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Strategies of Reappropriation in Native American and First Nations Literatures

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Strategies of Reappropriation in Native American and First Nations Literatures Université de Montréal Inventing Interventions: Strategies of Reappropriation in Native American and First Nations Literatures par Sarah Henzi Département d’études anglaises Faculté des arts et des sciences Thèse présentée à la Faculté des arts et des sciences en vue de l’obtention du grade de Doctorat en Études anglaises Octobre 2011 © Sarah Henzi, 2011 Library and Archives Bibliothèque et Canada Archives Canada Published Heritage Direction du Branch Patrimoine de l'édition 395 Wellington Street 395, rue Wellington Ottawa ON K1A 0N4 Ottawa ON K1A 0N4 Canada Canada Your file Votre référence ISBN: 978-0-494-83639-2 Our file Notre référence ISBN: 978-0-494-83639-2 NOTICE: AVIS: The author has granted a non- L'auteur a accordé une licence non exclusive exclusive license allowing Library and permettant à la Bibliothèque et Archives Archives Canada to reproduce, Canada de reproduire, publier, archiver, publish, archive, preserve, conserve, sauvegarder, conserver, transmettre au public communicate to the public by par télécommunication ou par l'Internet, prêter, telecommunication or on the Internet, distribuer et vendre des thèses partout dans le loan, distrbute and sell theses monde, à des fins commerciales ou autres, sur worldwide, for commercial or non- support microforme, papier, électronique et/ou commercial purposes, in microform, autres formats. paper, electronic and/or any other formats. The author retains copyright L'auteur conserve la propriété du droit d'auteur ownership and moral rights in this et des droits moraux qui protege cette thèse. Ni thesis. Neither the thesis nor la thèse ni des extraits substantiels de celle-ci substantial extracts from it may be ne doivent être imprimés ou autrement printed or otherwise reproduced reproduits sans son autorisation. without the author's permission. In compliance with the Canadian Conformément à la loi canadienne sur la Privacy Act some supporting forms protection de la vie privée, quelques may have been removed from this formulaires secondaires ont été enlevés de thesis. cette thèse. While these forms may be included Bien que ces formulaires aient inclus dans in the document page count, their la pagination, il n'y aura aucun contenu removal does not represent any loss manquant. of content from the thesis. Université de Montréal Faculté des arts et des sciences Cette thèse intitulée : Inventing Interventions: Strategies of Reappropriation in Native American and First Nations Literatures Présentée par : Sarah Henzi a été évaluée par un jury composé des personnes suivantes : Prof. Robert Schwartzwald, Président-rapporteur Prof. Lianne Moyes, Directrice de recherche Prof. Heike Härting, Membre du jury Dr. Warren Cariou, Examinateur externe Prof. Simon Harel, Représentant du doyen de la Faculté des arts et sciences i RÉSUMÉ Ma thèse de doctorat, intitulée Inventing Interventions: Strategies of Reappropriation in Native and First Nations Literatures traite du sujet de la réappropriation de la langue anglaise et de la langue française dans les littératures autochtones du Canada et des États- Unis, en tant que stratégie d’intervention de re-narration et de récupération. De fait, mon projet fait abstraction, autant que possible, des frontières nationales et linguistiques, vu que celles-ci sont essentiellement des constructions culturelles et coloniales. Ainsi, l’acte de réappropriation de la langue coloniale implique non seulement la maitrise de base de cette dernière à des fins de communication, cela devient un moyen envers une fin : au lieu d’être possédés par la langue, les auteurs sur lesquels je me penche ici possèdent à présent cette dernière, et n’y sont plus soumis. Les tensions qui résultent d’un tel processus sont le produit d’une transition violente imposée et expérimentale d’une réalité culturelle à une autre, qui, pour plusieurs, n’a pas réussie et s’est, au contraire, effritée sur elle-même. Je soutiens donc que les auteurs autochtones ont créé un moyen à travers l’expression artistique et politique de répondre (dans le sens de « write back ») à l’oppression et l’injustice. À travers l’analyse d’œuvres contemporaines écrites en anglais ou en français, que ce soit de la fiction, de l’autobiographie, de la poésie, du théâtre, de l’histoire ou du politique, ma recherche se structure autour de quatre concepts spécifiques : la langue, la résistance, la mémoire, et le lieu. J’examine comment ces concepts sont mis en voix, et comment ils sont interdépendants et s’affectent à l’intérieur du discours particulier issu des ii littératures autochtones et des différentes stratégies d’intervention (telles la redéfinition ou l’invention) et du mélange de différentes formules littéraires. Mots-clés : Peuples autochtones de l’Amérique du Nord, Études autochtones, études littéraires, critique littéraire, colonisation, résistance, réappropriation, politiques gouvernementales, souveraineté, mémoire collective. iii ABSTRACT My doctoral thesis, entitled Inventing Interventions: Strategies of Reappropriation in Native and First Nations Literatures, explores the reappropriation of the English and French languages, as a strategy for retelling and reclaiming hi/stories of the Aboriginal people of Canada and the United States. In effect, my project disregards national and linguistic borders since these are, in essence, cultural and colonial constructs. To reappropriate the colonial language, then, entails not only its mastery as a means for basic communication, but claims it as a means to an end: instead of being owned by and subject to the language, it is now these authors who own the language. The resulting tensions of this process are the product of the imposed and tentative violent transition from one cultural realm to another, which, for many, never succeeded to its fullest, but rather crumbled back upon itself: for First Nations and Native American authors, I argue, creating means through art and politics to “write back” against oppression and injustice. My thesis, an examination of contemporary fictional, autobiographical, historical and political, prosaic and poetic works written in French and English, is structured along the analysis of specific keywords – language, resistance, memory and place. I explore how these concepts are voiced, and how they are not only inter-related but affect each other within the particular discursive framework of Indigenous writing, set in motion by different strategies of intervention (redefinition, invention) and the mixing of different literary devices. iv Keywords: Indigenous Peoples of North America, Native/Aboriginal Studies, Literary Studies, Literary Criticism, Colonization, Resistance, Reappropriation, Governmental policies, Sovereignty, Collective Memory. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Résumé………………………………………………………………………………. i Abstract………………………………………………………………………………. iii List of Illustrations…………………………………………………………………… vi Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………….. vii Introduction: Defining a Language and (Un)Settling Boundaries…………………. 1 Chapter 1: Language: The Voicing of Silence, Stories and Survivance…………. 45 Chapter 2: Resistance: From Governmental Wards to Reclaiming Warriors……. 117 Chapter 3: Memory: How to Live With Ghosts…………………………………. 175 Chapter 4: Place: Indigenous Poaching and Acts of Citizenship…………………238 Conclusion: This is Only a Beginning…………………………………………….. 284 Works Cited…………………………………………………………………………. 294 Annexes: Further Readings…………………………………………………….. i vi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 1. Photograph: “Vocation?”………………………………………………………… viii 2. Statue: “End of the Trail,” by James E. Fraser, 1918………………………. 10 3. Photograph: “The Vanishing Race,” Navaho, by Edward Curtis, 1904…………. 49 4. Photograph: “Highway of Tears,” by Sarah Henzi, 2008……………………….. 138 5. Photograph: “The Oka Crisis,” by Shaney Komulainen, 1990……………...…… 164 6. Photograph: “Canada, Land of the Homeless,” artist unknown, 2007……………. 200 7. Photograph: “This is Indian Land,” artist unknown, date unknown……………… 262 8. Map: Akwesasne Reserve/Reservation, Akwesasne.ca…………………... 263 9. Film image: “You Are On Indian Land,” Mort Ransen, 1969, NFB.ca………… 266 vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS A Ph.D. is not an easy task to undertake. It takes a lot – a lot to give, to seek, to question; a lot of time, patience, financial duress, financial support; it takes a lot of hope, a lot of will; a lot of oneself, and a lot of others. I would like to thank, first and foremost, my supervisor, Professor Lianne Moyes, without whom this thesis might not have seen the light of day; for her support, her motivation, her belief in my project; for her stories about walks in the park with the dog, camping trips with the kids, academic turmoils and budget crunches; for making me believe when I no longer could and wanted to quit. To her I owe the certainty that one can successfully be several things at once. I would like to thank all those who shared with me their research, their thoughts, their questions, their support: Professors Heike Härting and Robert Schwartzwald, and Gail Scott, of the Département d’études anglaises, Université de Montréal, for their unconditional support, interest, and belief in my work; Professors Renate Eigenbrod, Deena Rymhs and Audra Simpson, for their support, and for sharing with me unpublished research; Professor Daniel Heath Justice, who has been supportive of my Post-Doctoral Research project; Isabelle St-Amand, Claudine Cyr and the GIRA-INRS organization; viii Maurizio Gatti, for his support, and having laid out the field in Québec for First Nations literary studies; Armand Garnet Ruffo, Audra
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