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Reliability and Power Quality Metrics for Micro Grid: Reliability and Power Quality 1 © 2016 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved. Regional Causes of Power Outage From: Public Power Magazine “Reliability Is a Daily Regimen“ September-October 2014 issue Vol. 72, No. 5 2 © 2016 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved. The value of distribution resilience - Customer Outages for Major Events Year Event Name Outages Location Damage ($ Million) 2012 Sandy 8,500,000 Northeast US ~100,000 2012 Derecho 4,200,000 Mid-Atlantic 4,000 2011 Irene 6,400,000 Eastern US 10,000 2011 Blizzard 650,000 Mid-Atlantic 1,800 2009 Ice Storm 2,000,000 Midwest 700 2008 Ice Storm 1,700,000 Northeast 80 2008 Ike 6,000,000 Gulf Coast 29,500 2008 Gustav 1,300,000 Gulf Coast 7,000 2007 Ice Storm 900,000 Midwest 200 2007 Wildfires 600,000 California 2,500 2006 Wind Storm 1,800,000 Pacific Northwest 220 2005 Katrina 2,000,000 Gulf Coast 100,000 2005 Rita 1,300,000 Gulf Coast 12,000 3 © 2016 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved. Sag and Interruption Rate by Month: System Wide, One- Minute Aggregate Window, 1/1/2009 through 12/31/2012 Tropical 5 Storm Beryl 4.5 May-12 Sags (10%<V<90%) 4 Interruptions (V<10%) Tornado Mar-12 3.5 Outbreak Apr-11 3 Sep-11 y = 0.0009x - 33.61 2.5 Jul-12 Days Jun-10 2 Jun-09 Oct-12 Nov-09 1.5 1 Oct-10 Tropical Storm Sandy Aug-12 0.5 Oct-09 Aug-11 y = 0.0002x - 6.2165 DerechoOct-10 Sag and Interruptions per Site per 30 Oct-12 0 Apr-11 Jul-09 Jul-10 Jul-11 Jul-12 Jan-09 Jan-10 Jan-11 Jan-12 Mar-09 Mar-10 Mar-11 Mar-12 Sep-09 Sep-10 Sep-11 Sep-12 Nov-11 Nov-09 Nov-10 Nov-12 May-09 May-10 May-11 May-12 4 © 2016 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved. 9’s are not the whole story “Know Thy Utility Sag Enemy” Sag Substation Fault Momentary "So Power Quality issues increase as productivity pressure increases" 5 © 2016 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved. Availability as a Measure of Reliability Unavailability Availability System Type Minutes/Year Percent “Nines” Unmanaged 50,000 90 1 Managed 5,000 99 2 Well-Managed 500 99.9 3 Fault_Tolerant 50 99.99 4 Highly_Available 5 99.999 5 Very_H.A. 0.5 99.9999 6 Ultra_H.A. 0.05 99.99999 7 . Typical Grid, Urban: 4 or 5 Nines, Rural: 2 or 3 Nines . Measures of Reliability – SAIFI – System Average Interruption Frequency Index – SAIDI – System Average Interruption Duration Index – CAIDI – Customer Average Interruption Duration Index 6 © 2016 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved. Distribution Reliability Indices Reference: EPRI 1000424 “Reliability of Electric Utility Distribution System White Paper” . SAIFI: System Average Interruption Frequency Index • LAIDI=Load Average Interruption Duration Index (annual . CAIFI: Customer Average Interruption Frequency Index hours lost/kVA) . SAIDI: System Average Interruption Duration Index • LWMID=Load-Weighted Mean Interruption Duration . CTAIDI: Customer Total Average Interruption Duration Index • DLI=Demand Loss Index . CAIDI: Customer Average Interruption Duration Index • ELI=Energy Loss Index . MAIFI: Momentary Average Interruption Frequency Index . CALCI: Customer Average Load Curtailment Index • ATPII=Average Time per Interruption Index . MICIF: Maximum Individual Customer Interruption Frequency • CMPII=Customer Minutes per Interruption Index . MICID: Maximum Individual Customer Interruption Duration • ADIC=average demand interruption cost index . ALIFI=Average Load Interruption Frequency Index • AEIC=average energy interruption cost index . ALIDI=Average Load Interruption Duration Index • ARC=adaptive response costs index . ASCI=Average System Curtailment Index . ACCI=Average Customer Curtailment Index • CCDF=composite customer damage functions index . ASAI=Average Service Availability Index or Service • CIC=customer interruption costs index Reliability Index • CPI=consumer price index . ASUI=Average Service Unavailability Index: complementary to ASAI • EENS=expected energy not served index . SAIFI1 & SAIFI2: distinguish between permanent and • EOC=expected outage costs index momentary outages . MAIFI: (momentary or SAIFI short) average frequency of • LOEE=Loss of Energy Expectation index momentary • LOLE=Loss of Load Expectation index . LAIFI=Load Average Interruption Frequency Index (annual interruptions/kVA) • LOLP=Loss-of-Load Probability index 7 © 2016 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved. Reliability (Availability in 9’s) vs. Evolution of Technology Cost in Electricity Reliability “Digital Society” $/kW-hr (in “9”s) (ISPs) Ultimate (3 ms/yr) 10 Power System? (30 ms/yr) 9 Grid plus (0.3 sec/yr) 8 Diesel, UPS, etc. (3 sec/yr) 7 ? (30 sec/yr) 6 Computers (5 min/yr) 5 (1 hr/yr) 4 Interconnected Central Station Generation (9 hr/yr) 3 (3-4 day/yr) 2 Motors (1 mo/yr) 1 Lights 0 Stand-alone 1900 1950 2000 Steam Generation Year 8 © 2016 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved. The Inadequacy of 9’s… Common Mistake .Equating the “System Uptime” requirement to electric service reliability indices. .Six Nines of electric service reliability IS NOT EQUAL to six nines of internet data center uptime requirement. .The Missing Link: System downtime as a result of electric service disturbances (quality and outage)…. – An electric service that is 6 nines reliable (99.9999%) is 32 seconds of interruption in a year – Actual result is 4 process outages of 1-hour each. – System Uptime = (8760-4)/8760 = 0.9995 – Power is 6 nines and process is only 3 nines!! 9 © 2016 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved. Economics of Micro-grid and a Grid Defection? Challenges to be Considered 24 by 7 Electricity Startup Power Grid Supplied Power Voltage Quality 10 © 2016 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved. Equipment Immunity or Sensitivity is a critical Metric Disturbance Data at Semiconductor Maufacturing Plants 110% 100% 90% 80% 70% Eliminating Weak 60% Links e.g. - 50% Contactor limit 2 40% cycles @ 49%V 30% 20% Percent of NominalVoltage 10% 0% 1 10 100 1000 Duration (cycles) 11 CBEMA CURVE © 2016 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved. Specifying power supply voltage tolerance, and compatibility Voltage Sag Tolerance for IT Equipment http://www.itic.org/ 70% of nominal for 0.5 seconds 12 © 2016 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved. Different end users have different needs . Different consumers have different value assessments associated with quality and reliability of the supply. One size does not fit all. The differences and specific needs are key incentives for microgrids. 13 © 2016 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved. Sag Tolerance Limits Probability Contours: Methodology Developed in IEEE 1346 15-20 events Photo Eye (Emergency Stop), < 1 cycle and 87% 10-15 events 24 Vdc Instrumen 0-5 events per t Power site per year 120 Vac Supply, DPDT 70% 2 cycles 2 Relay, 75% 9.2 cycles9.2 Programmable Logic Controller, 37 cycles37 47% 5-10 events per site per year Percent of Nominal Voltage % Voltage Nominal of Percent 2.0 9.2 37.0 Time (cycles) 14 © 2016 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved. Low/High Voltage Ride Through Requirement CA Rule 21 15 © 2016 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved. Four Ways Microgrids may Enhance PQ/Reliability “Instant” Islanding Proactive Islanding Interrupted Microgrid utility Microgrid System Exposed Utility System “Open upon Loads Loads sag or G G “Open until G G interruption” storm passes” Partial Voltage Sag Mitigation Lower Impedance between Source and Load: improves flicker, regulation during motor start “closed” Fault Contribution from DG “Closed” Microgrid Power Qualiy Sagging Microgrid Utility Utility Large System (for system M Motor Loads “Z” just a few G G G Start cycles) G 16 © 2016 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved. Four Ways PQ Could Get Worse Reconnecting to the Grid Starting Large Reactive Loads: Local VAR Compensation May be Needed Restored Microgrid utility “Open” System Microgrid Closing Must Be seamless Loads Interrupted G G utility and In-Phase or M System G G Loads may trip! Large Motor Start Deeper Voltage Sags/Fault Current Settings High Source Impedance: Increase VTHD “Open” “Open” Microgrid Microgrid Interrupted Interrupted utility utility System Loads Fault Loads System G G G G 17 © 2016 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved. Together…Shaping the Future of Electricity 18 © 2016 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved..
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    INFORMATION TO USERS This manuscript has been reproduced from the microfilm master. UMI films the text directly from the original or copy submitted. Thus, some thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from any type of computer printer. The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleedthrough, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. In the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by sectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand comer and continuing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced xerographically in this copy. Higher quality 6" x 9" black and white photographic prints are available for any photographs or illustrations appearing in this copy for an additional charge. Contact UMI directly to order. ProQuest Information and Learning 300 North Zeeb Road. Ann Arbor. Ml 48106-1346 USA 800-521-0600 Advances in distribution system reliability assessment by Nagaraj Balijepalli A dissertation submitted to the graduate faculty in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Major : Electrical Engineering (Electric Power) S. S. Venkata, Major Professor Venkataramana Ajjarapu Richard D. Christie James D. McCalley William Q. Meeker Iowa State University Ames, Iowa 2002 Copyright © Nagaraj Balijepalli, 2002.
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