United Nations International Educational, Scientific and Hydrological Cultural Organization Programme
Governance of Groundwater Resources in Transboundary Aquifers (GGRETA) project OVERVIEW AND RESULTS OF THE ASSESSMENT PHASE (2013–2015) Governance of Groundwater Resources in Overview and Results of the Transboundary Aquifers (GGRETA) Project 3 Assessment Phase (2013–2015) Water Diplomacy and Governance in Diplomacy and Governance in Water ”) aims at gaining experience in this respect, on the the on respect, this in experience gaining at aims ”) Focusing the attention of the international community on of their examples transboundary aquifers, and providing assessment and diagnostics and their contextAssessment of the transboundary aquifers Pretashkent) and Stampriet (Trifinio, cases pilot three the for of the nature of the shared Fostering recognition dialogue and facilitating cross-border resource groundwater and technical exchanges Governance of Groundwater Resources in Transboundary Transboundary in Resources Groundwater of Governance (IGRAC) and local project teams. (IGRAC) and local project The first phase (2013-2015) of was GGRETA designed as an major objectives: assessment phase, with three the emerging from the picture in particular by presenting assessment activities. based on mutual trust and on transparency. World-wide there is there World-wide on transparency. trust and on mutual based project on this subject. The GGRETA not yet much experience (“ Aquifers of transboundary aquifer systems pilot studies basis of three in different parts of the world: the aquiferTrifinio in Central aquifer system in SouthernAmerica, the Stampriet Africa and the Pretashkent aquifer system in Central Asia. These three major aquifer types different selected to represent pilots were transboundary contexts. and different is part of the GGRETA Hot Spots Programme financedKey Transboundary by the Swiss Agency for Development and cooperation (SDC) and is implemented by the UNESCO International Hydrological Programme (UNESCO-IHP) in close cooperation with the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the UNESCO International Groundwater Assessment Centre This brochure summarises activities and results of this phase, summarises activities and results This brochure
‘aquifers’, ‘aquifers’, water used to be taken for granted water used to be taken protection tends to be very difficult. Groundwater is interacting is Groundwater difficult. very be to tends protection of the physical by various other components with and affected systems our knowledge of local groundwater environment; in addition, each and their behaviour is often very limited; number of users system has usually a very large groundwater and other stakeholders, often with competing or conflicting to related – governance Adequate provisions interests. kinds and different information systems, institutions, policy groundwater to enable effective required of support – are management interventions. the world (or systems around Many groundwater called) are are reservoirs as exploitable groundwater transboundary over two , which means that they either extend crossed or are administrative units inside a country or more condition the latter by international Evidently, boundaries. governance and adds special challenges to groundwater management: governanceaquifers transboundary such of the national harmonization and cooperation across requires groundwater, of charge in authorities various the among borders The GGRETA project GGRETA The of our physical environment component is an important Water Groundwater Earth. on life for indispensable all, above is, it and demands, water corresponding the of part significant a covers dry climate. Until not very relatively with a in particular in areas ground long ago, the invisible but this attitude is no longer appropriate. in most countries, a century of learned half been last have the during Lessons groundwater the on pressures of types different which during If we want steadily. started and continued increasing resources to benefit optimally from our preciousresources groundwater govern should we and then sustainability, their ensure to and manage them carefully. and management groundwater that shown has practice But 7 7 8 4 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 3 4 7 10 11 11 11 12 13 13 14 11 15 ...... System . .
...... ormer Director of the UNESCO IGRAC Centre) ormer Director of the UNESCO IGRAC Centre) ...... the UNESCO-IHP and F
Approach and main activities Approach and main activities Aquifer Transboundary The Stampriet Approach and main activities Water and water and use in the area Water Main groundwater management in the area challenges Location, delineation and aquifer type Location, General features of the Pretashkent area water and use in the Kazakhstani sector Water Aquifer Transboundary The Pretashkent Gender issues (Kazakhstani sector) Main groundwater management challenges Location, delineation and aquifer type Location, General features Upper Lempa area of the and water use in the area Water area Trifinio The aquifers of the Gender issues Main groundwater management challenges in the area delineation and type of aquifer Location, area General features of the STAS This document was prepared by Mr Jac van der Gun (Senior Advisor Advisor (Senior Gun der van Jac Mr by prepared was document This to on national regional and experts. teams that are composed by international, case studies basis oftheactivitiesdevelopedbyGGRETA A look forward Pilot Study 2: The Stampriet Transboundary Aquifer System (STAS) Aquifer System Transboundary The Stampriet Pilot Study 2: Aquifer (PTBA) Transboundary The Pretashkent Pilot study 3: Table of Contents Table project The GGRETA Pilot study 1: The Trifinio Transboundary Aquifer Transboundary Trifinio The Pilot study 1: using the content of this publication, the users accept to be using the content of this publication, the users accept
). By bound by the terms of use of the UNESCO Open Access Repository bound by the terms of use of the UNESCO Open Access ). (http://www.unesco.org/open-access/terms-use-ccbysa-en this of material throughout The designations employed and the presentation of any opinion whatsoever on the part publication do not imply the expression or city or area territory, of UNESCO concerning the legal status of any country, or boundaries. of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers those of the in this publication are The ideas and opinions expressed not necessarily those of UNESCO and do not commit the authors; they are Organization. Photos of Central America, Central Asia and Southern Africa: © UNESCO-IHP the experts of the local team of each case study). (the authors are Composed and printed in the workshops of UNESCO printing industry’s the French The printer is certified Imprim’Vert®, initiative. environmental Printed in France 2015/SC/HYD/GGRETA-1 ion-ShareAlike Attribution-ShareAlike This publication is available in Open Access under the license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ 3.0 IGO) 3.0 IGO (CC-BY-SA by-sa/3.0/igo/ Published in 2015 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific Published in 2015 by the United Nations Educational, and Cultural Organization France 75352 Paris 07 SP, 7, place de Fontenoy, © UNESCO 2015 The River Lempa near Esquipulas, Guatemala © AndreaThe River Lempa near Esquipulas, Merla
Governance of Groundwater Resources in
Transboundary Aquifers (GGRETA) Project 2
Overview and Results of the Assessment Phase (2013–2015) Governance of Groundwater Resources in Overview and Results of the Transboundary Aquifers (GGRETA) Project 5 Assessment Phase (2013–2015) It should not be It should not be , the only transboundary quently Conse Hydrogeological map highlighting (in blue) the alluvial aquifer units of the Valle Hydrogeological map highlighting (in blue) the alluvial aquifer units of the Valle de Ocotepeque–Citalá de Esquipulas and the Valle abundantly recharged due to the considerable rainfall surplus surplus rainfall considerable due to the recharged abundantly location as it their favourable rainy season and during the mountainous surrounding the from runoff intercepting comes to zones. An important finding of the geophysical survey is that the Quaternary units, separate spatial deposits form two alluvial one in de the Esquipulas Valle and the other one in the Valle de Ocotepeque–Citalá. Honduras by shared unit, latter the is area Trifinio the in aquifer not by Guatemala. and El Salvador only, units in the sub- that all alluvial aquifer overlooked, however, hydraulically connected in Guatemala, are basin, also those by Río Lempa. water requirements of 635 to 835 mm/year in the de Valles Citalá. Esquipulas, Nueva Ocotepeque and Lempa, nor did of Río The pilot study did not assess the regime supplied is groundwater and water surface much how define it uses in the area. for domestic, agricultural and industrial area The aquifers of the Trifinio only the Quaternary alluvial deposits form aquifers ofthis area In produce to capable potentially and significance local than more of boreholes records transboundary impacts. Analysis of have survey, and wells, in combination with the geophysical other properties the knowledge on the geometry and improved others, that among of the aquifers. Field data have revealed, with relatively water-table), (free conditions prevail phreatic shallow water levels, and that groundwater flows generally In a hydraulic direction. in downstream the river, towards but they are only moderately productive, sense, the aquifers are Recent demographic data have not been collected, but the the but collected, been not have data demographic Recent 100,000. 2007 was around estimated in total population and use in the area water Water in time distribution their irregular of rainfall and The amounts Water rainfall surplus during wet periods. imply a considerable team suggest carried out by the project balance calculations in the year this surplus adds up to values that in an average (Valle mm 700 Ocotepeque), Nueva de (Valle mm 300 of order de Esquipulas) and even more than 1,200 mm in elevated (Montañas del Macizo de Montecristo). mountainous zones This very significant surplus feeds the rivers in the area – Río groundwater the recharges and – tributaries its and Lempa reservoirs (aquifers). On the other hand, rainfall deficits occur accumulate beyond the during the dry part of the year and in net irrigation storage capacity of the soils, resulting moisture , in this specific Topographic map of the Topographic Upper Lempa sub-basin °C and average annual rainfall of 1,200 of rainfall annual average and °C
and surface elevations vary between 720 and 2,720 2 Geology is characterised by volcanic rocks – mostly of Tertiary Tertiary of mostly – rocks volcanic by characterised is Geology by and covered over most of the area age – outcropping Quaternary(gravel, sand, clay) in the main river alluvial sediments valleys. Climate varies from temperate at the higher elevations mean annual in the river valley zone, with to semi-arid tropical 25 to 23 of temperatures to 2,000 mm depending on the location in the sub-basin. Most of the rainfall is concentrated during the period May-October. As the topographic map shows, the Upper Lempa sub-basin Upper Lempa sub-basin As the topographic map shows, the of the three and includes territories is a mountainous area of an area The sub-basin covers countries mentioned before. 966 km metres above mean sea level. The relatively flat and wide river valleys are called Valle de Esquipulas (Guatemala), Valle de Salvador). (El Citalá de Valle and (Honduras) Ocotepeque Nueva between groundwater and surface water and surface groundwater between Lempa. transboundary Río case the of features Lempa area the Upper General
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Transboundary Aquifer Transboundary Pilot study 1: The Trifinio Trifinio study 1: The Pilot rifinio Río Lempa areas around the globe, characterised by strong links by strong links areas around the globe, characterised 1 enabled by GGRETA’s geological and geophysical surveys. enabled by GGRETA’s to be The aquifer system is considered valleys in mountainousgroundwater setting in small alluvial relatively productive and laterally disjunct aquifer units locatedunits disjunct aquifer laterally and productive relatively in the valley floor of the sub-basin of the Upper Lempa river ( Honduras and El Salvador meet – is in fact composed of two of composed fact in is – meet Salvador El and Honduras What originally was called “Trifinio Transboundary Aquifer” – What originally was called “Trifinio countries Guatemala, the three named after the zone where management were made at the occasion of meetings with localmeetings with of occasion at the made management were Trifinio. authorities and personnel of the Plan delineation Location, and aquifer type with municipalities) and the development of a geo-referenced of a geo-referenced with municipalities) and the development for advocacies initial addition, In IGRAC). by (supported database sustainable groundwater a multi-actor consultation platform for and hydro (sub a geophysical survey were Geofísica Aplicada was set with the the with set was (mainly limited to climate, geologyanalysing existing information Internacional para la ConservaciónInternacional para de la Naturaleza cooperation close A UNESCO. of partner implementing local the Approach andApproach main activities executed by of this pilot study were The technical activities a local tri-national team coordinated by the UICN (
Governance of Groundwater Resources in
Transboundary Aquifers (GGRETA) Project 4
Overview and Results of the Assessment Phase (2013–2015) Governance of Groundwater Resources in Overview and Results of the Transboundary Aquifers (GGRETA) Project 7 Assessment Phase (2013–2015) C and mean rainfall ranging rainfall mean and C o in extent and has a generally flat 2 inhabitants. Commercial industrial and mining
The STAS is a very large transboundary aquifer The STAS 900 m above mean sea level. It has a hot and dry climate, with an with climate, dry and hot a has It level. sea mean above m 900 19-22 of temperature mean annual and northern the along mm/yr 300 to SW the in mm/yr 140 from September During the period May through north-eastern border. covers any rainfall. The Namibian sector of the area is hardly there and is almost completely of the area two-thirds approximately in use as agricultural land. The Botswana sector occupies 18% zones: distinct land use North to South three and includes from wildlife managementagricultural land (mainly in Ghanzi district), entirely is (7%) sector African South The park. national and area used as national park. With an estimated population of nearly 50,000 – more than 90% of which in Namibia – the area is sparsely populated. Major settlements are Aranos and Koes, have settlements other all 5,000; than less is population their but less than 2,000 absent. activities are topography, gently sloping from NW to gently SE, sloping between from 1,500 and topography, Location, delineation andLocation, type of aquifer a covers Aquifer System (STAS) Transboundary The Stampriet Central Namibia into Western from stretching large arid region Botswana and South Africa’s Northern Cape Province. It contains two confined sandstone aquifers and the overlying unconfined Kalahari aquifer units. The delineation of the STAS of of the so-called Ecca Group follows the outer boundary area and Auob the of catchments the within formations geological Nossob rivers. without region dry a in recharge, insignificant receiving system, water. permanent surface area features of the STAS General area is The 86,647 STAS km Pilot Study 2: The Stampriet Stampriet Study 2: The Pilot Aquifer Transboundary (STAS) System The area of the Stampriet Transboundary Aquifer System (STAS) Aquifer System (STAS) The area of the Stampriet Transboundary Approach and main activities Aquifer System Assessment of the Stampriet Transboundary and area the to familiar team a by out carried been has and South of Namibia, Botswana composed of professionals literature collecting and studying relevant Africa. Apart from team has spent much for assessment and diagnostics, the to GIS mapping. attention to compiling basic data and (such as (such as groundwater quantity problems groundwater quantity need to be addressed to enhance groundwater governance and to enable area. Trifinio the in aquifer transboundary the of management sustainable theme programmed the main This entails in particular institutional aspects, Some preparatory activities have been for the second phase of GGRETA. carried out already during the first phase, notably the discussions on establishing a multi-actor groundwater management platform. Improving groundwater governance groundwater Improving that but it is clear The assessment has produced valuable information, overchange monitoring informationand knowledge so, limited; still are of informationand continued upgrading time systems and knowledge many other aspects Beyond assessment and monitoring, are essential. Río Lempa in low-flow conditions Río Lempa in low-flow aquifer – are directly exposed and very vulnerable to pollution. exposed and very directly aquifer – are is bound their groundwater Without pollution control, effective over time. polluted and more to become more At first sight, the alluvial aquifer systems do not seem to by be threatened monitoring but careful declining water levels and exhaustion), and this impression to validate needed period is over a longer in the problems quantity to anticipate potential groundwater future. Other major challenges may become apparent after Their early governancearea. the groundwater in improving identification may prevent problems from escalating beyond they still can be controlled. the levels where aquifers – including the Ocotepeque–Citalá transboundary A diversity of pollution sources is observed, such such is observed, A diversity of pollution sources
to be dumped untreated and uncontrolled to the environment, to the environment, and uncontrolled to be dumped untreated waste dumps; and controlled facilities in absence of treatment leaking. The alluvial probably and many storage tanks are and solid waste from agro-industrial processing, and buried buried and processing, agro-industrial from waste and solid is sanitation Adequate products. hydrocarbon of tanks storage and solid waste tendabsent in many communities; wastewater in the area. in chemicals used water, as domestic solid waste and waste wastewater (fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides), agriculture Pollution forms a major water resources management challenge management resources water major a forms Pollution monitoring. Specific activities carried out are workshops, of validated tools validation of tools, as well as dissemination their implementation. and training regarding Main groundwater management in challenges the area are training, networking with other entities involved in gender in gender training, networking with other entities involved are and Management (IWRM) Resources and in Integrated Water
A proposal has been developed and widely discussed for and widely discussed for has been developed A proposal in the gender issues in planning a strategy of integrating region, Trifinio under the general objectives of recognizing the position of women and strengthening the capacities of rights and involvement in their roles, women (as regards decision-making). Components under this specific project Gender issues
Governance of Groundwater Resources in
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Overview and Results of the Assessment Phase (2013–2015) Governance of Groundwater Resources in Overview and Results of the Transboundary Aquifers (GGRETA) Project 9 Assessment Phase (2013–2015) Botswana is likely to be significantly less than that of the Kalahari aquifers, aquifers, Kalahari the of that than less significantly be to likely is for which averaged rates over of the around 1 area, mm/year, of groundwater have been estimated. The general direction flow is from NW to SE. In the South-Eastern quadrant of the the confined from massively seeps upward groundwater area, producing truly artesian conditions in parts of the depressed depressed of the in parts conditions artesian truly producing the prompted rivers, which the Auob and Nossob valleys of (SAB). Artesian Basin name Stampriet The confined Auob andNossob aquifers, and the overlying discontinuous phreatic Kalahari aquifers, form the Stampriet Aquifer Transboundary System. the Conceptually, physical reasonably are system in this place taking processes understood, but quantification is still limited –in spite of many of time. What is known on made over a long period efforts the quantity groundwater processes of the confined aquifers conceptual the of map the on form simplified in summarized is by recharge diffuse from Apart page. next on the shown model few a are there aquifers, Kalahari the from seepage downward where area part of the STAS zones in the Western recharge years. wet rare during sinkholes facilitate concentrated recharge units aquifer confined these for rate recharge annual mean The
and and Karoo Supergroup Namibia , of Tertiary-Quaternary age and consisting age , of Tertiary-Quaternary tary basin in which a thick sequence of layers in which a thick tary basin System
system. By drilling a deep borehole in 1912 near Stampriet, a a aquifer– that produced deeper aquifer was struck – the Auob continuous laterally is aquifer This well. artesian or free-flowing deeper located the international like the across borders, aquifers, sandstone confined are aquifers Both aquifer. Nossob of the main aquiferous units (Kalahari, Auob and Nossob) area, showing the position cross-section through the STAS Geological SW-NE The Stampriet Transboundary Transboundary Stampriet The Aquifer of a part is area the STAS of view, geological point a From huge sedimen has been deposited. The layers of Carboniferous through known as together Jurassic age are and siltstones mudstones, shales, sandstones, mainly contain of the a blanket of sediments by covered limestone. They are Kalahari Supergroup gravel, clayey (duricrust), of sand, calcrete predominantly and marl. gravel, sandstone The Kalahari sediments contain phreatic aquifers (free water lateral Their inhabitants. local the of reach within easily table), Kalahari the and aquifers, local form they hence limited, is extent a transboundary aquifersediments as a whole do not constitute Cattle drinking at a small dam situated in a pan in Kgalagadi North Cattle drinking at a small dam situated in a pan from water and villages receive In general, the urban centres governmental and parastatal water supply corporations. Private land owners usually have their own wells. Dune area stretching from the Auob to the Nossob river Dune area stretching from A horticulture drip-irrigation farm close to Stampriet
Location of boreholes in the STAS area (showing the aquifers tapped) Location of boreholes in the STAS for domestic use. from Kalahari aquifers, 33% from the Auob aquifer and 2% from from 2% and aquifer Auob the from 33% aquifers, Kalahari from as is use water overall of breakdown The aquifer. Nossob the follows: 52% for irrigation, 32% for stock watering and 16% Auob and Nossob aquifers, by means of dug wells and and aquifers, by means of dug wells Auob and Nossob boreholes (see below). It is estimated that at least 20 million comes volume this of 65% abstracted; is year per metre cubic is groundwater. Groundwater is withdrawn is from the groundwater. Kalahari, rivers Auob and Nossob that provide some water during the the some water during provide and Nossob that rivers Auob over scattered pans water surface are there season, rainy for livestock watering; water that collect and store the area few months after the rains. The can last a these reserves in the area dependable water resource only permanent and Given the climatic and other geographic features, there are no are there geographic features, climatic and other Given the ephemeral the from Apart area. STAS the in rivers permanent Water and area in the use water Water
Governance of Groundwater Resources in
Transboundary Aquifers (GGRETA) Project 8
Overview and Results of the Assessment Phase (2013–2015) Governance of Groundwater Resources in Overview and Results of the Transboundary Aquifers (GGRETA) Project 11 Assessment Phase (2013–2015) 2 The Pretashkent , of which 10,840 km 2 °C). Precipitation falls mainly
°C) and a relatively warm winter (mean
The area underlain by the Pretashkent Transboundary Aquifer Transboundary underlain by the Pretashkent The area measures approximately 17,000 km in Kazakhstan. The elevation of the area ranges from 214 m to slightly over border above mean sea level at its Western ridges, mountain bordering Eastward The East. the in m 1,000 outside the PTBA area, rise to more than 3,600 m. The area summers (mean July has a continental dry climate, with hot temperature 25 to 30 January temperature -4 to 0 in solid – during winter mostly during the period November-May varies – and rains of form, during other seasons in the form from year to year between 200–350 mm/year in the South- West (Shardara) to 350–360 mm/year more North-Eastward border. Eastern the at more 20% some even to and (Kazygurt), deficit. climate is characterised by a precipitation The area’s Location, delineation andLocation, aquifer type at located is Aquifer Transboundary The Pretashkent and piedmont of area flat relatively a under depth considerable and Syrdarya reservoir by the Shardara bordered alluvial plains spurs of the Tian and by South and West, river in the Shian and Chatkalo-Kuramin mountain systems to the North-East administrative districts of three includes and East. This area southern Kazakhstan and thirteen districts in the adjoining The aquifer (including the capital Tashkent). part of Uzbekistan the on geological formation boundaries and delineation is based zone. discharge main aquifer’s the of location of medium-sized deeply Aquifer is an example Transboundary with negligible recent recharge. buried artesian aquifers features of the Pretashkent area General Pilot study 3: The Pretashkent Pretashkent study 3: The Pilot Aquifer Transboundary (PTBA) The Pretashkent aquifer, shared between Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan shared The Pretashkent aquifer, Approach and main activities Aquifer (PTBA) Transboundary Although the Pretashkent covers parts of both Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, the latter not stage this in information its sharing considers republic and this pilot study –a synthesis yet opportune. Therefore, carried out by a of existing information – was interpretation team of Kazahkstani scientists and technical specialists only it does not describe features, contextual a few apart from and, but merely Aquifer, the Uzbekistani part of the Pretashkent the Kazakhstani part. addresses has its natural variations. Most notable notable Most variations. natural its has the three countries havethe three alreadybe willingproven to
and managed wisely. A large part of the provisions and interventionsA large part of the to and managed wisely. but transboundary cooperationbe considered are of a local nature, will exchanging experience and by be very useful by sharing information, At the level harmonizing interventions international across the boundaries. assessment, of the and capable to cooperate effectively. Improving groundwater governance groundwater Improving thatfact fragility the the and Given system aquifer groundwater the of evident is it waterof source permanent only the area, is huge this in Aquifer System should be governed Transboundary thatStampriet the and preventing future problems by improved regulation of drilling. regulation by improved problems future and preventing quality Groundwater in or near the Salt Block zone. generally poor conditions are quality groundwater may also lead to Pollution, however, transboundary confined The area. the in elsewhere degradation will low vulnerability to pollution, but they aquifers have very experience higher withdrawal pressures if overlying Kalahari shallow and usually polluted. The more aquifers become phreatic Kalahari aquifers are vulnerable to pollution; in pollution risk is often particular in the Namibian sector the fertilizers and (using medium to high due to irrigated agriculture and waste unfriendly sanitation pesticides) and environmentally management the groundwater disposal practices. Partly from scope is there reasons, point of view and partly for health for improving more for enhancing water supplies and even area. sanitation in the entire economic development, etc) the demand for water in the region the region water in demand for etc) the development, economic would increase thensignificantly, verysoon the groundwater Therefore meeting these demands. may run short of resources groundwater of control effective initiate to important very is it as solving the such steps practical initial e.g. by some quantity, the Auob aquifer in by leaking boreholes of water spillage problem , real stress is not yet being is not yet being stress , real
observed. Lack of monitoring may be an explanation, but the an explanation, but the observed. Lack of monitoring may be (population growth, If for some reasons plays a major role. exceptionally low intensity of groundwater withdrawal certainly exceptionally low intensity of groundwater experiences of the assessment team have revealed a number have revealed experiences of the assessment team of challenges. groundwater quantity As regards diagnostic analysis. Nevertheless, the findings and combined Lack of monitoring data (climate, groundwater abstraction, abstraction, Lack of monitoring data (climate, groundwater systematic a hampers seriously quality) water levels, water Conceptual model – Auob and Nossob transboundary aquifers Main groundwater management in challenges the area under the name Salt Block – therefore is rather high. is rather therefore name Salt Block – under the aquifers aquifers and discharges into the Kalahari formations, from – known zone this in salinity Groundwater evaporates. it where 10
Overview and Results of the Assessment Phase (2013–2015) Governance of Groundwater Resources in Overview and Results of the Transboundary Aquifers (GGRETA) Project 13 Assessment Phase (2013–2015) Pretashkent Pretashkent in the area, contains fresh water and it is in artesian conditions, and it is in artesian water fresh contains in the area, characterised by flowing wells. Although the PTBA is located at great depth (mean depth 1,064 m), there is substantial and hydraulic hydrogeological available on its information properties. (KazakhstaniGender issues sector) Analysis of gender issues in Southern Kazakhstan revealed, be to activities economic in share female the others, among 43.8%. High male mortality rates in the age range of 40–45 on family income, with negative impacts cause shortages of widows of etc health, opportunities, education conditions, living Gender equity is government policy. and children. in the region and transboundary, and is called the called is and transboundary, and region the in . It is the most important aquifer important aquifer (PTBA). It is the most Aquifer Transboundary rates, grit me Conceptual model of the Pretashkent Transboundary Aquifer (the pale green layer overlaying the lowest green layer depicts the PTBA) Aquifer (the pale Conceptual model of the Pretashkent Transboundary The Pretashkent Transboundary Aquifer Transboundary Pretashkent The geological depressed a of part forms considered area The structure where a more than 2,000 m thick sequence of sediments has accumulated during the last 140 million years. sands, conglo – sandstones, These sediments silts, clays, argillites and limestones stones, gravels, boulders, layers (slightly tilted and folded) arranged in sub-horizontal – are alternationan beds) (aquifer layers permeable of produce that (aquitards). flow groundwater to resistance offer that layers and has a beds (of which the uppermost one The upper aquifer and several tend to be non-transboundary water-table) free so-called Upper- The brackish water. of them contain Cretaceous Cenomanian Aquifer Complex, in the lower part model conceptual the (see sequence sedimentary the of is continuous below as a block diagram), however, presented 4.99 0.26 0.03 Total 510.04 515.32 – 0.27 4.63 21.35 26.24 Groundwater – 0.03 0.36 488.69 489.08 water Surface /year) 3 t Category of use Bottling Industrial water Agriculture TOTAL Utility and drinking water entirely on groundwater. Most groundwater used for domestic Most groundwater on groundwater. entirely the from comes bottling for used water all and (90%) purposes used groundwater while aquifer, Transboundary Pretashkent agricul for transboundary aquifers. in the likely to increase demands and water use are Water non- overlying from withdrawn is purposes ural (mean annual growth to population growth in response future, rate was 2.6% over the period 2005–2014), to economic lands tends to of arable development (although the area and perhaps also to climate change. decrease) the PTBA area of sector in the Kazakhstani withdrawal Water in 2013 m (in million some of these formations, but in others it is brackish. Shallow Shallow is brackish. others it but in formations, of these some near mainly found are deep) m 3 than (less tables groundwater reservoir. and along the Shardara the rivers Almost 99% of all water withdrawn is for agriculture (mainly for irrigation) and most of the remaining 1% is for domestic other industrial uses Bottling and supply. and public water account for less than 0.06%. Representing only 5.1% of all water withdrawn, groundwater seems at first glance an insignificant source of but water, this is not the case, since water quality standards. meets drinking only groundwater almost water drinking for depends population the Therefore, sector. This difference difference This sector. oundwater is fresh in in oundwater is fresh in size). All these surface 2 stani /s in the Saryagash district) /s in the Saryagash district) 3 Piedmont plain in spring gical formations. Gr , respectively. , Other respectively. surface water bodies 3
in the area include two ephemeral rivers, the transboundary transboundary include two ephemeral rivers, the in the area superimposed geolo Groundwater is present in a complex sequence of in a complex sequence of is present Groundwater The Shardara reservoir is in addition a wetland of national national of wetland a addition in is reservoir Shardara The significance, famous for various endangered and rare species of swimming birds. Keles irrigation canal (flow of 8 m and the Shardara reservoir (900 km by snow-melt and their mean annual discharge volumes are discharge volumes are by snow-melt and their mean annual 37 and 0.96 km Permanent rivers in the area are the Syrdarya river (along the the (along river Syrdarya the are area the in rivers Permanent and parallel (running river Keles the and border) Western area’s meanly fed Both are close to the boundary with Uzbekistan). Water and the Kazakhstani water use in Water sector The Syrdarya river in high-water season metallurgy and agriculture in the Uzbekistani sector. in metallurgy and agriculture economic activities: mainly agriculture and food industries in the in industries food and agriculture mainly activities: economic versus Kazakhstani engineering, sector, chemical industries, includes the Tashkent capital territory) is more than one order of order than one territory) is more capital Tashkent includes the Kazakh the in than higher magnitude of categories dominant the in reflected is density population in Some Some 92% of the population of 5.5 million lives in Uzbekistan, sector (which in the Uzbekistani population density thus the water sources are used for irrigation and watering of pastures. used for irrigation and watering of pastures. are water sources
Governance of Groundwater Resources in
Transboundary Aquifers (GGRETA) Project 12
Overview and Results of the Assessment Phase (2013–2015) Governance of Groundwater Resources in Overview and Results of the Transboundary Aquifers (GGRETA) Project 15 Assessment Phase (2013–2015) The The The key to successful management of transboundaryThe key to successful management water resources approaches is by no means an easy task. approaches been has what and however, common, in have do areas pilot three the What the transboundary dimension. This forms a demonstrated by the pilot studies is by governance, but it is a challenge addressed complicating factor in groundwater GGRETA. the neighbouring countries involved. systems is smooth cooperation between transboundary to improved contributed already assessment phase undoubtedly has widens therefore phase, GGRETA is needed. During the next cooperation, but more for tools and frameworks of development the pursuing by particular in scope, its and by capacity building in dialogue and cooperation, enhanced cross-border gender. governance, and groundwater hydro-diplomacy A look forwardA look It will be clear that good groundwater governance is a ‘must’ in each of the pilot are management challenges main groundwater If the above. described studies not adequately addressed, then potential benefits will be forgone, problems may fate of the aquifers and their eventually may become the emerge and degeneration tailor-made that the local context matters, thus It is important to observe resources. groundwater improving to approaches Hence, required. are solutions and approaches governance management need to be area-specific, and to developing groundwater but also because challenges, management groundwater not only because of different Developing such setting of each area. of the unique socio-economic and political A mathematical simulation Groundwater governance and management span different levels: the the levels: management and different span Groundwater governance Many international and the (transboundary) level. local (domestic) level, of the already identified options for enhancing groundwater governance gender capacity building, awareness raising, (legislation and regulations, at domestic extent the large a to addressed be can etc.) issues, equity cooperation Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan between Nevertheless, level. for developing and implementing effective policieswill make a difference aiming to control processes with significant transboundary components. a joint managementDeveloping and implementing strategy for exploiting the PTBA is a key challenge in this respect. produce reliable results if sufficientinformation from both sectors of the aquifer And is it available. goes without saying that the overall benefits if exploitationto be derived from the PTBA will increase policies and the internationalmeasures for control are harmonized across border. Improving groundwater governance groundwater Improving the interaction take into account the PTBA evidently should Governing thus an integrated water surface water, and also with with other aquifers resources management approach is appropriate. model designed to explore alternative exploitation strategies can only unavoidable unavoidable After a certain period of exploitation, currently of exploitation, currently After a certain period As far as the PTBA is concerned, only its recharge As far as the PTBA is concerned, only its recharge
result in substitution of their exploitation by withdrawals from from in substitution of their exploitation by withdrawals result the TBA. may trigger invasion of brackish and saline groundwater from from saline groundwater may trigger invasion of brackish and overlying strata. Pollution may of shallow local aquifers, finally, Potential degradation of groundwater quality is another major major another is quality groundwater of degradation Potential concern. pollution. to exposed are – size in limited very – zones of water levels in the TBA drops Nevertheless, progressive Reduction of the groundwater pressures will quickly expand will quickly expand pressures Reduction of the groundwater the international also across border. laterally, flowing wells will be no longer artesian and will need to be levels will drop the long run, groundwater pumped; while on exploitable depths.below technically or economically maximum The main problem offered by the PTBA is the by the PTBA is the offered The main problem storage in response to groundwater depletion of groundwater withdrawal. renewable), but there may be an indirect impact by potentially impact may be an indirect but there renewable), in the area. water demands increasing protection by an overlying regional aquitard, the PTBA is not is not the PTBA aquitard, regional by an overlying protection significant a have not will change Climate pollution. to vulnerable non- virtually are resources aquifer the (since impact direct Due to its predominantly great depth and the hydraulic the hydraulic depth and great predominantly Due to its Main groundwater management groundwater Main challenges
Governance of Groundwater Resources in
Transboundary Aquifers (GGRETA) Project 14
Overview and Results of the Assessment Phase (2013–2015) This project is executed by the UNESCO-IHP within the framework of the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) “Global Programme Water Initiatives (GPWI) – Water Diplomacy” activities.
Contact information
International Hydrological Programme (IHP) UNESCO / Division of Water ScienceS (SC/HYD) 7, place de Fontenoy 75352 Paris 07 SP France Tel: (+33) 1 45 68 40 01 – Fax: (+33)1 45 68 58 11 [email protected] – www.unesco.org/water/ihp