 1945 are not 100 percent co mpa rable b ecause of different methods used in taking the two censuses; however, it can be used tu give an approximation uf the chan ge in farm population from 1940 to 1945.
T_ab_l_e_ 3_._O _c _ c _ uat_i_ _ pon __o_f _e_ m ~ p ~ye l __d~ o ~ pe~ r_so_n_s_,Newton County, Mississippi, 1940, with comparisons. 1 Newton Shortleaf United _It_em______Co_ u_n_ty~_I P_in_e_A_rea IMi ssissip~ I South 2 States Percent of total Employed in agriculture ______------___ _ 67.4 60_8 57.7 31.5 18.5 Manufacturing ______------______7.5 10.0 9.2 15_9 23.4 Manufac turing (excluding sawmills, planing mills and logging) ______2.1 4.0 5.3 13.5 22.l 3 Service trades ______------22.3 24.9 28.2 43.9 49.8 4 Other occupations ------______------____- 2.1 3. 1 3.9 7.6 6.8 Not reporting occupation ------______.7 1.2 l.O 1.1 1.5 Sources: United States Ce nsus. 1 Does not include employment on public emergency wo rk. 2 Tr.e "South"“ includes the states of Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, L o uisiana. Maryland, Mississippi, No rth Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, T e nnessee, T exas, Vir-- ginia, West Virginia, and the District of Columbia. 3Includes transportation, communica tion s, and other public ut ilities; wholesale and retail trade, finance. insurance, and real estate; business and repair services, personal se rvices, amusement, recrea-- tion, and relat ed services; professional and related services and government- 4 Includes construction, mining, fi shing, and forestry (excluding logging) _ 8 MISSISSIPPI AGRIC\JL TURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 466
In 1940, only 2.1 percent of all em-- including the labor required to move ployed persons in Newton County were dairy products to market is prohibitive engaged in manufacturing, exclusive of and prevents many potential producers of sawmills, planing mills and logging, from going into the dairy business. Some as compared to 4 percent foi- 'the Short-- of the old routes could be extended and leaf Pine Area, 5.3 percent for Mississippi, some new ones started where present or 13.5 percent for the South and 22.1 per-- potential production would justify it. cent for the United States. Service trades There are two livestock auction markets accounted for 22.3 percent of the people in Newton County and several in border-- employed in Newton County in 1940, ing counties, including two large auctions which is a slightly smaller proportion in Lauderdale County. There is one than for other parts of the State and less packing plant located in Lauderdale than half of that of the United States. County, and there are several local butchers in Newton and nearby counties. Marketing and P rocessing Facilities and These, plus a number of local buyers, Services provide physical facilities sufficient to Marketing and processing facilities for handle the livestock production of New-- handling the cotton crop are adequate. ton County. There are 11 gins and 2 warehouses in There are several sawmills in the Newton County. One of the warehouses county and a large pulpwood plant in is equipped with a compress. In addition Lauderdale County. These furnish a there is one cotton oil mill in the county ready market for timber products; how- and one in an adjoining county. ever, many farmers need to be better in-- There are a number of assembling and formed as to the volume and value of processing plants for dairy products in the timber they have for sale. Newton and adjacent counties. Withm A market for broilers has been de- the county there is a cheese plant, cream, Union which is located on the ery, a milk cooling station for Grade A veloped at line between Newton and Ne-- milk and an ice cream plant. Routes county other parts of the from a milk cooling station for manu-- shoba Counties. In for p·oultry products have ncturing milk and from two fluid milk county markets except for local deal- distributing plants extend into the county. not been developed However, there are many individual ers who usually operate a general mer-- business or a grocery store. farmers who are not on or near cream chandising or milk routes and who must furnish Adequate market facilities for other their own transportation if they are to form commodities produced in Newton sell dairy products. Transportation cost County have not been developed.
TRENDS IN FARM ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT
Land Use 4 ). Thirty-four- percent of the land in A higher percentage of the land in farms in Newton County was classified Newton County is in farms than in the as cropland in 1944, which was one per-- Shortleaf Pine Area or in the State. In cent higher than 15 years before. The 1944, 75 percent of the total land area in proportion of farm land that was classi-- Newton County was in farms as com-- fied as cropland decreased 3 percent in pared to 69 percent in the Shortleaf Pine the Shortleaf Pine Area and 5 percent in Area and 65 percent in the State ( table the State during this same 15 year period. FARM PRACTICES AND ORGANIZATION JN THE SAND-CLAY HILLS 9
Table 4. Land use in Newton County, Mississippi, 1929, 1939 and 1944, with comparisons. Newton County Shortleaf Pine Area I Mississippi Item I19 29 I 1939 I 1944 1929 I 1939 I 1944 1929 I 1939 I 1944 Percent of total farm land Total cropland ------33 37 34 34 35 31 43 42 38 Cropland harvested ______------29 33 26 30 28 26 38 36 33 Open pasture _____------______17 2 19 l 6 2 23 15 2 22 2 Woodland pasture --______------______------_- 23 22 18 2 19 16 __ 2 18 2 Woodland ______------24 22 23 2 22 19 2 17 Other ______3 2 2 8 2 5 7 2 5 Total land in farmsl ______------_ 100 100 JOO 100 100 100 100 100 100 Total land area in farms, percent ______74 74 75 66 68 69 58 63 65 Source: U. S. Census. lThe totals for the columns will not nece~sa rily add to 100 hecause of rounding. 2Not available.
The proportion of the land in farms that not as pronounced. In 1944, Newton w;s devoted to open pasture in Newton County farmers devoted a greater pro-- County increased from 1929 to 1944 but portion of their cropland to corn, hay, the increase was less than that which took and oats, and a smaller proportion to cot- place in the Shortleaf Pine Area and in ton, than did farmers in the Shortleaf the State. In 1944, 19 percent of the land Pine Area or the State as a whole. in farms in Newton County was used for The primary reason for the greater open pasture as compared to 23 percent shift from cotton to feed crops in New-- for the Shortleaf Pine Area and 22 per- ton County than in the Shortleaf Pine cent for the State. Area or in the State as a whole is shown Significant changes took place in the in table 6. In Newton County the yield use of cropland in Newton County be- of cotton per acre increased 31 percent tween 1929 and 1944. The proportion of from the average for the five-year period cropland devoted to cotton decreased 1928-1932- to the average for the five-year from 53 percent to 23 percent; the pro- period 1943-47,- as contrasted to a 61 per- portion in corn increased from 37 per-- cent increase in the Shortleaf Pine Area cent to 51 percent; the proportion in hay and a 73 percent increase for the State increased from 4 to 15 percent; and the during the same period. Between 1928 proportion in oats increased from 1 per-- and 1932 the yield of cotton per acre in cent to 7 pe rcent (table 5). Similiar shifts Newton County was 11 percent above that took place in the Shortleaf Pine Area, and in the Shortleaf Pine Area and only 1 in the State, although the changes were pound below that of the State as a whole;
Table 5. Crops harvested in Newton County, Mississippi, 1929, 1939 and 1944, with comparison&. ' Newton County I Shortleaf Pine Area I Mississippi ltem / 1929 I 1939 I 1944 1929 I 1939 I 1944 1929 I 1939 I 1944 ------~--'- Percent of total cropland harvested Corn -______------37 54 51 40 48 49 30 Cotton ______53 43 37 ______30 23 50 30 30 61 35 35 All hay ______------·---·-····-·--····-·------4 11 15 5 J3 14 5 12 14 All oats ______------···------l 2 7 2 l 2 I 2 7 Total 1 ______------·--··------·--··------·-----·--- ______·--_ 95 97 96 95 92 95 97 92 93 Cropland harvested 1929 = I 00 ______100 117 92 100 99 92 100 105 98 Source: U. S. Census. 1 This does not necessaril y cons titute the per ce nt tr.at these four crops contrihutc to total crop- land harvester h ecause of douhl c-c rnppin g- nf nats and ha v nn same land. 2Less than .5 percent. 10 MISSiSSIPPi AGRICULTURAL EXPElUMENT STATION BULLETIN 466
THOUSANDS POUNDS OF ACRES PER ACRE A 350 70 I I I \ 3125 65 YIELD PER ACRE I /\ (Right Scale ) 300 60 I \ I• I \ I ' 275 55 I \ ' \ ,·-- \ , ' 250 50 ,, \ \ ACREAGE ,, \ 45 ;-,...,.._ (Left Scale) ,' \ \ 225 1.-....il~--- I I 200 40 \ I \ ' \ I ' 75 35 \ , '\ I 30 'V 25 25 '' V 00 20 7; 15 10L....L.....I-.L...... L,_,.L.,,._._...l,_..._.a...... ------~~-- 50 1930 1935 1940 1945 Figrue 2. Acreage, yield and production of cotton in Newton County, Mississippi, 1928-1947.
how<.tver, between 1943 and 1947 the yield age and production of cotton in Newton of cotton per acre in Newton County was County have declined during the past IO percent bdow that in the Shortleaf two decades. Pine area and 25 percent below that in An obseravtion of table 7 will show the the State as a whole. In other words Newton County farmers have not been extent to which livestock production has able to increa~e their per acre yield of increased in Newton County and other cotton as much as have farmers in the p:irts of the state. The commercial produc- Shortleaf Pine Area and in the State as tion of dairy and poultry products are rel- a whole, and have therefore found it atively more important in Newton County more profitable to utilize a greater pro-- portion o[ the land in the production than in the Shortleaf Pine Area or in of feed crops and livestock enterprises. the State. In 1944, dairy products valued In addition to low average yield, ex-- at $114 and poultry products valued at treme fluctuations in yield from year to $68 were sold per 100 acres of farm land year have contributed to the decreased in Newton County; for the Shortleaf acreage of cotton in Newton County. For Pine Area comparable figures were $75 example, the average per acre yield of for dairy products and $51 for poultry cotton in Newton County was 259 per-- products, and for the State $90 for dairy cent higher in 1944 than in 1940, and 63 products and $45 for poultry products. percent lower in 1946 than in 1944 (fig-- In all, Newton County farmers received ure 2). A further observation of figure 2 30 percent of their cash farm income will show the extent to which the acre-- from the sale of livestock and livestock FARM PRACTICES AND ORGANIZATION IN THE SAND-CLAY HILLS II
Table 6. Trends in cotton acreage, production and yield, Newton County, Mississippi, 1928-1947,- with comparisons. ------~------~----- Newton Shortleaf Pine Item County ---- Area Mississippi 1928-32 average: Acres -----______-············- ·························-····-············-·······-·______···· 41 ,820 738,820 4,018,200 Production, 500 lb. bales ················______·················-········ ______16 ,098 256,608 1,559,000 Yield, lbs. ··____··--···· ·····-····-···············---- ______184 166 185 l 943-47 average: Acres ---______·························-······-···········-·-···········______19,060 427,336 2,378,800 Production, 500 lb. bales ······--··------______----··-·----·----- ______9,5 93 23 9,417 1.590,800 Yield, lbs. ------·------··------______241 268 320 Percent change: Acres ··____··--·····-·-· ___·------····------·---·-----·----······-··--- —-54 -42 -41 Production, 500 lb. bales ______------·-- ______·---·· —-40 —-7 +2 Yield, lbs. ·---·___--- --··-·----·-----·------··------·------+31 +61 +73 Source: Off-ic-e-o-f -tk Agr :---ic-u:-1t-u- ra-:-1_S_t_a -:-tis-t :-ic-,--ia_n_,_B_u_r_e-au- -cf:-- oA-g-ri:---c-u-lt-ur-a-,--1_E_c_o_n_o_m_i_cs-. ----- products as compared to 22 percent in the units 4 and less than 50 acres of cropland Shortleaf Pine Area and 16 perce nt for were harvested on 86 percent of the op- the State.~ erating farm units ( table 8). Operating Size of Farms farm units in the Shortleaf Pine Area With present systems and methods of and in the State fall into about the same farming the majority of farms in Newton size pattern. County are too small to utilize modern When the operating farm units in equipment efficiently and to employ Newton County are distributed accord-- labor throughout the year. In 1944, less ing to total land in farms about one-- than 30 acres of cropland were harves ted on 64 percent of the operating farm 4 Operating fa rm unit refers to ownership or management unit, whicr. may include several 3 See table 13. farm families .
Table 7. Livestock numbers per 100 acres of farm land, Newton County, Mississippi, 1930, 1940 and ___1_94 _5, with comparisons. Ne wton Co unty IShortl ea f Pine Area I_ Mississippi 1930 I 1940 I 1945 193 0 j 1940 j 1945 1930 j 1940 j 1945 On farms January 1: Horses and mules ______--·--- _____ 2.2 2.3 2.1 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.7 2.3 2.3 Cattle and calves, all ______----· __ 4.9 5.9 7.8 4.5 5.1 7.3 4.9 5.9 8.4 Cows and heifers, 2 yrs .+ ______3.0 3.2 4. 6 2.7 3.0 4.1 2.9 3.4 5.0 Hogs and pigs ______1.4 2.6 3.1 1.9 2.8 3.2 2.8 4.3 4.7 Sows for s pring farrowing ___ .2 .3 .4 .2 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 Chickens on hand -·-______·------______28 32 40 29 29 39 3 1 32 38 During year: 1 Chickens raised 2 ______··-______------··------· 59 64 63 59 79 74 62 59 75 Cows and heifers mi I ked H ·- ______2.4 2.6 2.7 2.4 2.4 2.5 2.2 2.4 2.4 Cattle a nd calves sold . ___ . __ 4 1.2 1.9 1.3 1.8 4 1.3 1.9 ~gs and pigs sold_::---- ______4 .4 1.1 .9 1.5 4 1.0 1.7 Source: U. S. Censu s. 11929, 1939 and 1944. 2 In 1944 th e value of poultry products so ld per 100 acres of farm land was $68 in Newton County, $51 in the Shortleaf Pinc Arca, and $45 in Mississippi. 3 In 1944 the va '.ue of da iry products so ld per I 00 acres of fa rm land was $ 11 4 ,n Newton County, $75 in the Shortleaf Pine Area and $9 0 in Mississippi. 4Not available. 12 MISSISSI PPI AGRICUL1'URAL EX PERIM ENT STATION BULLETIN 466
Table 8. Percentage distribution of operating farm units 1 by acres of cropland harvested, Newton ______County, Mississippi, 1944, with comparisons. Percent of operating farm units I Cumulative percent Acres of cropland Newton I Shortleaf I Newton I Shortleaf I _ h_a_r_v_es_te_d______I C_o ,----u-,--n_ty !Pine Area Mississippi County Pine Area Mississippi 1 - 9 ______12.9 13.2 14.6 20 - 29 ···______································· 243 253 23n 64.1 65.4 62.5 30 - 49 ··············______······················ 21.2 21.8 203 85.9 86.6 82.8 50 - 99 --______-···················· 11.1 10.7 10.5 96.6 97.7 933 100 - 199 ______································ 2n 2J 3J 99.7 993 97 .0 10 - 19 ·············______······················· 282 25~ 24~ 38.8 41.1 39.5 200 and over ...------...... 3 .7 3.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 ------Total ....------...... ------..-... - .. -...- ...- .. -.. - I...,.O..,..O...,.O-- -l..,.00-,----...,..0- --l-,-00,.....0- --- Source: U. S. Census. lA complete farm business. It ma y co nsist of a multiple unit (two or more families) under the supervision of one operator, or a si ngle unit (one family) under th e management of tr. e family farming it.
Table 9. Percentage distribution of operating farm units, land in farms and cropland harvested hy size groups, Newton County, Mississippi, 1944. Percent of land from Percent of total Cumulative percent which crops Operating I Land in I Cropland Operating I Land in I Cropland were Acres of land farm units farms harvested farm units farms harvested harvested Under 10 ...... —...... 2.9 .2 3 51 10 - 29 ---______9.6 1.7 3.6 12.5 1.9 3.9 55 30 - 49 ______····················· ··· 18.8 7.0 10.5 31.3 8.9 14 .4 39 50 - 69 ______························ ___ 11.5 6.3 8.4 42.8 15.2 22.8 35 70 - 99 --______- 19.8 14.8 17.9 62 .6 30.0 40.7 3 1 100 - 139 ______··················· · 16.2 17.7 18. l 78.8 47.7 58.8 27 140 - 179 ····______········-····· · 8.6 12.7 11.9 87.4 60.4 70.7 24 180 - 219 ______··················· · 43 7.8 6.7 91.7 68.2-- 77.4 22 220 - 259 -··______··············· 2.4 53 4.7 94. 1 73.5 82. 1 23 260 - 379 ---______3.2 9.2 7.5 973 82.7 89.6 21 380 - 499 ----______1.2 4.9 4.1 98.5 87.6 93.7 22 500 - 999 ·______················· ·· 1.2 7.2 4.5 99.7 94.8 98.2 16 1000 and above ----...... 3 5.2 1.8 100.0 100.0 100.0 <) Total ______...... 100.0 100.0 100.0 Source: U. S. Census.
Table 10. Trends in the number and average size of farms, 1 Newton County, Mississippi, 1929, 1939, 1944, with comparisons.
I Newton County Shortleaf Pine Area Mississippi Acres of Acres of I Acres of Number of land Number of I land Number of land Item I farms I per farm fa rms per farm farms per farm ------1929 ______- --························ ___ 3793 70.9 70,779 69.6 312 ,663 55.4 1939 ______3483 73.9 67,925 76.6 291,092 65.8 1944 ______- ___ 3442 75.0 61,512 84.6 263.528 74 .4 Percent change from : 1939 to 1944 ______...... ___ —- 1 —-9 +10 -— 9 +13 1929 to 1944 ______...... ___... —-9 —-13 +22 —- 16 +34 Source: U. S. Census. 1 When a landowner has one or more tenants, renters, croppers or managers, th e land operated by each is counted as a separate fa rm by th e Bureau of the Census . FARM PRACTICES AND ORGANIZATION IN TIIE SAND-CLAY HILLS 13 third had less than 50 acres, one-third The number of farms in Newton from 50 to 100 acres and one-third over County has been decreasing and the 100 acres (table 9). The latter group, average size of farm increasing during re- which actually made up 37.4 percent of cent years; however, the change has not of the total operating farm units, had been as pronounced as in other parts of 70 percent of the farm land and about the State. ti Between 1929 and 1944, the 60 percent of the cropland harvested. The number of farms in Newton County de- group operating less than 50 acres of farm creased 9 percent as compared to a 13 land only had 9 pe rcent of the farm land percent decrease in the Shortleaf Pine and 14 percent of the cropland harvested. Area and a 16 percent decrease in the It is interesting to note that the intensity State. During the same period the size of of farm operation decreased as the acres farms increased 6 percent in Newton of farm land per operating unit decreased. County, 22 percent in the Shortleaf Pine That is, as the acres of farm land per Area and 34 percent in the State. In 1944, operating unit increased the proportion the average size of farms in Newton of the land that was used for crops de- County was about the same as State creased. This means that in general the average, but it was about 13 percent operators of the larger units had enough smaller than the average size of farms in land to allow its use for the crop to which the Shortleaf Pine Area ( table 10). it was best suited ( row, close growing, sod or timber) and yet produce an ade-0 Tenure and Color of Farm Operators quate income for the farm family; where- Since 1929 farm ownership in Newton as, in general the operators of the smaller County has been increasing and tenancy units were forced to utilize land for row decreasing ( table 11 ). This same gener- crops that was better suited to other uses in order to have as near an adequate in-- ti Census farm s. The land farmed by a crop- per or other non-managing tenant is classified as come for the farm family as possible. a farm by the census.
Table 11. Tenure and color of farm operators, Newton County, Mississippi, 1929, 1939 and 1944, with comparisons. Newton County I~ortleaf Pine Area I Miss issippi Item I 1929 l 1939 [ 1944 . 1929 ! 1939 I 1944 1929 I 1939 I 1944 Percent of farms operated by: Owners1 ____------53 58 63 42 46 54 28 34 41 White owners ______------·-··------______41 46 50 34 37 44 21 26 31 Colored owners ______------12 12 13 8 9 IO 7 8 10 Tenants ______------______47 42 37 58 54 46 72 66 59 White tenants ------23 23 15 32 30 23 21 19 15 Colored tenants _____------___ -_------24 19 22 26 24 23 51 47 44 White owners and tenants _____------64 69 65 66 67 67 42 45 46 Colored owners and tenants ------36 31 35 34 33 33 58 55 54 Percent of farm land operated by: 1 Owners ______------______---- 72 73 77 64 65 72 58 63 71 Wr.ite owners ______------59 62 66 54 56 62 48 54 61 Colored owners ______------13 II II JO 9 10 IO 9 10 Tenants ______------·------__ 28 27 23 36 35 28 42 37 29 White tenants ______------17 18 12 21 22 16 17 18 12 Colored tenants ______------····--·------II <) 11 15 13 12 25 J al trend has been taking place in the operated by whites or in the proportion Shortleaf Pine Area and in the State; of the total farm land operated by whites. however, farm ownership is more pro-- White owners have become more im-- nounced in Newton County than in the portant, but this has been balanced by Shortleaf Pine Area or in the State. In the declining importance of white ten-- 1944, owners operated 63 percent of the ants. farms and 77 percent of the farm land Although 37 percent of the farm in Newton County. In the same year families in Newton County were classed owners operated 54 percent of the farms as tenants in 1944, only 17 percent of the and 72 percent of the farm land in the operating farm units were operated by Shortleaf Pine Area ari.d 41 percent of the tenants (table 12). This is the case be-- farms and 71 percent of the farm land in ccause in many the State. instances the land farmed by croppers or tenants is only a part of Farm operators in Newton County are a complete operating unit. When oper- predominantly white. In 1944, about two-- ating farm units in Newton County are thirds of the operators in Newton County divided into single and multiple units, were white as compared to less than one-- 20 percent of the single units and 5 per- half for the State. There has been little cent of the multiple operating farm units change in Newton County in the last 15 were operated by tenants in 1944. The years either in the percentage of farms proportion of both single and multiple Table 12. Operating farm units: Single units and multiple units and percent operated by tenants, Newton County, Mississippi, 1944, with comparisons. Newton Shortleaf Item County Pine Area Mississippi Number: All operating farm units ---·------2,615 44 ,965 145,407 Single units ------2,113'" 36,960 117,021 Multiple units ------______502 8,005 28,386 Percent operated by tenants: All operating farm units ------17.3 25.1 25.8 Single units ------__------20.3 28.8 29.2 Multiple units __------__ __ ------5.0 7.8 11.8 Source: U. S. Census. Table 13. Source and amount of farm income per farm,1 Newton County, Mississippi, 1944, with comparisons. Newton I Shortleaf I Missis- United Item County Pine Area sippi States Value of all farm products sold, traded or used, dollars 2 1,093 1,175 1,385 3,148 Vafue of all farm products sold or traded, dollars ______725 817 1,092 2,821 Percent from crops ------66 75 83 46 Percent from livestock ------30 22 16 53 Percent from dairy products ------13 8 6 16 Percent from poultry products ------· 8 5 3 10 Percent from other livestock ------9 9 7 28 Percent from forest products ------5 3 I a Value of all farm products used by farm household, dollars ______------368 358 293 326 Source: U. S. Census. 1 Census farm. lPer farm reporting farm products sold , traded or used. S Less than .5 percent. FARM PRACTICES AND ORGANIZATION IN THE SAND-CLAY HILLS 15 operating farm units that were operated ers in the United States receive a much by tenants was considerably higher in greater proportion of their income from the Shortleaf Pine Area and in the State the sale of livestock and livestock pro-- than in Newton County in 1944. ducts than do farmers in Newton County. Farmers in Newton County are rela- Farm Income tively more self-sufficing 'than farmers Cash income per farm family from the in other sections of the country. In 1944, sale of farm products in Newton County the value of all farm products used per is relatively low when compared to other fa rm family in Newton County averaged sections of the country. The value of $368 which was 3 percent above the aver-- farm products sold or traded per farm age for the Shortleaf Pine Area, 26 per- fami ly in Newton County in 1944 a-- cent above the av erage for Mississippi, mounted to $725, which was 89 percent of and 13 percent above the average for the the average for the Shortleaf Pine Area, United States. Therefore, in terms of 66 percent of the average for the State, gross farm income Newton County farm-- and 26 percent of the average for the ers are closer to the state and national United States (table 13). Farmers in average than when only cash farm in-- Newton County receive a greater pro-- come is considered. Gross farm income portion of their cash farm income from per farm family in Newton County a-- the sale of dairy products, poultry pro- mounted to $1,093 in 1944, which was 93 ducts, other livestock products ( prfmarily percent of the average for the Shortleaf cattle and hogs) and forestry products Pine Area, 79 percent of the average for than do farmers in the Shortleaf Pine Mississippi, and 35 percent of the aver-- Area and in the State. However, farm-- age for the United States. FARMING PRACTICES IN 1946 Crops obtained produced one-half bale or more In 1946, rainfall in Newton County was per acre and two produced a bale per above average in 8 of the first 9 months. acre. Of the 65 producers from which During this period rainfall was 25 per- information on corn production was ob-- cent above average. 6 This resulted in cot- tained, 11 produced 30 bushels or more ton yields much below average and corn per acre and two produced 40 bushels or and hay yields above average. On the more per acre. farms studied in 1946, the average yields In 1946, all of the 54 farmers from were as follows: Cotton, 178 pounds on which information on cotton production upland soils and 192 pounds on bottom was obtained used fertilizer varying in land soils; corn, 20.4 bushels on upland amount from 100 to 600 pounds per acre. soils and 21.9 bushels on bottom land Of this group 45 used a complete fertil- soils; lespedea sericia 1.8 tons; and soy-- izer only and 9 used a complete fertilizer beans or cowpea hay, 1.4 tons (table 14). plus additional nitrogen. The actual The normal yield for Newton County is oounds of plant food used per acre on up-- about 240 pounds for cotton, about 16 land soils averaged 20.7 pounds of nitro-- bushels for corn and about 1.2 tons for gen, 31.1 pounds of phosphate (P2Os) and hay. 20.5 pounds of potash (K,O). Sixty-two of the Fifteen of the 54 farmers from which 65 producers from whom information information on cotton\ production <' was on corn production was obtained used fertilizer varying in amount from 50 to 6 Weather Bureau, U.S.D.A., 1946. 600 pounds per acre. Of this group, 24 16 MISSISSIPPI AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 466 used a complete fertilizer only, 37 used used per acre (table 15). This was an in-- a complete fertilizer plus additional nitro-- crease of 54 percent, or 74 pounds of gen and 2 used nitrogen only. The actual lint cotton per acre. However, on these pounds of plant food used per acre of farms where 90 pounds or more of plant corn on upland soils averaged 19.9 food was used per acre, the average cot-- pounds of nitrogen, 14.4 pounds of phos- ton yield was 155 pounds per acre or phate (P20s) and 9.2 pounds of potash 56 pounds less than on those farms where (K:O). About 50 percent of farmers re-- 80 to 89 pounds of plant food was used ported the use of fertilizer on hay. The per acre. These results are based on a average pounds of plant food applied per limited number of farms for only one acre of hay crops is shown in table 14. year and they should be interpreted with The records on cotton and corn pro-- care. The decreased yield resulting from duction on upland soils were broken the heaviest application of fertilizer was down into sub-groups on the basis of probably · the result of the more than rates of fertilization, di:ne of planting normal rainfall in 1946. and number of cultivations in order to Farmers who fertilized their corn above study the relationship of these factors to average made 83 percent more corn per yield per acre. acre than those who fertilized below Fertilization. The yield of lint cotton average (table 16). The former used an per acre increased from 137 pounds when average of 32 pounds of nitrogen and an average of 42 pounds of plant food 31 pounds of other plant food per acre was used per acre to 211 pounds when an and produced 24.6 bushels of corn per average of 82 pounds of plant food was acre. The latter group used an average Table 14. Crop practices and production, Newton County, Mississippi, 1946. Acres I Pounds of plant food No. of per ___ per acre See Table 15. Rates of fertilization related to cotton yields, upland soils, Newton County, Mississippi, 1946. No. of Pounds of plant No. of A~:~:oif !Pla nt food Nitrogen pl~1tt~od Yield cultiva- food per acre I I I I farms I per farm per acre per acre per acre per acre tions pounds pounds pounds pounds 20-59 - ______~ 10 8.0 42.2 13.4 28.8 137 4.2 60-79 14 10.2 63.7 17.6 46.1 187 4.4 80-89 ____ ]6 14.3 81.6 24 .1 57.5 211 4.2 90 an,! above ...... 10 8.'J 99.8 27.1 72.7 ]55 4.3 All farms 50 10.H 72.3 20.7 ------5 ].{, 178 4.3 Source: Farm Survey, Newton County. FARM PRACTICES AND ORGANIZATION IN THE SA D-CLAY HILLS 17 of 8 pounds of nitrogen and 12 pounds in May ( ta bl e 1 7). Fertilization and cul-- of other plant food and produced 14.4 ti vation co uld not have been factors in-- bushels of corn per acre. That is, an ad-- flu en ci ng this result in that the rate of ditional 24.1 pounds of nitrogen and 18.5 fertili zation and the number of cultiva- pounds of other plant food increased pro-- tions averaged approximately the same duction an average of 10.2 bushels per for both groups. acre. If the average cost of plant food Corn was planted in March, April, and was calculated at 10 cents per pound, the May (table 1 8). Corn planted in March fertilizer cost per additional bushel of produced 17 percent more than corn corn would be 42 cents. The majority of planted in April and 15 pe rcent more farmers grew between 4,000 and 5,000 than corn planted in May. Rates of fer-- plants per acre. tili zation and the number of cultivations Date of Planting. Cotton was planted averaged about the same for the three in April and May, with about two-thirds groups. of the farmers planting in April. Cotton Cultivation. About 60 percent of the planted in April produced about 18 per- farmers cu lti vated th eir cotton less than cent more per acre than cotton planted 5 times. The remainder cultivated their Table 16. Rates of fertilization related to corn yield, upland soils, Newton County, Mississippi, 1946. Otl~er Total pla nt plant Acres No.of Yield No. of INitrogen food food per cultiv- per Rate of fertil izer applied farms per acre per acre per acre farm ations acre pounds pounds pounds bushels Nitrogen above average and other plant food above averagel.- ______16 32.1 30.5 62.6 17 3.9 24.6 Nitrogen below average and other 2 plant food below average ____---··--·--·· ' 15 8.0 12.0 20 .0 13 3.9 14.4 Average all farms ____------·--··----··----______54 19.9 23.6 43.5 15 3.8 20.4 Source: Farm Survey, Newton Cou nty. 1 Above average for the 54 fa rm s. 2 Below average for the 54 farms. Table 17. Date of planted cotton related to yield, upland so ils, Newton County, Mississippi, 1946. Date of No. of I Acres of cotton I Average No. 0 [ !Average per acre (poundsL_ pla nting farms per farm cultivations Plant food I Yield of lint April ______------36 10.5 4 .3 71.8 186 May ______14 11.5 4.4 73.8 157 All farms ______------50 10.8 4.3 72.3 178 Source: Farm Survey, Newton County. Table 18. Date of planting corn related to yield, upland soil, Newton County, Mississippi, 1946. Acres Nitrogen I Other Total No. of Yield No of per per plant food I plant food I cul ti-- per Date of planting I fa;ms I farm ac re per acre per acre vations acre pounds pounds pounds bushels March ______------6 9 17.3 26.3 43.6 3.8 22.5 April ______------·····-- 21 12 20 .2 22.5 42.7 3.9 19.2 May ______------11 17 20.4 19.7 40.1 3.9 19.5 Average all farms ______54 1 15 19.9 23.6 43.5 3.8 20.4 Source: Farm survey, Newton County. lSome farmers planted in more than one month. 18 MISSISSIPPI AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 466 cotton 5 times or more and produced 17 terpreted as being representative of pro-- percent more cotton than the group cul- duction practices on farms where poultry tivating less than 5 times. Plant food ap-- or pork production is a major enterprise. ;plied per .acre averaged approximately However, it was felt that poultry and the same for the two groups ( table 19). pork production practices on these farms Apparently the number of cultivations were representative of conditions on most was not important as far as corn pro-- farms in the county where poultry and duction was concerned. The group of pork production are minor enterprises farmers who cultivated four times pro- and produced mostly for home consump- duced 17 percent more corn per acre tion. than those who cultivated less than 4 Most of the dairy herds were small on times and about 8 percent more than the 43 farms studied; 15 had 5 cows or those who cultivated over four times; however, the group who cultivated 4 less, 30 had 10 cows or less and 41 had times used about one-third more fertil- 20 cows or less. Thirty-eight of the group izer per acre than did either of the other sold milk or cream to manufacturing groups. Forty-four percent of the farmers plants, four sold to Grade A processors cultivated less than 4 times per acre, 30 and one retailed Grade A milk. Most of percent cultivated 4 times per acre and the cattle were grade Jerseys, although 26 percent cultivated over 4 times per there were a few scattered registered acre ( table 20.) Jerseys. Livestock Nineteen farmers had their own breed- Milk was produced for sale on all 43 ing bull, 12 farmers paid breeding fees, farms on which information was obtained and 12 farmers used their neighbor's bull relating to livestock production practices. without charge. Aritficial insemination Data related to poultry and pork produc- was used on a few farms. Seven farmers tion practices are representative of con-- bought replacement cows and four sold ditions on dairy farms and cannot be in-- cows for replacement. Table 19. Number of cultivations related to cotton yields, upland soils, Newton County, Mississippi, 1946. Number Acres of Plant food Yield per No. of Number Number of of cotton per acre cultiva-- of cultivations I farms per farm acre tions hoeings pounds pounds Under 5 ______31 11.4 72.0 168 3.7 1.6 5 or more -______------19 9.9 73.0 196 5.4 1.7 All farms ------50 10.8 72.3 178 4.3 1.6 Source: Farm survey, Newton County. Table 20. Number of cultivations related to corn yields, upland soils, Newton County, Mississipp<, 1946. Acres I Other I Total I No. of Yield No. of I No. of I per Nitrogen plant food plant food cultiva-- per cultivations farms farm per acre per acre per acre tions acre pounds pounds pounds bushels Under 4 24 15 19.5 20.7 40.2 2.8 19.0 Four 16 17 22.2 30.4 52.6 4.0 22.3 Over 4 ------—------14 14 18.1 20.6 38.7 5.2 20.6 Average all farms ______— 54 15 19.9 23.6 43.5 3.8 20.4 Source: Farm survey, Newton County. FARM PRACTIC ES AND ORGANIZATION IN THE SAND•CLAY HLLS 19 The majority of farmers used the gen-- when needed. Six farmers provided tem-- eral barn for the dairy herd. Thirty-three porary summer pasture of lespedeza, farmers had a general barn only; the re-- Sudan grass or millet for a period vary- maining 10 had additional buildings for ing from one and one-half to three the dairy enterpris e. For fencing, the months. Winter grazing of oats and/ or majority of farmers used 3 strands of 4-- winter legumes was provided by 20 point wire on untreated wood posts. Six farmers for a grazing period of from one farmers used milking machines. to three and one-half months. Grazing furnished cattle on most farms Production per cow unit on the farms was unimproved open pasture and wood- studied averaged 3227 pounds of milk, land pasture. Only eight of the 43 farm-- 86 pounds of beef on foot, and $4 .44 of ers had improved pasture, that is, pasture other sales ( table 21 ). Of the 43 farmers which had been fertilized and/ or clipped from which information on milk produc- Table 21. Livestock practices and production, 43 farms, Newton County, Mississippi, June 1, 1946- ______May 31, 1947. Dairy cow One hundred One he ad of unit1 One hen5 lb. of pork7 livestock Production: 3227 lb. milk 6. 69 doz. eggs 100 lb. pork 86 lb. L.W. b eef2 1.5 8 lb. L.W. hens $4.44 other sales 3 1.88 lb. L.W. frym Used in production: Corn, lb. 1123 29.1 381 2744 Oats, lb. ______- ······---- 174 1 83 Cottonseed meal, lb. __ 683 1 4 Soybean meal, lb. ._____ ...... 275 6 .5 16 2 Mixed and other feed, lb. 193 6.3 11 Total concentrates, lb ..._ 244 8 35.9 384 2844 Cottonseed hulls, lb. ____--···· 222 Legume hay, lb __...... ______...... 1148 1217 Grass hay, ______lb. ·•··········-···· 764 1041 Total roughage, lb ...___... . 2134 2258 Minerals, lb. ______3 Salt, lb. ______34 Open permanent pasture, 31 acres ______...... 2.71 .04 2.07 Woodland pasture, acres... . 2.49 Temporary s ummer 1.89 pasture, acres ...... 14 .07 Winter pasture, acres ....___ - 1.09 .62 Crop aftermatr., acres ...... 3.45 2.63 Man labor, hours .__...... 4 130 4.0 9 36 Source: Farm survey, Newton Co unty. 1 0ne dairy cow and th e average amount of other da iry cattle ke pt for repl acements or o ther reasons. On th ese farm s .8 head of other dairy cattle w as kept for each cow milked. 2fncludes 53 pound s of c ull cows and 33 pounds of o th er c attle sold fo r s laughter. 3 Includes $2.32 for replacement ° s sold, $2.0- 3 for increase in inventory minus purchases, $0.04 for bob calves sold and $0.05 for breeding fees and r.id es sold. 4 On 36 of the 43 farms th e c ows were milked by ha nd and the milk sold to ma nufacturing t plants. Labor re quirement per cow unit on these fa rms was 135 hours. The ave rage size was 8.6 cows. of he rd 50ne hen plus th e average numb er of otr.er poultry ke pt or raised per hen. The size- of fl ock l averaged 37 hens per farm. 6Soybean mea l or otr.er pro tein supplement. 7Pork sold and killed averaged 75 9 pounds liveweight per farm; how ever, net production )e r farm averaged onl y 700 pound 1 s liveweight per farm because of a ni mals p urchased a nd dec reases inventories. ° in 20 MISSISSIPPI AGR!COLTtJRAL EXPERIMENT S1"A'rION RULLETIN 466 tion was obtained, nine produced more pigs, the balance purchased pigs and fed than 4,000 pounds of milk per cow and them out. 3 produced more than 5,000 pounds per Pork production per farm averaged cow. Feed consumed per cow unit aver-- 700 pounds, liveweight. Feed consump- aged 2,448 pounds of concentrates and tion per 100 pounds of pork average 384 2,134 pounds of roughage. The concen-- pounds, of which corn accounted for 381 trate mixture averaged 23 percent pro-- pounds. Seven farmers had permanent tein. Grazing furnished per cow unit pastures for hogs, none supplied supple- averaged 2.7 acres of open pasture, 2.5 mentary pastures. Labor requirement for acres of woodland pasture, .14 acres of pork production was 9 hours per 100 temporary summer pasture, 1.1 acres of pounds of pork produced, or 63 hours winter grazing and 3.45 acres of crop per farm. aftermath. Labor requirements per cow Each of the 43 farms studied had one or more head of workstock. About four- unit averaged 130 hours. Poultry flocks were small and mostly fifths of the workstock were mules. Feed for home use. None of the farmers re-- consumed per head of work.stock aver-- ported more than 75 hens. Only one farm. aged 2,844 pounds of concentrates and was without a flock of hens. A wide 2,258 pounds of roughage. Grazing furn-- variety of breeds was found with Ply- ished per head of work.stock averaged 1.9 acres of mouth Rocks and Barred Rocks being 2.1 acres of open pasture, the two reported most often. Twenty- woodland pasture, .1 acre of temporary pasture, .6 acres of winter two of the 42 farmers having poultry summer 2.6 acres of crop aftermath. flocks sold eggs, 14 sold hens and 11 grazing and Man labor required to care for one head sold fryers. Sixty percent of the eggs pro- of work.stock for one year was 36 hours. duced, 54 percent of the hens sold or The dairy herds were broken down eaten, and 82 percent of the fryers sold into groups on the basis of the amount or eaten were consumed in the farm of feed fed per cow unit and on the home. Twelve farmers bought their baby basis of grazing furnished, in order to chicks, and five had brooder houses. Hen study the relationship of these factors to houses were small and in many cases milk production. were made of scrap lumber. Some of the . Apparently barn feeding alone farms were without hen houses. Feed. answer to economical milk Production per hen unit on these 1s not the production in Newton County. The 10 farms averaged 6.69 dozen eggs; 1.58 farmers who fed heaviest produced 858 pounds of hens, not dressed; and 1.88 pounds more milk per cow than did the pounds of fryers, not dressed. Feed con-- 11 farmers who fed lightest; however, sumed per hen unit averaged 36 pounds, they fed 2,407 pounds more concentrates of which 29 pounds was conJ. Labor re- and 2,3'56 pounds more roughage per quirement per hen unit was 4 hours, or co~ unit (table 22). Based on average 148 hours per average flock of 37 hens. pnces for the 5-year- period 1935-39,- the The hog enterprise was small on most additional milk produced per cow by the farms, and all farms except one had a heaviest feeders would be valued at hog enterprise. Only 7 of the 43 farmers $15.70, but the additional feed consumed reported the sale of hogs or pork pro- per cow unit would be valued at $56.43. 7 ducts, and 89 percent of the pork pro- The value of cattle and calves sold per duced on the 43 farms was consum.ed in cow unit was about the same for both the farm home. Hogs found on practical-- ly all forms were Poland-China or Po-- 7 Valuc of milk: 858 x $1.83 per cwt.; value land-China mixed. About one-half of the of feed: 2407 x $1.85 per cwt. --+ 2356 x $IO.JO farmers kept sows and raised their own per ton. FARM PRACTICES AND ORGANIZATIO IN THE SAND-CLAY HILLS 21 groups. Inadequate grazing, poor man-- pasture and grazing crops. The quality agement of cows, and cows of low ca-- and amount of grazing was the big dif- pacity can dissipate much of the results ference. In addition, the group of farm-- ordinarily 'expected from heavier barn ers providing improved pasture and win-- feeding. ter grazing sold a greater proportion of the winter months Grazing. Adequate grazing appears to their milk during be the most important factor affecting when milk prices are highest. economical milk production in Newton Labor and Power County. The farmers who had improved Mules are still used for power on the pastures and provided their cows with majority of farms in Newton County, winter grazing produced 1,451 pounds and they are relatively more important more milk per cow than did the farmers sources of power here than in the State who had unimproved pastures and no as a whole. According to the 1945 Cen-- winter grazing (table 23). This increased sus of Agriculture only 7 percent of the production ( 46 percent more) was ac-- operating farm units had tractor power complished by feeding 27 percent more in Newton County as compared to IO concentrates, 27 percent less roughage percent for the State. However, the use and by utilizing about 10 percent less of tractor power in Newton County, as land for pasture and grazing crops per in other parts of the State has been in-- cow unit. That is, both groups did. about creasing rapidly. The number of farms the same amount of barn feeding and with tractors in Newton County increased used about the same amount of land for from 67 in 1940 to 186 in 1945, an in-- Table 22. Relationship of total digestible nutrientsl fed per cow unit to production and other factors affecting production, Newton County, Mississippi, June 1, 1946-May 31, 1947. A IN f 0 1, I Average per cow unit (pounds) TON fed per No. of ~:~a.;\,c c~-t~~ ;e~cr T.N.D. I Conccn-1 Rough- I Milk cow unit I farms I cows cow fed !rates fed age fed produced Under 2000 ______11 7 .75 1387 1067 1110 2626 Above 3500 ______10 9 .89 4443 3474 3466 3484 All farms ______43 9 - .82 2976 2428 2134 3227 Source: Farm survey, Newton County. 1 Commonly called T.D.N. Table 23. Relationship of grazing furnished per cow unit to production and other factors affecting production, Newton County, Mississippi, June 1, 1946-May 31, _19_4_7_·~----- Unimproved Improved pasture and pa sture and no winter winter All Item Unit grazing grazing farms Number of farms ______------number 17 5 43 Average number of cows ______number 5 11 9 Other cattle per milk cow ______.. number .73 .60 .82 Average per cow unit: ,i Open permanent pasture______------· acre 3.06 1.42 2.71 I Woodland pasture ·------______acre 2.80 1.55 2.49 Winter pasture __·------·______acre' 0 1.87 1.09 Temporaq, summer pa sture ______acre 0 .34 .14 TON fed ______------pound 2827 2980 2976 Concentrates fed ------·------pound 2071 2640 2448 Roughage fed ------·______pound 2525 1842 2134 Milk produced______·------·------pound 3137 4588 3227 Milk so ld , October-March ·-----_ ------· percent 37.5 45.5 38.3 Source: Farm survey, Newton County. 22 MISSISSIPPI AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BULU.TIN 466 crease of 178 percent. This rate of in-- tained for most tractor ,,:,erations was crease was about double that for the State, insufficient for reliable h" IMPROVED FARMING PRACTICES Crops Wilt on wilt infested soils and Empire It should be emphasized in the begin- ire the varieties that have shown up best ning that the high crop yields associated in this area. At present stages of develop-- with improved practices in the discussion ment, flame cultivation and picking cot- that follows are dependent upon good ton by machine are not economical in this land use and a level of management area because of the small size of operat- above the average for this area at the ing units and chemical weed control is present time. These yield levels are in-- ,till in the experimental stage. Therefore, dicative of what good farm manager~ hand labor for weed control and harvest- can do when they use the best known ing in this area appears necessary for practices on crops grown on land to which ,ome time to come. If cotton i~ hilldrop- they are suited. ·ped to a stand and the rotary hoe used Cotton. For the best results cotton with early tractor cutlivations, one hand should be planted in April in this are~. hoeing for weed control and 5 or 6 cul- Deltapine, Stoneville 2B, Coker 100 tivations will be sufficient to keep the Table 24. Hours of labor and, power required per acre 1 for standard operations with mule power and tractor power, hill counties, Mississippi. One-plow (1-- Two-plow-- (2- 2 ~ne mu!~ ~wo mu!~ r:) tract~ row) tractor 3 Operation I I M I T Cut stalks ______------______------1.5 1.5 1.3 2 .6 .7 .7 .4 .4 Break land: Plow, turn ______------8.0 8.0 5.0 10.0 2.5 2.5 1.4 1.4 Plow, disc ______2.5 2.5 1.4 1.4 Disc ______1.8 3.6 .8 .8 .6 .6 Harrow ------1.5 1.5 .9 1.8 .6 .6 .4 .4 Cultipacker ------______------.9 1.8 .6 .6 .4 .4 Bed: Middlebuster ------______2.4 2.4 1.6 3.2 1.0 1.0 .6 .6 Plow, 2 furrows ______3.0 3.0 3.0 6.0 Plant and fertilize row crops: Planter ______1.6 1.6 Distributor ______1.7 1.7 Planter and distributor ______1.2 1.2 .7 .7 Plant and fertilize other crops: Seed and fertilize with grain drill ------1.4 .7 1.0 .5 Seed grass or clover with grain drill ______.7 .7 .5 .5 Fertilize with grain drill ______1.4 .7 1.0 .5 Fertilize with lime spreader__ __ .8 .4 .6 .3 Cultivate row crops ______3.0 3.0 1.6 3.2 1.0 1.0 .6 .6 Cultivate and sidedress row crops 1.2 1.2 .7 .7 Combine ______" 2.6 1.3 2.0 1.0 Mow ------1.5 3.0 .8 .8 .6 .6 Rake: Dump ------.8 1.6 .6 .6 .4 .4 Side delivery ______.5 .5 Push hay to baler, I ton ______.7 1.4 .6 .6 .5 .5 Bale, I ton: Stationary baler ______10.0 5.0 3.9 1.3 3.0 1.0 Pick up baler ______— .5 .5 Hauling: Loose hay, I ton ______5.0 5.0 4.0 2.0 3.6 1.8 Baled hay, I t on ______1.4 1.4 1.0 .5 .8 .4 Cotton, 1 bale ------6.0 12.0 5.0 5.0 2.5 2.5 Oats, 40 bushels ______1.4 1.4 1.0 .5 .8 .4 Harvest corn by hand and bu!, 20 bushels ------— 6.6 4.4 7.6 1.9 7.2 1.8 Hand operation : Hoe cotton, I time over ______------I 0.0 Fertilize crops ______2.0 Hoe or thin corn, I time over ______6.2 Cut stalks ___------3.0 Pick cotton, 150 lb. seed cotton ______10.0 Shock (bunch hay) , I ton ______2.5 Sow grain, hay or pa sture crops ______1.0 Source: Estimations based upon the fo ll owing s tudies : N ewton County fa rm survey; farm sur- veys made in other hill counties in Mississippi; Georgia Experiment Station Bull. No. 256, Cost and Utilization of Tractor Power and Equipment on Farms in the Lower Piedmont, by J. C. Elrod and W. T. Fullilove, 1948 ; Alabama Expt. Sta. Bull. No. 260, Farm Power and Equipment Cost in Northern Alabama, by Ben T . La nham, Jr., 1 947; Arkansas Expt. Sta. Bull. No. 456, Labor and Power Used for Arkansas Crops and Livestock, by M. W. Slusher a nd W. T. Wil so n, 1 945; Combin- ation of Enterprises on Plantations in the Lower Arkansas River Delta, Arkansa~ Expt. Sta. Bull. !'so. 449, by John W. White, 1944; Louisiana mimeographed circul ar No. 56, Farm Mechanization in the Delta, by Frank D. Barlow, Jr . a nd Leo J. Fens ki, 1 946; and North Carol ina Expt. Sta. Tech. Bull. No. 84, Farm Mechanization in the Piedmont, by R. E. L. Greene, H. Brooks J ames and C. G. Dawson, 1 947. 1 Unless otr.erwise specified. 2 Tractor averaging about 11 hor sepower based on Test H of the Nebraska Tractor Tests_ 3 Tractors averaging- about 15 horsepower based on T est 1;-1 of t!,.~ N~l;>rask'1, Tractor Tests, 24 MISSISSIPPI AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BULLET! 466 cotton clean under normal conditions; of corn per acre depending on the quali-- however, if cotton is drilled and cultivated ty of the soil. It is the combination of with typical mule equipment, an addi-- heavy fertilization plus thick spacing that tional thinning or hoeing operation will produces high yields. Increasing fertili- be required. zation materially without increasing the This production program plus, ( 1) number of plants per acre will give dis-- the rates of fertilization shown in table appointing results. The average yield for 25, (2) planting cotton on good cotton this area for the past few years has been land only and (3) poisoning weevils at about 16 bushels, which is about one-- ·~ the proper time, will produce an average third to one-fourth of what can be pro-- of from 300 to 550 pounds of lint cotton duced with the practices outlined above. r per acre depending on the quality of soil Sweetpotatoes. For best results plant and whether or not the highest or low-- 10,000 to 12,000 Porto Rico Unit One est recommended rate of fertilizer is plants per acre in April or May. The used. In some years the yield would be earlier plantings usually produce the high-- lower than that indicated and in some er yields. Three to four cultivations plus years it would be higher due to varia- one hoeing is sufficient under normal 8 tions in weather conditions. In most conditions. These production practices cases farmers will find it profitable to plus the rate of fertilization shown in shift land that will not produce as much table 25 will produce from 160 to 200 as 300 pounds of lint cotton per acre with bushels of sweetpotatoes per acre, of improved practices to other uses; the pos-- which about 65 percent will grade num-- sible exception would be small farmers ber 1. This is in contrast to an average with limited alternatives. yield of about 90 bushels for this area. Corn. Highest yields are obtained Oats for grain and grazing or grazing from corn planted in March and April, only. Plant from 4 to 5 bushels of one altliough corn can be planted later on of the Red Rust Proof oats per acre in bottomland soils with good results. Dixie September. Oats for grazing should be 11 or Funk G714 are the varieties best seeded on a good firm seedbed and culti- adapted to this area. Dixie 17 can be packed. Fertilization should be at the planted for hogging off. All three of rate of 30 to 60 pounds of nitrogen (N) these varieties are hybrids. A thick stand and 60 to 90 pounds of phosphate (P2Oa) of about 10,000 plants per acre is required per acre at planting and 30 to 60 pounds if heavy yields are to be obtained. Plant-- of nitrogen March 1. With these practices ing corn to a stand plus the use of the and under normal conditions oats will rotary hoe with early tractor cultivations produce a pasture that will carry one cow ( or the use of the section harrow for to two acres or one 400 to 500 pound early mule cultivation) eliminates the calf to one acre. Under favorable weather necessity of thinning or hoeing corn. Two conditions grazing may be started as early or three cultivations will usually be suf-- as October 15, however, under unfavor-- ficient. able weather conditions the date of start-- This production program plus the ing grazing may be delayed as late as rates of fertilization shown in table 25 the last of December. If a grain crop is and planting corn on good land only will desired the cattle can be removed from average producing from 50 to 80 bushels the oats about March 1, and a grain crop of 30 to 40 bushels per acre allowed to 8 Between 1938 and 1947, the average change mature. This is to be contrasted with the in the yield of cotton from one year to the next rresent yield of was 80 pounds in Newton County; the greatest approximately 22 bushels change from one year to the next was 147 pounds cf oats per acre plus some grazing in b~tween 1941 and 1942. late winter and early spring. FARM PRACTICES AND ORGANIZATION IN THE SAND-CLAY HILLS 25 Lespedeza after oats. The fertilizer acre should be sowed on the oats, with-- for lespedea following oats should be ap-- out further land preparations, in late plied at the time the oats are planted. February or early March. Common and About 30 pounds of lespedeza seed per Kobe are the varieties best adapted to the Table 25. Recommended rates of seeding and of fertilization and estimated yield per acre for the ______major crops adapted to Newton County.1 Crop Seed per acre Fertilization per acre 2 Estimated yield Catton 12-20 lbs. of Upland soils: 600-1200- lbs. of 300-550- lbs. of Sand-Clay- Hills. If fertilized according to the clover seedlings. Before seeding, to recommendations, an average of at the land should be put into shape for least two tons of hay would be produced mowing and the pasture should be mow-- per acre which is about twice the aver-- ed as needed. Mowing controls undesir- age yield at the present. able plants, improves the palatability of Sudan grass. For best results plant forage and increases the amount of forage Sweet or Tift Sudan in rows and culti- consumed by livestock per acre. These ,:i- vate as needed. More forage is produced production and management practices if planted in this manner than if broad- plus the applications of the recommended cast and only about one-third as many amounts of fertilizer will produce a seed are required. Sudan can be planted pasture that will carry an average of one as early as April; however, it is usually cow unit to each two acres. At present, planted about June 1, as a second crop about 6 acres of unimproved pasture is following small grain or spring clover. required per cow unit. If fertilized according to recommenda- Farm Woodland; Good management tion, this crop will furnish grazing for 3 of farm woodland includes ( 1) improve- cows in rotation with permanent pasture ment cutting of non-merchantable timber from about July 15 to September 15. for fuel wood, (2) protection of wood- Clipping when the grass becomes tough land from fires and injury by livestock, 9 will improve the quality of grazing and (3) improvement cuttings for commer- increase the amount of forage consumed. cial sale of saw logs, pulpwood, etc., ( 4) Millet can be substituted for Sudan grass. better management plans-setting up Permanent pasture. preparing In the silvicultural system of cutting, and (5) seedbed for permanent pasture apply one- - proper harvesting and good utilization half of the lime, flat break, apply balance practices. of lime and fertilizer, disc and cultipack or harrow. Plant Dallis grass on the en-- Foresters of the Mississippi Experiment tire acreage in August or September; Station estimate that the present stand on plant lespedeza on about three-fourths of forest lands of Newton County ::i.verages the area the following February; and . about 2,000 board feet. Based on good plant White Dutch clover on the other management, it would take these fourth of the area between the following June and November. Planting the two average stands 20 to 25 years to crops on separate parts of the pasture reach a full stand of 8,000 board feet, if keeps the White Dutch from crowding no cuttings were made other than im-- out the lespedeza when it should be get- provement cuttings of non-merchantable ting started in the spring and in addi-- timber for fuel wood. 1 0 After a full stand tion provides a better distribution of is reached, a sus.,tained yield of about 400 legume grazing because the White Dutch board feet of sawlogs and .4 cord of pulp-- produces about three times as much wood and .1 cord of fuel wood could be grazing per acre in the spring as the les- expected per acre per year. pedeza does in summer, because of dif- ferences in conditions for growth. For 9 A limited amount of controlled grazing can best results, plant White Dutch on bottom be done with beneficial results in that the hard-- land soils and lespedeza on hill soi ls. The woods, which are less desirable than pine, would be controlled to some extent. White Dutch clover is not seeded until after Dallis grass has been established in 1 0Based upon annual growth that would in-- crease from about 180 board feet per acre with order to prevent the shading of a young thin stand of 2,000 board feet per acre to about grass plants and in addition an estab-- 400 board feet per acre when a full stand is lished grass cover serves as a protection reached. FARM PRACTICES AND ORGA IZATION IN Tl-IE SAND-CLAY HILLS 27 Alternative method of improving farm stumpage, $7.25 if sold after being cut woodland and at the same time realizing and placed in position to be hauled, and some income from them in addition to $11.15 if sold delivered.11 the very low income from the sale of In order to secure as high an income non-merchantable timber for fuel wood, as possible from their farm woodland, is to cut a certain percentage of the added farmers should cut and deliver their end of each five years. For forestry products if they have the equip-- I~ growth at the example, if 25 percent of the added ment and labor to do it with. Many op- growth were cut at the end of each five erators will not have the facilities for de- years, it would take 25 to 30 years to livering their forestry products but the reach a full stand; if 50 percent were cut, majority can cut them during seasons of it would take 35 to 40 years to reach a the year when they are not busy in their full stand; and if 75 p::rcent were cut, it crops and place them in position for would take 60 to 65 years to reach a hauling, thereby doubling their gross in-- full stand. come per acre over what it would be if From the standpoint of the average the products were sold as stumpage. farmer, cutting 50 percent of the added Livestock growth seems to be the most practical The reader should understand that the procedure to f:,llow in building farm high livestock production rates associated woodlands t0 a full stand. If none of the with improved practices in the section merchanta~le timber is sold until a full that follow are dependent upon a level of stand is ,eached or if only 25 percent of management considerably above the aver-- the add,:d gmwth is cut every 5 years, age for this area at the present time. They the income fiom the farm woodland will are indicative, however, of what the good be very low during all or most of the farm managers can do when they use the life of the farm owner. On the other best known practices in producing feed hand, if 75 percent of the added growth and forage, feeding livestock, breeding is cut every 5 years, income during the livestock and in caring for livestock in early years of the improvement program general. would be higher but it would take too Milk Production. For minimum ef-- long to reach a full stand. ficiency the herd should consist of not If 50 percent of the added growth is less than 5 to 10 cows. In order to main-- cut every 5 years, the average annual tain the herd in good condition about 20 gross income per acre for the first 5-- percent of the cows should be sold each year period will be about $1.09 if sold year and heifers brought into production as stumpage, $1.96 if sold after being cut to take their place. In order to insure and placed in position to be hauled and good quality heifers the heifer calves from $3.00 if sold delivered. The average an-- the highest producing cows should be nual income per acre will grow at an in-- kept each year; about 50 percent more creasing rate as the stand increases until heifer calves than needed for normal re-- a full stand is reached. The annual in-- placement would be kept in order to al-- come per acre for the last 5-year- period low for loss and cullings for various rea- before a i'.~tll st;:,_!!d i~ reached will be sons. Bull calves and the heifer calves, about hair ~f what it will ~e on a sus-- not kept for replacement, should be sold taining basis thereafr.:~; bec~use only half of the added growth would be cut at l l Based upon the following estimated normal that time. After the full stand is reached prices: Stumpage, sa wlogs $8.00; pulpwood $2.00; fuel wood, $0.50; cut and ready to be all the added growth would be cut every hauled, sawlogs, $12.00; pulpwood, $5.00; fuel 5 years and the annual gross income per wood, $4.50; delivered, sawlogs, $18.00; pulp-- acre would be about $4.05 if sold as wood, $8.00; fuel wood, $7.50. 28 MISSISSIPPI AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BULLET! 466 when a few days old. Artificial insemina- freshen in the fall in order to mcrease tion should be practiced not only be-- production during the winter months cause it improves herds but also because when prices are highest. it is cheaper than maintaining a bull on For efficient milk production maxi-- the majority of dairy farms where milk mum utilization of grazing crops is es-- is the major source of dairy income. sential. The grazing program per cow as Heifers should be bred when about two-- outlined in table 26 might consist of the thirds mature. Cows should be bred to following rotation: Crop Acres Grazing Period Oats for grain (followed by lespedeza for hay) ______1.0 Nov. - March Oats and crimson clover ------.5 Nov. - May Sudan or millet (following oats and clover) ------( .5) July - Sept. Oats on permanent pasture ______----- _ (.5)- Nov. - May Permanent pasture ______2.0 Apr. - Nov. Total ______------______3 .5 Yea r-round grazing Grazing Sudan or millet in rotation program, will produce an average of with the permanent pasture takes the from 5,000 to 6,000 pounds of milk per burden off the permanent pasture during cow. the late summer drought and allows it Beef Production. Farms with a smaller ro come back for early fall grazing. In capacity for cattle should be devoted to Jddition to the grazing furnished, the milk production in order to secure the acre of oats followed by lespedeza when highest income per cow instead of the fertilized and seeded according to recom-- highest income per day of work. In or- mendations will produce 30 to 40 bushels der to maintain a good herd of breeding of oats and about 2 tons of hay. This is cows about one-eighth of the herd should enough hay and more than enough be replaced each year because of age or oats 1 2 to supply the cow's’ need for these non-breeding. Replacement heifers should items. In addition to furnishing grazing be produced by selecting those that show-- during the winter and early spring, the ed the best development at about one year practice of seeding oats on one-half acre of age. Heifers should be bred when of permanent pasture per cow allows the about two-thirds mature. One bull should renovation of all permanent pasture once be kept for each 25 to 30 cows. each four years without additional cost. Efficient beef production in this area In addition to the grazing described is based entirely on pasture and forage above, 1,400 pounds of grain, 600 pounds crops. The grazing program per cow and of cottonseed meal, two tons of hay, 25 calf unit would be similar to that out- pounds of minerals and 25 pounds of lined for the dairv cow, but it would be salt should be provided per cow in the different in that · only one-half acre of herd. This feeding, breeding and culling the oats would be harvested for grain. The grazing program as outlined in 1 2 Dair y specialists recommend that oats con- stitute not more than 50 percent of the grain in table 26 might consist of the following the ration. rotation: Crop Acres Grazing Period Grnzed By Oats for grain (followed by l espedeza for hay) —______.5 Nov. - March Cow Oats on permane nt pasture ______------( .5) Nov. - May Cow Oats or oats and crimson clover ------___ -·------1.0. N ov. - Ma y Calf Sudan or millet (following oa ts and clover) ______(.5) Jul y - Sept. Cow and calf Lespedeza for hay (following oats and clo,·er) ______( .5) ------— - Permanent pasture ______------·-·--··------·------2.0. Apr. - Nov. Cow and calf T o ta 1 ------______. . . 3 .5 Year-round grazing FARM PRACTICF.S A n ORGANIZA1ION IN THE SAND-CLAY HILLS 29 With this grazing program the cows ovember 1, at which time they would oats would be bred to drop calves in the early be placed on one acre of oats or calves spring and good management would in-- and crimson clover per calf. The sure a 90 percent calf crop. The calves would be removed from the oat pasture would remain with the cows until about about June 1 and sold at weights aver-- 1 enterprises adapted Table 26. Recommended practices and estimated production for major livestock Newton County.2 lay-1- Pullet Broiler IPullet 7 I Dairy Beef ing flock G production production 3 4 5 s) (300 chicks) (2000 chicks) Item cow cow Sow ( JOO bird pou nd pound pound pound pound pound A.\ Feeding program: 1000 Grain ------1400 11300 3250 Protein supplement ______600 1300 Commercial mix ______3250 3700 20000 20000 Total ' — -—-— 2000 12600 6500 4700 Hay ------4000 2000 Minerals 25 25 100 Salt 25 25 50 Grazing program: acres acres acres acres acres acre~ Production: Permanent pasture -’- ’ 2.00 2.00 .50 .50 Summer crops —______.so .so 1.00 Winter and spring crops ___ _ 2.00 2.00 1.50 Milk, lb.------5500 8 IO 36011 1 2 50001 n Meat, L.W. 170 3150 475 Eggs, doz. ------_____ - 1200 Pullets, No. ------— ______100 Service. Source: Specialists of the Miss issippi Experiment Station and Mississippi Extension lGood management in all phases of production assumed. y, and 1.5 acres 2Each head of workstock would need about 1750 pounds of grain, 1 ton of ha of permanent pasture. the production of replacements 3 Grazing and roughage requirements include an all owance for eed about 350 pounds needed to maintain the herd. In addition each heifer kept for replacement will n of cottonseed up to of whole milk, 200 pounds of calf starter, 400 pounds of grain and 100 pounds pounds of grain and one year of age; from one to two years of age each r.eifcr will need about 200 300 pounds of cottonseed meal. herd. 4 Includes an allowance for the production of replacements needed to maintain the 5Spring and fall litters averaging about 7 pigs raised per litter. Rigid 6 0ne hundred pullets would be placed in the lay ing house about the first, of September. tl~e flock the follow· culling would be practiced throughout the year; about 60 birds would be left in - to clean up the laying ing August and all of these would be sold about the middle of August in order percent. The average house for a new flock of pullets. The mortality rate would average about 10 number of birds in the flock would be about 80 for the year. put in the laying 7Three hundred chicks would need to be s tarted for eacl~ one hundred pullets average about 10 house in September. About one-half would be cockrels, tr.e mortality rate would ed. percent and some pullets would not develop properly and would have to be cu ll _ each year (850 x 20% 170). 8 About twenty percent of the cows in the herd wou ld be culled _= with normal prices. In addition sales of bull calves and cull heiftrs would average about $5 per cow would average ninety perce nt. OAbout 500 pounds of ca lf and 140 pounds of, cow. The ca lf crop and sold about the Calf dropped in early spring, carried througr. the following winter on oat pasture in the herd would be first of June weighing approximately 650 pounds. About I 2.5 percent of cows culled each year. 1 OFourteen hogs weighing 225 pounds each. 11 Ninety hens at four pounds each. s weighing about 3.5 lbs. 1 2About 135 cockrels weighing about 2.75 lbs. encl! and 30 cu ll pullet each. 13 About 1800 birds weighing- from 2.5 to 3.0 pounds each. 30 MISSISSIPPI AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 466 aging approximately 650 pounds. With even with good management the mortali-- this grazing program, an average of not ty rate will average about 10 percent. This more than one ton of hay would be need- will leave an average of from 125 to 135 ed per cow unit to supply roughage, pullets which should be culled to about when unfavorable weather conditions re-- 100 by removing those pullets that show duce available grazing below the amount the least development. The cockrels needed. Since this rotation of forage would be sold from 10 to 12 weeks ol crops would produce about two tons of age at an average weight of about 2.5 to hay per cow, one ton would be available 3.0 pounds. About 3,800 pounds of start•- for sale or for feeding to other livestock. er and growing mash, 1,000 pounds of Poultry Production. For mm1mum grain, and one-half acre of pasture13 efficiency of production the laying flock will be required for each 100 pullets pro should consist of not less than 200 pul-- duced and ready for the laying house. In lets. The entire laying flock should be addition, about 135 cockrels and 30 cull replaced each year by pullets because the pullets weighing a total of approximately first year production is 20 to 25 percent 475 pounds will be sold. above the production of second or third Two thousand chicks should be tht year hens. Rigid culling should be prac-- minimum size of the broiler enterprise ticed each month and for each 100 pul- and for efficient production three or £om lets placed in the laying house in Sep-- groups should be produced each year. tember about 60 would remain in the With good management the mortalty flock the following August. These should rate should not average more than 10 be sold about the middle of August in percent and feed consumed should not order to clean up the laying house for the average over 4 pounds per pound next flock of pullets. This management of broilers sold. The broilers should be sold program is designed to increase produc-- when weighing from 2.5 to 3.0 pounds tion during the winter months when and about 5,000 pounds of broilers should prices are highest. For each 100 pullets be sold for each 2,000 chicks started. placed in the laying house the average number of layers for the year would be Pork Production For efficient produc-- about 80. The rigid culling and good tion the hog enterprise should consist of flock management should hold the mor-- not less than four sows producing two tality rate to not more than 10 percent. litters per year. The spring litter should For commercial production the laying be farrowed in March or April and sold flock should be confined to the laying in October or November under ordinaq house. Each hen should be fed about 3.5 conditions; the fall litter should be far- pounds of grain and 3.5 pounds of com-- rowed in September or October and sold mercial mix per month. This would aver-- in April or May. Good managemen1 age about 6,500 pounds per year for each should insure the raising of seven pig~ 100 pullets started at the beginning of per litter and they should be fed out tr the laying year. With this feeding and weigh about 225 pounds per head. culling program egg production for the Efficient pork average number of layers would be about production should ht based on the 15 dozen per bird. This would total about maximum utilization 01 forage crops 1,200 dozen for each 100 layers started and hogging down corr in September. when possible. The grazing and feeding program Three hundred chicks should be started as outlined in table 26 would be as follows: for each 100 pullets to be placed in the laying house in September. About 1 50 3Rotate in order to control parasites and percent of the chicks will be cockrels and diseases. FARM PRACTICES AND ORGANIZATION IN THE SAND-CLAY HILLS 31 Maintenance of sow and pigs to weaning: Date Utilized I. .25 acre of oats -— sow ------______-'-' - ‘ Nov.-March- 2. .25 acre of oats —- sow and pigs to weaning _____------· ______Marcl!-May 3. .25 acre of permanent pasture -— sow __----_____------______------·_ Ma y-Sept. 4. .25 acre of permanent pasture —- sow and pigs to weaning ------____------______------· ______Sept.-Nov. 5. 2700 lbs. of grain and 300 lbs. of protein supplement ------___-----_----______All year Spring litter of pigs from weaning to sale: I. .50 acre of oats (used by sow to May) ------______------______------____ May-July 2. 1 acre of sudan grass or soybeans __------___------· -- ___ Jul y-Sept. 3. 1 acre of corn hogged down, 60 bu. (3360 lbs.) ______------___ -______---____------____ Sept.-Nov. 4. 800 lbs. of grain and 500 lbs. of protein supplement ------______May -Nov. Fall litter of pigs from weaning to sale: I. 1 acre of oats ___------·----______'------______------· Nov.-May 2. About 4500 lbs. of grain and 500 lbs. of protein supplement _____------____-___------______------Nov.-May The above grazing program provide, grazmg crops, concentrates consumcc the sow at farrowing time with a pastun per 100 pounJs of gain from weaning tl on which hogs have not been kept since sale should average about 350 pounds fo1 it was plowed. This is essential for th, the spring litter and 360 pounds for tht production of healthy pigs. Moreover, al. fall litter. The fall litter woulJ requin fields grazed by hogs should be rotatec slightly more feed than the spring litte1 with other crops in order to control para because of less favorable conditions. l1 sites and diseases. all, total concentrates required per one hundred pounds of pork produced, in With the maximum utilization of fo1 eluding that rpnuired to maintain the age as provided by the above rotation 01 sow, would average about 400 pounds. SUGGESTED REORGANIZATION OF TYPICAL FARMS Suggested systems of fa rming will be sociated with the improved practices dis-- shown only for the 40, 80, I 60 and 360 cussed in the preceding section. Correct acre typical farm units. Farmers having land utilization is essential to this high 60 acres, 120 acres, 240 acres or some yield level. It is estimated that not more other acreage can make adjustments in than 20 to 25 percent of the land in the the systems suggested to fit their indi-- Sand-Clay Hills section of this county vidual situation. Many operators having should be planted to row crops, 35 to 40 the same total acreage as the fo ur typical percent in close-growing and sod crops units shown will need to make adjust- and the balance in woods. This break-- ments in the suggested systems because down of the proportion of the land suited of differences in the proportion of the to each of the major uses will be closely land suited to crops and open pasture on adhered to in determing the sys tems of individual units. For example, the oper- farming suggested for the four typical ator of an individual 80-acre- farm unit farm units. may have enough land suited to crops Above--average management will be re-- and open pasture to increase his dairy quired to carry out these intensive sys-- herd by two over that suggested for the tems of farming, which require the use typical 80-acre- farm. of several times as much capital on the The suggested systems of farming that same acreage as formerly. Farmers lack-- follow are based upon the yield level as-- ing in background and in knowledge ot 32 MISSISSIPPI AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 466 scientific agriculture can shift to these of repayment should attempt to shift to intensive systems of farming if they are one of these intensive systems in a short able to follow instructions closely and period of time. are willing to move into the program over The other major obstacle to shifting to a period of years rather than try to make more intensive systems of farming is in-- all the changes at once. Under no cir-- adequate market outlets. Cotton is the cumstances should any farmer attempt only crop for which all farmers are as-- to shift to one of these intensive syste~ sured a ready market. Relatively good of farming unless he intends to carry out markets are available for cattle and hogs. all details in the order in which the) Farmers not on milk routes will find that should occur. For example, the winter the milk companies will extend milk grazing program can be ruined if the routes, if they and their neighbors will oats are planted too late or improper!) produce a reasonable volume of milk. fertilized. The same applies to other Market outlets for poultry products are crops and to livestock feeding and breed-- less certain and will have to be developed. ing. Intensive farming carried out in a A few poultry farms around each of the haphazard manner can lead to financial towns can supply local needs for eggs and ruin. poultry meat. However, the county is The present agricultural educational well situated with regard to three of the program in all its various aspects will largest cities in the state-Jackson,— Me-- have to be expanded and inteasified if ridian and Laurel, and good market out- the majority of farmers are to obtain the lets could be developed in these cities over managerial "know how"” necessary to a period of years either cooperatively or operate an intensive system of farming privately. As a cash crop, sweetpotatoes within a reasonable number of years. offer more income per acre than cotton; however, market outlets are less certain. Inadequate credit is a second majo1 A few farms can supply local needs and obstacle to shifting to more intensive enough commercial areas are already es-- systems of farming. The majority of tablished to supply the present demand farmers will have neither the capital nor in city markets. Truck crops have pos-- the financial backing required to borro~ sibilities on the small farms in this area; the amount of capital needed to make all but at the present time, the profitable of the suggested changes in one year. production of truck crops on more than Therefore, it will be necessary for most a few farms is questionable because of farmers to grow into the revised system the small local demand and the comp·~-- of farming over a period of 5 to 10 yean tition from established areas. Additional depending on the number of changes re-- reasearch by production and marketing quired and the extent to which capital specialists will be necessary before the for changes is available. This initial lack place of truck crops in the farming pat-- of full capital backing will probably be tern in this area can be determined. In to the advantage of most farmers in that producing any new commodity for mar- they can acquire the managerial "know ket, the individual farmer should start on how" necessary to operate these intensive a small scale and gradually expand, and systems of farming over a period of years and under no conditions should he at-- as they make changes from year to year tempt to produce more than he feels that until the revised system is in operation. he can dispose of at a profitable price. Only those farmers who are above aver-- as using age managers and have surplus capital The less complex changes such or financial backing under reasonable more fertilizer and better seed for row conditions as to rates of interest and time crops should be carried out first because FARM PRACTlCES AND ORGANIZATION JN TIIE SAND-CLAY lllLI.~ 33 they are easy to initiate and there is a crops. Two acres of cropland was idle. quick return on the capital invested. If The livestock program included one milk borrowed, this capital can be repaid in cow, 25 hens and 3 pigs. Total invest- less than a year. The addition or ex-- ment in farm property amounted to panding of livestock enterprises and the $1,400, of which 77 percent was invested grazing and feed crops they are depend-- in real estate ( table 27). ent upon should be started later and ex-- This system of farming gave cash re- panded to the desired size over a period ceipts of $250 of which 82 percent came of years. Efficient systems of farming for the from the sale of cotton and cottonseed. various sizes of farm units can be out-- One calf, a few eggs and chickens and lined in specific terms only when some a small amount of forestry products con-- assumption is made concerning the am-- stituted the balance of sales. Deducting ount of labor available in the average $180 cash expenses left $70 net cash in-- farm family. For the purposes of this come to apply on depreciation, pay in-- study, it is assumed that the total family terest on borrowed money and to spend labor available, including the operator on family living. Farm products valued will amount to 1.4 man equivalent when at $340 were consumed by the farm children are in school and 2.0 man equiv- family. When the value of these products alent when children are out of school. 14 were added to the net cash income and Twelve hours a day is taken as the maxi-- depreciation and interest on investment mum number of hours to be worked per deducted, family labor earnings of $290 man on field crops and livestock on days were obtained. On this size farm the suitable for field work during peak sea-- average family labor force was unem-- sons. ployed much of the time and only work-- Normal price and cost figures are used ed a total of about 1,650 hours during in estimating investment and income for the year (Appendix table 2). Earnings the suggested systems of farming and for per hour of labor amounted to 18 cents. the farm units as operated in 1946. The Reorganization Plan 1. Under this use of normal prices instead of inflated plan, the acres of cropland would be cut prices prevents overestimating farm in-- from 20 to 15 and the acres of open come from the suggested systems of farm-- pasture increased from 6 to 10. Acres ing at the time reorganization would be in woodland would be increased from 12 completed several years from now on to 13. Five acres of cotton would be most farms making the shift. The use of grown, the same as in 1946, in order to the same prices for the farm units as maximize income from a relatively operated in 1946 facilitates the evalua- small acreage of cropland. The corn acre-- tion of the effectiveness of the suggested age would be cut from 10 to 3 acres and systems of farming. See Appendix Table by the use of improved practices as much 1 for the normal prices used in this study. corn would be produced on the three acres as was formerly produced on 10. Typical 40-Acre- Farm Four acres of oats for grain and grazing, In 1946 the typical 40-acre- farm in 2 acres of oats and crimson clover for Newton County was operated by one grazing, 2.5 acres of oats seeded on per-- family with two mules. The cropping manent pasture for winter grazing, 4.5 pattern consisted of 5 acres of cotton, IO acres of lespedeza for hay, 1.5 acres of acres or corn, 1 acre of hay and 2 acres Sudan or millet for temporary summer of miscellaneous truck and garden grazing and I acre of garden, small fruit 1 4 The school term for country schools is taken and truck crops would make up the bal- to be September 15, to May 15. ance of the cropping pat'tern. Table 27. Farm organization and financial summary of a typical 40•acre farm, with suggested reorganization, Newton County, Mississippi. 1946 Plan Plan Plan Item operation I 2 3 Land-u-se-,------~------I - acres acres acres acres Cropland ····______························------20 15 15 15 Open p asture ····______························································- 6 10 10 10 Woodland pasture ········---- 11 Woodland ·················______······· ·-·····-··········-··········-··---1 13 13 13 Farmstead, roads, etc. ········------2 2 2 2 Crops: Cotton ______5 5 5 5 Corn ···______······················ ···································----10 3 3 3 Oats, grain and grazing ········____ ··_____------4 4 4 Oats a nd crimson clover for grazing ______2 2 2 Oats seeded on permanent pasture ______(2.5) (2.5) (2.5) Lespedeza for hay ························------p ( 4.5) ( 4.5) ( 4.5) Sudan grass or millet for grazing __ (1.5) (1.5) (1.5) Garden and truck ························------______2 1 1 I Idle -·______·····················································----- _ 2 Livestock: number number number number Workstock ······························································- 2 1 I I Milk cows ········································------______1 4 4 4 Pigs raised ...... ______...... ······---- 3 3 3 3 Hens ········································································-- 25 25 500 25 Chickens raised ····················································-·- 25 50 1350 7200 Value of farm property: dollars dollars dollars dollars Land ··______···················· ·······································---- 660 800 800 800 Buildings and fences 2 ············································--_ 415 700 1300 1300 2 Machinery ·····__ ···································----- 100 75 175 175 Livestock ...... ______...... ··························-··········- 225 450 925 450 Total ······______··············· ··························----- 1400 2025 3200 2725 Cash receipts: Cotton ··______······························································ ······-_ 205 430 430 430 Dairy enterprise ································-----____ 20 525 525 525 Poultry enterprise ···················································-_ 15 15 2330 4600 Miscellaneous ...... ___ ·················································-·-_ 10 10 Total ·············•··································-----______250 980 3285 5555 Cash expenses Fertilizer and lime ·····················••·•·······················-_ 60 275 275 275 Feed ·························~ ·······························----_ 30 80 1495 2470 Seed ------_ 10 60 60 60 Custom work 3 ··········································-·-·········-_ 15 110 165 110 Taxes and insurance ···························------_ 10 20 30 30 4 Repairs ············•···················································--____ _- 30 50 70 70 Pigs and chickens purcbsed ...... ························-_ 10 10 130 650 Veterinarian, medicine and breedi ng fees 25 45 105 Marketing costs ································------55 155 155 Miscellaneous ...... _ ············-----15 35 125 200 Total ······_____······___······· ······························-----_ 180 720 2550 4125 Net cash income ...... ····------70 260 735 1430 Value ?f .farm products u sed by family ················-340 590 590 590 Deprec1atton ··································------____ 50 50 100 100 Net farm income 6 ································------360 800 1225 1920 Interest on investment ...... ·------_ 70 100 160 140 Family labor earnings 7 .••...••...... •••••. - 290 700 1065 1780 1 Clover or soybeans. 2 Inventory values shown at one•half of new cost. 3 Ginning, combining oats and land preparation and grinding feed. 4 Buildings, fences and equipment. 5Includes milk hauling, auction charges and other marketing costs. 6 Net cash income plus the value of farm products used by the fam il y minus depreciation. 7 Net farm income minus interest on investment. FARM PRACTICES A D ORGANIZATION IN THE SAND-CLAY ll!LLS 35 The livestock program would include more than in 1946. Cash receipts would 4 milk cows from which milk for man-- total about $980, of which approximately ufacturing purposes would be sold. 54 percent would come from the dairy Twenty-five hens would be kept for egg enterprise and 44 percent from the cot- production for home use and enough ton enterprise. Cash expenses would am-- chickens raised to provide the family with ount to about $720 of which $275 or poultry meat and to furnish replacements. almost 40 percent of the total would be Three pigs would be purchased and fed for fertilizer. After deduction of cash ex-- out for home use. The poultry and hog penses the net cash income would am-- enterprise would be handled in the same ount to $260. Family labor earnings manner as in 1946 because they would would amount to about $700 and earn-- not be big enough for it to be economical ing per hour of family labor approximate-- to apply improved practices. ly 36 cents. It would be cheaper to hire the follow-- Even when farmed according to the ing jobs done than to own the machines best known methods, the 40-acre- farm is and power necessary to do them: Land too small to provide the average farm preparation for oats, combining oats, family with an adequate income if com-- hauling cotton, mowing hay and raking mercial production is limited to those hay. When these jobs are done on a cus-- products that are usually produced com-- tom basis, one mule will furnish suf-- mercially in this area. Plan one was set ficient power to operate this farm. A up as a cotton and dairy farm. These are one-horse wagon could be used for on-- the two most important sources of income the-farm hauling. Other field equipment in the county at this time. The net cash needed would include a turning plow, income that this system of farming gives planter, two or three cultivating plows on a 40-acre- farm of $260 is clearly in-- and miscellaneous tools such as hoes, adequate for even a minimum standard forks, etc. This method and system of of living for the average farm family. For farming would require a total of approxi- those families who feel the need for mately 1,950 hours of labor during the additional income above that offered in year, about the amount needed to keep Plan 1 and who do not mind additional one man busy two-thirds of the year. work Plans 2 and 3 are suggested. These Production of an adequate amount of plans include the addition as a third food for the farm family is an important major source of income an enterprise part of any farm plan and this is especial- that is produced primarily for home use ly true for small farms. This farm plan at the present time on practically all provides for the production of and use farms in this area. on the farm of the following amounts of Reorganization Plan 2. This is the the various farm commodities: Milk, one same as Plan 1 except that a poultry en- and one-half gallons per day; eggs, 3 terprise of 500 laying hens is added. All dozen per week; chickens, one per week; of the feed, including the grains, for the 3 hogs weighing 250 pounds each on poultry enterprise would be purchased. foot; one calf weighing about 400 pounds The addition of this enterprise would in-- on foot; corn for meal, 10 bushels; garden, crease the amount of work performed small fruits and miscellaneous truck by the farm family to about 2,950 hours. crops, 1 acre; and about 10 to 12 cords Total investment would be increased to of wood for fuel. The value of these pro- $3,200. Cash receipts would amount to ducts would amount to about $590 based about $3285 of which approximately 71 on farm prices. percent would come from the major en-- Total investment would amount to ap-- terprise, poultry. The balance would come proximately $2,000, and about 40 percent from the dairy enterprise and cotton. Table 28. Farm organization and financial summary of a typical 8U-~cre tarm, with suggested reorganization, Newton County, M_1_·s_si_ss_ip~p~i_.______1946 Plan Plan Item operation 1 2 Land use: acres acres acres Cropland __·············______·······------______32 26 28 Open pasture ········_ ··· _·········----- ______----______-- 22 24 20 Woodland pasture ···______···············------······-·-··- ______- _ 16 Woodland ______8 28 30 Farmstead, road, etc. ______2 2 2 Crops: Cotton ______G 5 5 Corn ______15 5 10 Oats, grain and grazing ______10 8 Oats and crimson clover, grazing ····______········----- ______5 4 Oats on permanent pasture _··········------______- - (6) (5) Lespedeza hay ································-·--·····························______2 1 (II) (9) Sudan grass or millet ...... ············----············______······ __ (4) (3) Garden and truck ___-······················-______------______- _ 3 1 1 Idle ______············································------6 Livestock: number number number Workstock _-··· _ ___······· ______·······················----- ______····______·······-·--- 2 2 2 Milk cows -----·-·-··______·-······ 3 10 8 Pigs raised ______4 5 3 Hens ______40 40 500 Chickens raised _...... ______75 75 1350 Value of farm property: dollars dollars · dollars Land ····················______····································------__ 1240 1500 1500 2 Buildings and fences ·············------600 1100 1500 Macr.inery 2 115- 300 400 Livestock ______-·······································-········---- - 430 950 1250 Total ______2385 3850 4650 Cash receipts: Cotton ______245 430 430 Dairy enterprise ···············______·····------______-- 60 1525 1190 Poultry enterprise ····-·········______··················-·· ······-····-··-·····- 50 50 2330 Miscellaneous ______40 75 20 Total _____ 395 2080 3970 Farm expenses: Fertilizer and lime ______-·························------100 530 520 Feed ·-______··-··-- - - ····-············------45 165 1170 Seed ______15 130 115 Custom work 3 _------______------15 90 125 Taxes and insurance ______...... ··········------20 40 50 Repairs4 -----····················______40 100 140 Pigs and chickens purchased ············------______20 130 Veterinarian, medicine, breeding fees ______60 70 Marketing costs 5 ______160 225 Miscellaneous -----························----______-- 25 65 125 Total -··········------············-·················-···------260 1360 2670 Net cash income ______----···················------135 720 1300 Value of farm products used by family ______400 590 590 Depreciation ______········-··-·····················------60 105 145 Net farm income6 ····-·-·····------______475 1205 1745 Interest on investment ______120 190 230 Family labor earnings 7 ______355 1015 1515 1 Clover or soybeans. 2Inventory values shown at one-half of new co st. 3 Ginning, combining oats, milk hauling and grinding fe ed. 4 Buildings, fences and equipment. ~Includes milk hauling, auction charges and otl-,er marketing cost>. 6Net cash income plus the value of farm products u sed for the fa mil y minus d epreciation. 7 Net farm income minus interest on investment. FARM PRACTICES AND ORGANIZATION IN THE SAND-CLAY HTLLS -~7 Cash expenses would total about $2,550, labor during the year, and the average of which approximately $1,500 would be family labor force was fully employed on for feed, most of which would be for the days fit for field work only one month-— poultry enterprise. Net cash income would April. amount to about $735, family labor earn-- Investment in farm property amounted ings $1,065, and earnings per hour of to $2,385, of which about three-fourths labor approximately 36 cents. was invested in real estate. Cash receipts Reorganization Plan 3. This is the totaled $395, of which 62 percent was same as Plan 1 except that a broiler en-- from cotton. Cash expenses amounted to terprise of 2,000 birds -every three months $260 and net cash income $135. Family is added. All feed for the broiler enter- labor earnings were $355 and earnings prise would be purchased. The addition of per hour of labor 15 cents. this enterprise would increase the amount Reorganization Plan 1. Under this of work performed by the farm family to plan the acreage of cropland would be approximately 3,400 hours, which is cut from 32 to 26 acres, the acres of open more than twice as much work as was pasture increased from 22 to 24 acres performed on the typical 40-acre- farm in and the acres of woodland increased 1946. Even with this increase in the am-- from 24 to 28 acres. Five acres of cotton ount of work performed, the average would be grown as a cash crop. The bal- family labor force would not be fully ance of the cropping system would con-- utilized a single month during the year. sist of 5 acres of corn, l O acres of oats Total investment would amount to for grain and grazing, 5 acres of oats and $2,725, cash receipts would total about crimson clover for grazing, 6 acres of $5,555, of which more than 80 percent oats on permanent pasture, 4 acres of would come from the main enterprise, Sudan grass or millet for temporary sum-- broilers. Cash expenses would total about mer grazing, 11 acres of lespedeza for $4,125, of which about $3,000 would be hay and 1 acre of miscellaneous truck, for feed and chickens for the broiler en-- small fruits and garden crops. terprise. Deducting cash expenses from Dairying would be the major livestock cash receipts leaves about $1,430 net cash enterprise; 10 cows would be kept and income to apply on depreciation, interest milk sold for manufacturing purposes. on production credit, debts incurred for The poultry and hog enterprises would buildings and equipment, and family be primarily for home use, and they living expenses. Family labor earnings would be handled in the same manner would amount to approximately $1,780 as in 1946 because they would not be and earnings per hour of family labor large enough for the application of im-- would approximate 50 cents. proved practices. Typical 80-Acre- Farm One family with two mules would be In 1946, the typical 80-acre farm in able to operate this farm without hiring Newton County had 32 acres of crop-- additional help. Field equipment needed land and 22 acres of open pasture ( table to operate this farm would include one 28). Of the cropland, 6 acres was planted wagon, 2 turning plows, one middlebust- to cotton, 15 acres to corn, 2 acres to hay, er, one disc, one harow, one planter, one 3 acres to miscellaneous truck crops and fertilizer distributor, 3 half-row cultiva- garden, and 6 acres were idle. It was op- tors, one full-row cultivator, one mowing erated by one family with two mules. machine, one hay rake, and a number of The livestock consisted of 3 cows, 40 miscellaneous small tools, Combining hens and 4 pigs. This system of farming oats on a custom basis would be the only rr·quired about 2,350 hours of family work hired. Cows would be milked by Table 29. Farm organization and financial summary of a typical 160-acre farm, with suggested reorganization, Newton County, Mississippi. 1946 Plan Plan Item operation 1 2 Land use: acres acres acres Cropland 54 48 49 Open pasture ___ 16 48 48 Woodland pasture ······------59 Woodland ·················_____ ········------25 58 57 Farmstead, roads, etc.-- ········-_____- -- ____----__ - -- 6 6 6 Crops: Cotton ······································------11 5 Corn __-······______········-··-····················------22 6 12 Oats, grain and grazing ··············--_____------__ 24 24 Oats and crimson clover grazing ______12 12 Oats on permanent pasture ·········------____ -- — (12) ( 12) Lespedeza hay ································--______- -- 31 (24) (24) Temporary summer grazing ..... ···------— (12) (12) Garden and truck ····························--______- --- - 3 1 1 Idle -··______········-······················ ______················------15 Livestock: number number number Workstock __----______- ····-····· ·····______------3 Milk cows ··--····································-______- ___------4 24 24 Pigs raised ····················______· ············•-·····--______- - --- 4 3 3 Hens -·___·········-·· ______········_········______················-- _____------45 45 500 Chickens raised ············’ ···················___···· ········_____·-· ·············- 75 75 1350 Value of farm property: dollars dollars dollars Land ····-··············-············_____ -______··-········------2300 2750 2750 2 Buildings and fences ...... •...•. ______·················· ···---- 300 2250 2750 2 Machinery ····___···············______···· ············· ______···· ------150 1900 2000 Livestock ...... ______..___...... ______550 1850 2350 Total -·········______·······························------______- - 3900 8750 9850 Cash receipts: Cotton ...... ______··-··········_____······ ···············- 450 430 Dairy enterprise ...... ················-___- -___ -············-··-· 80 5130 5130 Poultry enterprise ···························______·····------50 50 2330 Other ············______··················· ···········______------150 40 40 Total -········-··········______·· ___·················· ______······-·-·- ___ ---- 730 5650 7500 Casr. expenses: Fertilizer and lime ···················______·-··········---- 150 1040 1040 Feed ···______·········______···-······················ —-______····-- ---____ 50 370 1410 Seed ····____········ —············-······-_·········· ______------20 90 90 3 Custom work .•..•...•...... ______·········-···· _____·········· ···-······--- 30 150 120 Hired labor ...... ____ ····--______--- - 10 30 Taxes and insurance ...... ····--····------______30 100 110 Repairs4 __.. ______...... ______60 330 380 Pigs and chickens purchased ______— 10 130 Veterinarian, medicine ancl breeding fees — 140 160 Marketing costs5 _···················· --______---- — 400 500 Tractor fuel ...... _____... .______— 180 190 Miscellaneous ...... __ - . ______40 150 200 Total _·········___ ···············-········· ------390 2990 4330 Net cash income ...... ___ _.....______·····------340 2660 3170 Value of farm products used by family ··__··········· ···-·-· 460 590 590 Depreciation —______85 400 450 Net farm income ti _____..... ·······--··- ______------715 2850 3310 Interest on investment ______195 440 495 7 Family labor earnings -======-..:5'..'.2:.'0'...... --.=--,,--.:::.~'._,-.,,..-.,....-2410 .:..':~2815 -- 1 Clover or soybeans. 8 Ginning and baling hay. 2 Inventory values shown at one•half of new cost. 4 Buildings, fences and equipmeni 5[ncludes milk hauling, auction charges and other markeung costs. 6 Net cash income plus the value of farm products used by tl,e family minus depreciation. 7 Net farm income minus interest on investment. FARM PRACTICES AND ORGANIZATION IN THE SAND-CLAY HILLS 39 hand. In all, the family labor force would Cash expenses would amount to about work about 3,450 hours. $2,670, of which -about 44 percent would Total investment in farm property be for feed, primarily laying mash. Fer-- would '· amount to approximately $3,850, tilizer would account for an additional about $1,500 more than in 1946. Cash re-- 20 percent. Net cash income would am-- ceipts would amount to about $2,080 of ount to about $1,300, family labor earn-- which about 73 percent would come ings $1,515, and earnings per hour of from the main enterprise, dairying. Cot- family labor about 37 cents. ton would contribute about 20 percent. The balance would come from the Typical 160-Acre- Farm poultry, hog and forestry enterprises. Cash In 1946, the typical 160-acre- farm io expenses would total about $1,360 of Newton County had 54 acres of croi: which approximately 40 percent would land and 14 acres of open pasture ( tablt be for fertilizer. Net cash income would 29). Eleven acres of cropland were planr amount to about $720, family labor earn-- ed to cotton, 22 acres to corn, 3 acres to ings $1,015, and earnings per hour of hay, 3 acres to miscellaneous truck and labor approximately 30 cents. garden crops and 15 acres were idle. The This size and system of farming pro- livestock program consisted of 4 cows, duces sufficient income for a minimum 45 hens and 4 pigs. This farm was oper-- standard of living for the average farm ated by one family with 3 mules. This family. However, for those families who system of farming required about 3,200 are not satisfied with a minimum stand-- hours of family labor, and the average ard of living and who do not mind the family labor force was fully utilized on additional work and risk involved, Plan days fit for field work in March, April, 2 is suggested. Plan 2 includes the addi-- May and June. tion of a laying flock as the most im-- Total investment in farm property portant source of cash income. amounted to $3,900 of which $3,200 was Reorganization Plan 2. This differs in land and buildings. Cash receipts total- from Plan 1 in the following manner: ed $730; cotton contributed about 62 per- First a poultry enterprise of 500 hens is cent of this total. Cash expenses amounted added and the acreage of corn increased to $390 and net cash income $340. Family from 5 to 10 in order to provide the grain labor earnings were $520 and earnings needed to feed them. Second, the number per hour of family labor 16 cents. of dairy cows is reduced from 10 to 8 Reorganization Plan 1. Under this and the acreage of forage and pasture plan the acr.es of cropland would be cut crops decreased accordingly in order to from 54 to 48, the acres of open pasture release the cropland needed for the in- increased from 16 to 48, and the acres creased acreage of corn. These changes of woodland cut from 84 to 58. This would increase the amount of work per- would involve clearing of 26 acres of formed by the farm family to approxi- woodland pasture. Five acres of cotton mately 4,100 hours during the year; and would be grown as a cash crop. The bal- the average family labor force would be , ance of the cropping system would con-- fully utilized on days fit for field work sist of 6 acres 0£ corn, 24 acres of oats for in March, September, October and No-- grain and grazing, 12 acres of oats and vember. crimson clover for grazing, 12 acres of Total investment in farm property oats on permanent pasture, 24 acres of would amount to about $4,650. Cash re-- lespedeza hay, 12 acres of Sudan or ceipts would total about $3,970, of which millet lespedeza for temporary summer approximately 59 percent would be from grazing, and 1 acre of miscellaneous truck, poultry and 30 percent from dairying. ~mall fruit and garden crops. Table 30. Farm organization and financial summary of a typical 360-acre farm with suggested reorganization, Newton County, Mississippi. 1946 Plan Plan Item operation 1 2 Land use: acres acres acres Cropland ------·------______115 112 100 Open pasture ______------60 104 100 Woodland pasture ------______85 Woodland ---______------90 134 150 Farmstead, roads, etc. ______10 10 10 Crops: Cotton ------·______------16 10 Corn ------45 24 13 Oats, grain and grazing ______25 50 Oats or oats and crimson clover ------62 25 Oats on permanent pasture ------______(25) (25) Lespedeza, hay --______------______----- ___------JOl (54) (50) Temporary summer pasture ------___ __ (33) (25) Garden and truck -______------4 I 2 Idle ---______------40 Livestock: number number number Workstock ------4 Cows ------______------20 50 50 Pigs raised -______------7 112 3 Hens-______------______50 50 50 Chickens raised ------______75 75 75 Value of farm property: dollars dollars dollars Land ------______5350 6400 6400 Buildings and fences 2 ------_ 1800 2500 3800 2 Machinery ______------______---- 1900 2900 3600 Liv es tock ______------15 5 0 4200 3800 Total ------·------______------9600 16000 17600 Cash receipts: Cotton ------·------______------660 860 Beef or dairy enterprise ----______------400 2950 10,010 Hog enterprise ------70 2680 Other ------______360 1040 270 Total ------______1490 6670-· 11 ,140 Ca sh expenses: Fertilizer and lime ------______250 2300 2080 ' Feed ______------90 300 1560 Seed ------40 120 180 Hired labor3 ---______------310 40 630 Taxes and insurance ____------______- 110 200 240 Repairs 4 ------·------______150 430 590 Veterinarian, medicine, and breeding fees ______60 290 Ginning ------______- 40 60 O Marketing costs ------20 280 840 Tractor fuel ------______-- 30 280 300 Interest ------·------______·------25 140 100 M isce l la neo us ------·------______------50 250 330 Total ______------·------______--- ]115 4400 7200 Net cash in come ------______----- 375 2270 3940 Value of farm products used by the family ______510 590 590 Depreciation - ______------275 590 750 Net farm income G ______------610 2270 3780 Interest on investment ------______------480 800 865 Family labor earnings 7 ------______130 1470 2915 1 Clover or soybeans. 2 1nventory of values sr.own at one-half of new cost. 3 1ncludes cost of cropper labor in 1946. 4 Buildings, fences and equipment. 5 Includes auction charges, milk hauling and other marketin,\' CO" t.S. 6 Net cash income plus the value of farm products. 7 Net farm income minus interest on investment. FARM PRACTICES AND ORGANIZATION I TIIE SAND-CLAY HILLS 41 Dairying would be the major enter- Reorganization Plan 2. This is the prise; 24 cows would be kept for Grade same as Plan I except that a poultry en- A milk'- production. The hog and poultry terprise of 500 hens is added, the acre-- enterprises would be about the same size age of corn increased from 6 to 12, and as in 1946 and would be primarily for the production of cotton discontinued. home consumption; they would be The shift in land from cotton to corn handled in the same manner as in 1946 was made in order to produce the extra because their small size would make im- grain needed for the poultry enterprise. proved practices uneconomical. This change in the system of farming would increase the amount of work per-- One family of average size with a formed by the farm family to approxi- and no single one-plow (one-row) tractor mately 5,400 hours; the typical family workstock would be able to operate this labor force would be fully utilized on system of farming without hiring addi-- days fit for field work in March, April, tional help, except for a small amount of October and November. cotton picking. The tractor would be rub-- Total investment in farm property ber mounted and have a road gear to would be increased to about $9,850, ap-- meet hauling and odd job needs. Tractor proximately $5,800 more than in 1946. equipment that could be used to ad-- Cash receipts would total about $7,500 vantage is as follows: stalk cutter, break-- of which approximately two-thirds would ing plow, middlebuster, disc harrow, sec-- the dairy enterprise and one-- tion harrow, planter-distributor, grain be from third from the poultry enterprise. Cash drill and attachments, cultivator, mower, expenses would amount to about $4,330 rake, combine and attachments, trailer approximately $2,500 would be and hammer mill. It would be cheaper to of which zer and feed. Net cash income hire hay baled on this farm than to own for fertili to about $3,170, family a baler. The cows would be milked by would amount $2,815 and earnings per machine in order to keep labor require-- labor earnings labor approximately 53 ments within the limits of the typical hour of family family labor force. In all the family labor cents. force would work about 4,800 hours, and Typical 360-Acre- Farm the average family labor force would be fully utilized on days fit for field work In I 946, the typical 360-acre- farm in in September, October and November. Newton County had 115 acres of crop- land and 60 acres of open pasture ( table Total investment in farm property 30). Of the cropland, 16 acres were would amount to approximately $8,750, rlanted to cotton, 45 acres to corn, 10 more than twice as much as in 1946. Cash acres to hay, 4 acres to miscellaneous receipts would amount to about $5,650, truck and garden crops, and 40 acres of which about 90 percent would come were idle. The livestock program con-- from the main enterprise, dairying. Cot- sisted of 20 cows for beef production, 1 ton would contribute most of the balance. sow and 50 hens. The labor force on this Cash expenses would total about $2,990, farm included the owner and two crop-- of which approrimately one-third would rer families. It was operated with 4 be for fertilizer. Feed· for the dairy cattle mules and one medium-sized tractor. The and milk hauling would be the next most tractor was used primarily for land pre- important item of expense. Net cash in-- paration—- breaking. Planting and culti- come would amount to about $2,660, vating were done with mules. The opera-- family labor earnings $2,410, and re- turns per hour of labor approximately 50 ~tor and his family worked a total of ap-- cents. proximately 2,700 hours and the oper- 42 MISSISSIPPI AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 466 ator's family force was fully utilized on and odd job needs. Tractor equipment days fit for field work in March, October, that could be used to advantage is as and November. follows: Stalk cutter, breaking plow, mid- Total investment in farm property dlebuster, disc harrow, section harrow, amounted to $9,600 of which $7,150 was planter, distributor, grain drill and at-- invested in real estate. Cash receipts total- tachments, cultivator, mower, rake, pick- ed $1,490. Cotton accounted for 44 percent up hay baler, combine and attachments of this total and the beef enterprise for 27 and trailer. In all the family labor force percent. Cash expenses amounted to would work about 4,000 hours; the $1,115, net cash income $375, family labor average family labor force would be fully earnings $130 and earnings per hour of utilized on days fit for field work in family labor 5 cents. Earnings on this March, October and November. farm were lower than on smaller sized Total investment in farm property farms because of the larger investment would amount to about $16,000, approxi- and the more inefficient use of resources. mately $6,000 more than in 1946. Cash Reorganization Plan 1. Under this receipts would total about $6,670 of which plan the acres of cropland would be cut approximately 44 percent would be from from 115 to 112, the acres of open pas- the beef enterprise and 40 percent from ture increased from 60 to 104 and the the pork enterprise. Hay and forestry acres of woodland cut from 175 to 134. products would contribute most of the This would involve the clearing of 41 balance. The cost of fertilizer would acres of woodland pasture. All of the amount to about $2,300, slightly more than cropland except I acre for miscellaneous half of the total cash expenses of approxi- truck, small fruit and garden crops would mately $4,400. Net cash income would be used for feed crops. Cotton produc- amount to about $2,270, family labor tion would be eliminated from the farm-- earnings $1,470 and earnings per hour of ing system. The cropping pattern would family labor approximately 37 cents. consist of 24 acres of corn, 25 acres of Reorganization Plan 2. This would oats for grain and grazing, 62 acres of differ from Plan 1 in the following man-- oats or oats and crimson clover, 25 acres ner: First, a dairy herd of 50 cows for of oats on permanent pasture, 54 acres of Grade A milk production would replace Iespedeza hay and 33 acres of temporary. the 50 beef cows and 8 brood sows; pork summer grazing (Sudan, millet or les-- and poultry production would be primari-- pedeza ). ly for home use. Second, a fulltime wage Beef and pork production would be the hand would be employed in order to major livestock enterprises. Fifty cows have sufficient labor to take care of a and eight sows would be kept. One or dairy herd of this size. Third, IO acres two of the cows would be milked for of cotton would be planted in order to home consumption. The poultry enter- give the wage worker's family employ- prise would be about the same size as in ment and to utilize the surplus labor of 1946 and would be handled in about the the operator's family in hoeing and same manner. picking the crop. Fourth, the production One family of average size with one of feed crops would be changed to meet two-plow (two-row)- tractor and no the requirements for the new livstock workstock would be able to operate a program. Additional equipment would in-- farm following this system without hir-- clude a hammer mill, four single-unit milk-- ing additional help except a small am-- ing machines and other necessary dairy ount in the hay and corn harvesting sea-- equipment. These changes in the system of sons. The tractor would be rubber mount-- farming would increase the amount of ed and have a road gear to meet hauling work performed by the farm family and FARM PRACTICES AND ORGANIZATION IN THE SAND-CLAY HILLS 43 the full-time wage hand to approximately would total about $7,200; of this total, 8,650 ho(!.rs; the operator's family labor fertilizer would contribute about 29 per-- force would be fully utilized on field cent, feed 22 percent, marketing cost 12 crops and livestock on days available for percent and labor 9 percent. Deducting field work in the fall months-September,— cash expenses from cash receipts leaves October and November. about $3,940 net cash income to apply on depreciation, interest on production Total investment in farm property credit, debts for capital improvement and would amount to about $17,600. Cash re- family living expenses. Family labor earn-- ceipts would total about $11,140, of which ings would amount to about $2,915 and all except approximately $1,100 would earnings per hour of work performed by come from the dairy enterprise. Cotton the regular labor force (including the and forestry products would contribute regular wage hand) would be approxi- practically all of this. Cash expenses mately 39 cents·. SUMMARY With present methods and systems of proportion devoted to feed crops, corn, farming the majority of farms in Newton hay and oats, increased from 42 percent County are too small to utilize modern to 73 percent. Livestock numbers in-- equipment efficiently, to employ labor creased in proportion to the increased throughout the year and to provide farm feed supply. Similar shifts took place in families with an adequate standard of the Shortleaf Pine Area and in the state living. Farm operators in this area must as a whole, although the changes were invest more capital per acre in the form not so pronounced. Lower yield of cotton of fertilizer, seed, equipment, buildings, per acre was the primary reason for the livestock and feed and in general follow greater shift from cotton to feed crops a more scientific and intensive system of and livestock in Newton County. farming if they are to have adequate in-- In 1946, practically all producers from come. This study was designed to bring which information was obtained used together available information related to fertilizer on cotton and corn; the am-- the agriculture of this area and to demon-- ount used, however, was below Experi- strate insofar as possible its application ment Station recommendations in prac- in improving farm production and in-- tically all cases. That increased fertiliza-- come through more intensive and scien-- tion will pay in this area is indicated by tific systems of farming. the fact that those farmers who fertilized group Newton County is predominately ag-- corn above the average for the twice ricultural and there has been relatively studied in 1946 produced almost did those who little industrial development. The total as much corn per acre as April cotton population in Newton County was clas-- fertilized below average. per acre sified as rural in 1940, of which about and March corn produced more three-fourths was classified as rural-farm. than did that planted later. Farm operators are predominately white In 1946, dairy cows were supplied with and about two-thirds of the “"census sufficient concentrates, but the amount farms"” are operated by owners. of roughage and grazing supplied was in-- Significant changes have taken place in adequate. Feeding rates for other livestock systems of farming in Newton County were too low on most farms studied. in recent years. Between 1929 and 1944, Apparently, barn feeding alone is not the proportion of land devoted to cotton the answer to economical milk produc-- decreased from 53 to 23 percent and the tion in Newton County. In 1946, the 44 MISSISSIPPI AGR ICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 46fi farmers who did the h eaviest barn feed-- many farm operators (2) inadequate ing produced more milk than did those capital and (3) inadequate market out- who did the least amount of barn feed- lets for the majority of farmers for com-- ing; however, the cost of the additional modities other than cotton. These ob-- feed was more than the value of the a.d- stacles can be overcome, however, over a ditional milk produced. Adequate graz- period of years through an intensified ag- ing appears to be the answer. Those ricultural educational program, through farmers who had improved pastures and sound financial planning on the part of provided their cows with winter grazing farmers and lending agencies, and produce~ about one and one-half times through planned production and market-- as much milk per cow than did those ing of quality products. who had unimproved pastures and no In shifting to more intensive systems winter grazing; both groups did about of farming, the less complex changes such the same amount of barn feeding and as using more fertilizer and better seed utilized about the same amount of land for row crops should be carried out first for grazing. because they are easy to initiate and there Mules are still used for power on most is a quick return on the capital expended. farms in Newton County. The majority If borrowed, this capital can be repaid in of farmers owning tractors use them for less than a year. The addition or expand-- seedbed preparation only and continue to ing of livestock enterpriess and the graz-- cultivate their crops with half-row mule ing and feed crops they are dependent equipment. The use of tractors for all upon should be started later and expand-- field operations would materially increase ed to the desired size over a period of the amount of land that one man could years. handle. Though farm reorganization and im-- Opportunities for increasing crop yields proved practices, net cash income on a and livestock production rates are good. typical 40-acre- farm could be increased Production specialists have indicated that from $70 to $260 with a dairy-cotton crop yields and livestock production system of farming. Thus, when farmed rates could be doubled and in some cases according to the best known method, the tripled through the use of the best farm-- 40-acre- farm is too small to provide the ing practice now known to Experiment average farm family with an adequate Station and Extension Service workers. income if commercial production is Farms as operated in 1946 were char- limited to those products that are usually acterized by low crop yields ~nd livestock produced commercially in this area. production rates, a family labor force that However, if a laying flock of 500 hens was idle much of the year and the failure were added to the dairy-cotton system, to make use of available natural resources. net cash income would be increased to Idle cropland varied from 2 acres on the about $735; if a broiler enterprise of typical 40-acre- farm to 40 acres on the 2,000 birds every 3 months were added typical 360-acre- farm. to the dairy-cotton system net cash in-- Through farm reorganization that come would be increased to approximately would make use of all natural resources $1,430. and employ the farm family throughout Through farm reorganization and im-- the year, and adoption of improved farm-- proved practices net cash income on a ing practices, net cash income on farms typical 80-acre- farm could be increased in this area could be increased materially. from $135 to about $720 with a dairy-- The major obstacles to shifting to more cotton system of farming and to $1,300 intensive systems of farming in this area if a l aying flock of 500 hens were added are (I) low managerial performance of to the dairy-cotton system. Similarly, net FARM PRACTICES AND ORGANIZATION IN THE SAND-CLAY HILLS 45 cash income on a typical 160-ac- re farm sys tems of fa rming for the fa rms of 40, could be increased from $340 to about 80 or 160 acres could be operated by one $2,660 with a Grade A dairy-cotton sys-- one family without hiring additional tem of farming and to about $3,170 with labor, except for a small amount of cot- a Grade A dairy-poultry system of farm-- ton picking on the 160-ac- re Grade A -ing. On a typical 360-acre- farm, net cash dairy-cotton system of fa rming. One income could be incre:1sed from $375 to fam ily co uld operate the typical 360-acre about $2,270 with a b eef--hog system of unit with a b eef-hog system of farming farming and to about $3,940 with a by hiring a small amount of labor dur-- Grade A d ai ry-cotton system of farming. ing the hay a nd corn harvesting season ; with the Grade A da iry-cotton one full-- The 160-and-- 360-acre farms would be time wage worker would be re quired operated with tractor power and milking plus the utilization of hi s fami ly in cot- machines would be used. The suggested ton and hoeing and harvesting. APPENDIX Table 1. Prices used in calculating normal farm income and expenses. INor_mal Item Unit pnce Prod ucts sold: dollars dollars Cotton ------lb. .14 Tan kage ------cwt. 3.00 Cottonseed ------ton 40.00 Corn ______------bu . 1.00 Lespedeza hay, baled ______ton 15.00 Lespedeza seed ______lb. .15 Calves, grass fat ______cwt. 10.00 Crimson clover seed ______lb. .15 Cottonseed ______Cows, beef ------______cwt. 8.00 ------bu. 3.00 Cows, cull da iry ______cwt. 6.50 Corn, h ybrid seed ______bu. 8.00 ------cwt. 3.75 Oat seed ______------bu. 1.00 Milk, grade A ------_ Mil k, mfg. ______cwt. 2.75 Sudan seed ______—- lb. .OR Hogs, good quality ------______cwt. 11.00 Fuel oil and grease _ H en s------lb. .20 for I-row tractor . ______hr. .2 1 Broilers ------lb. .23 Fuel oil a nd grease _ Eggs ------doz. .25 for 2-row tractor ______hr. .24 Man labor ______, ______1t ern pu rchased: ______------hr. .20 Am. Nit., 32.5% ______cwt. 2.50 Cotton picking ______------cwt. 1.75 Pl-:osphate, 20% ______------_ cwt. 1.00 Disc land, 1 time over ______— _ acre 1.00 Potash, 50% ______------_ cwt. 2.00 Mow ______------______acre 1.00 Mow and rake ______5-10-5, etc. ------cwt. 1.50 acre 1.50 Lime ------ton 3.40 Combine oats ------— acre 3.00 Cottonseed meal - cwt. 2.00 Bale hay ______------ton 2.50 [ la u I cotton ______Laying mash ------cwt. 3.00 ______— bale 1.00 Broiler feed ------cwt. 3.00 Percent Perce nt Repairs: new cost Depreciation; new cost Tractor ------5 .0 Tractor ______------10.0 Tractor equipment ------______——- 5.0 Tractor equipment ______7.5 Mule equipment ______5.0 Mule equipment ------5.0 ______Dairy and poultry equipment ______5.0 Dairy and poultry e quipment __ . ______10.0 Buildings ------—------3.0 Bui !dings ____------______3 .0 Fen ces ______5.0 Fences ______— ____ ------— 5.0 ______Source: The normal prices received by farmers as given in this table are the rst im atinns of price specialists of th e B ureau of Agricultural Economics adjusted to Mississippi condition s. The normal prices paid by farmers are the prices paid by fa rmers in 1943 and were taken from reports of the Statistical Division of tr.e Bureau of Agricultural Economics and price li st of various companies, etc. In analyzing the situation as to w h at normal prices would be in the mid-fifties, price specialists of the Bureau of Agricultural Economics stated that if employment remained at a relatively high level the p rices paid by farmers would be at about the level existing in 1943, but that tr.e prices received for farm commodities would be about 25 percent below the 1943 level. Table 2. Family Labor Utilization Summary, Typical Sized Farm s As Operated In 1946 And Under Suggested Reorganization, ______Newton County, Mississippi !tern .... ------— ------Jan. I Feb. I Mar. I Apr. I May I June I July I Aug. I Sept. I Oct. I Nov. Dec. Total "' Hours of labor available in the average farm family on ------' days avai lable for field workl ______202 202 269 ------269 388 456 480 528 ' 408 319 286 168 Hours of family labor used on livestock and field crops 3975 on days available for field work: 2 40 acre farm as operated in 1946 ____ .... ___ 28 40 124 ------190 254 219 86 69 170 189 76 19 1464 -10 acre farm, reorganization Plan ] _____ 39 68 112 _ _------135 172 164 63 181 262 208 131 25 15 60 40 acre farm, reorganization Plan 2 ______60 88 171 — 191 238 212 117 242 298 242 161 42 2062 40 acre farm, reorganization Plan 3 -·····------— 87 11 6 1 76 199 247 239 143 269 343 284 199 65 2367 80 acre farm as operated in 1946 ------·------45 65 18-f 269 355 306 11 7 96 217 254 108 31 80 acre farm, reorganization Plan I ______73 107 195 2047 174 209 234 103 457 404 283 201 50 2490 80 acre farm, reorganization Plan 2 ______85 119 269 ------233 272 256 139 446 408 319 286 65 2897 160 acre farm as operated in 1946 ______53 78 302 ------303 428 496 172 138 361 319 205 35 2890 160 acre farm, reorganization Plan 1 ______109 153 256 191 236 338 176 447 408 319 286 86 3005 160 acre farm, reorganization Plan 2 ______126 191 269 ----- 269 253 356 219 449 337 319 286 101 3175 360 acre farm as operated in 1946 ______76 107 I 63 202 305 278 152 160 233 265 123 53 2117 360 acre farm, reorganization Plan 1 ______89 153 269 ------170 152 239 113 401 379 319 286 70 2640 360 acre farm, reorganization Plan 2 3 ______210 279 432 337 453 546 328 732 648 547 490 169 5171 Total hours of family labor used: 4 40 acre farm as operated in 1946 ------45 57 143 212 272 235 97 77 180 201 40 acre fa rm, reorganization 90 37 1646 Plan I ------______84 115 155 175 201 189 93 197 281 237 159 67 1953 -10 acre farm, reorganization Plan 2 ------143 173 279 285 319 275 182 293 344 297 222 -10 acre farm, reorganization 13 I 2943 Plan 3 ' ______---- — ---- 208 227 279 295 325 309 217 321 401 361 279 191 3413 80 acre farm as operated in 1946 ------77 95 212 301 382 330 133 108 232 272 129 66 [f) 80 acre farm, reorganization 2337 Plan 1 ______170 198 317 254 311 293 207 497 449 339 267 150 >--l 80 acre farm, reorganization 3452 > Plan 2 ------______201 224 407 373 401 335 262 507 -166 390 367 188 4121 >--l 160 acre farm as operated in 1946 ______--- 91 115 335 340 458 524 191 152 378 340 229 76 3229 0 160 acre farm, reorganization Plan 1 ______288 390 402 337 388 -146 358 531 502 448 388 284 4762 z 160 acre farm, reorganization Plan 2 ______340 458 474 465 450 -195 -135 564 453 -156 437 336 5363 to 360 acre farm as operated in 1 C 946 ______158 185 223 255 349 318 181 183 260 304 163 138 2717 r 360 acre farm, reorganization Plan I —______215 346 374 251 28 1 299 378 444 430 382 352 209 3961 360 acre farm reorganization Plan 23 ------565 689 720 __6_2 _1__ 7_5_-1 __7_5_7 __ 75_6 __ 9_00 __ 8_3_5 __7_6_6 __ 7_3_2 __ 55_9 ___ 8_6_5_4_ 6 Source: Labor requirements for reorganized farm plan based upon Appendix Tables 3 and 4, with some adjustments during planting and harvesting z season. Labor requirements for farms as operated in 1946 based upon Table 3, Mississippi Experiment Station Bulletin Number 387. "' 1 Man equivalents of family labor available for each month x days available for tield work each month (days in month minus rainy days, Sundays and holidays) x 12 (the maximum number of hours to be worked per day during peak seasons). 2 Total hours spent on crops plus the hours spent on livestock on the days available for field work. 3 Includes the labor performed by a ° full time wage hand. Total hours of labor available on days fit for field work (including the full time wage bnd) would be as follows: f, 346; F, 346; M, 461; A, 461; M, 616; J, 684; 720; 4 J, A, 792; S, 648; 0, 547; N, 490, D, 228. Exclusive of time spent on maintenance of buildings, fences and equipment. 'J:',..:....,.,..,.,-1 U"nn.-c- ,..f l\,f,." T ,...h,-..- 11,.,..,,;,.,.,-1 p,. .. Arrr 'Pnr p T,.l-..1 ... l V/fo p p p M-:1;nr Crn~ R,,, T ... m,.. p nf Pnurrrp TTvil ~"" F.stimated Honn. of Man T.ahor Rennirrc-1 Per Table 3. Estimated Hours of Man Labor Required Per Acre For Major Crops By T ype of Power Used and Estimated Hours of Man Labor Required Per Unit of Livestock, When Using Improved Crop An :! Livestock Practices, Newton County, Mississippi Item Jan. J Feb. I Mar. J Apr. J May J June I July Aug. I Sept. I Oct. I Nov. I Dec. I Total Crop~; one m ulc:1 Cotton ------··---·---·---·---—------·--·---·------·-··------·-----·---·- - .7 2.3 4.0 11.1 16.8 14.2 3.0 10.0 40.0 25.0 10.0 137.1 Corn ...______.7 1.5 9.8 6.6 5.5 2.5 9.9 9.9 46.4 Oats, grain and grazing ------··------·---- 2.0 1.4 1.5 1.5 6.4 Lespedeza hay (after oats) ______1.0 8.5 8.5 18.0 Sudan grass __------··------·------·---·--- ______- 19. 1 3.0 5.0 27.1 Swcetpotatocs (Commercial) ______2.0 10.5 9.5 30.8 35.7 9.0 39.5 39.5 176.5 Crops; two m u les: Cotton ______------··------·------____ .6 2.3 3.2 8.9 13.6 I I.I 1.6 10.7 42 .8 26.8 I 0.7 132.3 Corn ---·------______------· ___ .6 1.5 7 .7 4. 4 3.4 1.8 9.9 9.9 39.2 Oats, grain and grazing.!- ______------·-· 2 .0 1.4 4.2 4.2 11.8 Lespedeza hay (after oats) ______1.0 9.7 9.6 20.3 Sudan grass ______------·------11.8 1.6 5.1 18.5 Sweetpotatoes (Commercial) ______------·---·---·-- 1.2 9.2 8. 1 28.5 33.4 8.0 37.5 37.5 163 .4 Crops: on e-plow (one-row)- tractor: Cotton ------·------______.3 1.6 2. 1 2.5 9.8 4.7 1.0 10 .6 42.3 26.5 10.6 11 2.0 Corn ______--· --·------· ------.3 1.6 3.7 2.2 1.6 .6 11.4 11.4 32.8 Oats, grain and grazing ______1.4 3.6 2.1 2. 1 9.2 Lespcdeza hay (after oats) 3 ______.7 2.4 2.4 5.5 Sudan grass ______' 4.4 1.0 2.0 7.4 Sweetpotatoes (Commercial) ______.6 7.2 4.5 19.3 24.3 6.0 36.0 36.0 133.9 Crop,: two-plow (two-row)- tractor: Cotton ______-·-·------·- ______·-----·--·----·------·---- - .2 .9 1.2 1.5 8.9 3.8 .6 10.3 41.2 25.7 10.3 104.6 Corn ______--·___--·-----·______------·------.2 .9 2.2 1.4 1.0 .3 10.8 10.8 27 .6 Oats, grain and grazing ------·---·------1.0 2.8 1.5 I .5 6.8 Lespedeza hay ( after oats) ______.5 2.3 2.3 5.1 Sudan grass ------·------2.9 .6 1.3 4.8 Sweet potatoes (Commercial) ______.3 6.3 3.6 15 .6 20.6 5.6 35 .0 35 .0 122.0 Livestock (per h ead) : Workstock ------··------6 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 6 67 Milk cows, hand, ma nufacturing ______13 13 12 12 12 11 10 10 10 11 12 12 138 Milk cows, machine, manufacturing ______8 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 7 7 8 90 Mi lk cows, machine, Grade A ______JO 10 10 IC 10 9 9 9 9 9 9 10 114 Beef cows ------3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 28 Sow and li tters ------··------·------·----- 5 5 6 5 5 4 4 4 5 6 5 5 59 Hens (flock of 500) --·------62 56 124 120 124 90 93 93 60 62 60 62 1006 Broilers (8,000) ------124 112 1 24 120 124 120 124 124 120 124 120 124 1460 t The following would be done on a custom basis and 1s not included in labor requirements: Cotton hauling; land preparation for oats and com-- bining oats; and mowing and raking hay. 2 Combined on custom basis and combining is not included in labor requirements. 3 Baled on cus tom basis and ba ling 1s not included in labor requirements. .,,. 00 Table 4. ' Estimated Hours of Power Required Per Acre For Major Crops By Type Of Power Used, When Using Improved Crop Practices, Newton County, Mississippi ______!tern Jan. Feb. I Mar. I Apr. [ May I June I July I Aug. I Sept. I Oct. I Nov. I Dec. Total mule 1 Crops; one vi Cotton ------______------.7 2.3 3.0 7.6 6.8 6.7 3.0 30.1 en Corn ------______------.7 1.5 8.3 6.1 ·LS 1.5 9.9 9.9 42.4 vien Oats, grain grazing ______------1.-f 1.4 Lcspedeza hay (after oats) ------______------5.0 5.0 10.0 ::s Sudan grass ----______------___ _ 17.1 3.0 3.0 23.1 > Sweetpotatoes (Commercial) ------______-____------2.0 7.5 6.5 5.8 6.7 4.0 7.0 7.0 46.5 C) Crops; two mules: ""n 7.2 3.2 1.4 5.6 3.6 1.4 48.3 C: Cotton -______------1.2 4.6 4.0 8.9 7.2 r' Corn ------______1.2 3.0 10.8 7.1 4.8 1.6 6.6 6.6 41.7 --l Oats, grain and grazing2 ______------1.4 5..4 5.4 12.2 C: Lespedeza hay ( after oats) ______7.3 7.3 14.6 ------>""r' Sudan grass ______18.8 3.2 6.2 28.2 ------tT1 Sweet potatoes (Commercial) ___ 2.4 10.4 9.9 6.6 7.8 4.0 7.0 7.0 55.1 ><"O Crops; one-plow (one-row)- tractor: tT1 Cotton ------______------· .3 1.6 2.1 2.5 2.3 2.2 ' 1.0 .6 2.3 1.5 .6 17.0 Corn 3.7 2.2 1.6 .6 2.9 2.8 15.7 §::"" --______------.3 1.6 tT1 Oats, g rain and grazing ______------.7 1.8 1.7 1.8 6.0 z Lespedeza hay ( after oats) 3 -___------___ .7 .7 1.5 1.6 3.8 --l en Sudan grass ·------______---·------······-----··--·------H 1.0 2.0 7.4 --l Sweetpotatoes (Commercial) ______.6 3.2 2.5 4.8 ·!.8 1.0 2.2 2.3 21.4 > Crops; two-pl--ow (two-row) tractor: j 0 Cotton ----______------______.2 .9 l.2 1.5 1.4 1.3 .6 .3 1.2 .7 .3 9.6 z Corn ------______------.2 .9 2.2 1.4 1.0 .3 2.7 2.7 11.4 to Oats, grain and grazing ______.5 1.4 1.2 1.3 4.4 C: ------r' Lcspedeza hay ( after oats) ______.5 1.6 1.7 3.8 r' ------tT1 Sudan grass ------·______-·------·- ______2.9 .6 1.3 4.8 --l Sweetpotatoes (Commercial) _____------— ---- .3 2.3 1.6 1.8 1.9 .6 1.6 1.6 11.7 z Source: Based upon recommended planting and cultural practices and the labor requirements for individual operations given in Table 24. _.,. 0\ LThe following would be done on a custom basis and I S not. included in power requirements: Cotton hauling; land preparation for oats and com-- 0\ bining ca ts ; and mowing and raking hay. 2 Combined on custon1 basis and combining is not included m power requirements. 3 Ba led on custmn basis and baling IS not included m labor requirements.