FALL 2012 PAGE 1 TAARII Newsletter The American Academic Research Institute in Iraq

ISSUE NO. 7-2 FALL 2012 © TAARII

TAARII AND THE IRAQI CULTURAL CENTER CO-HOST EVENTS

On December 8 and 9, 2012, TAARII the ground — and they can be put understanding the archaeological record and the Iraqi Cultural Center (ICC) co- into their regional context (figs. 1.1– in regions of significant sedimentation. hosted a conference and an event on the 3). While satellite data have illuminated Epic of Gilgamesh in Washington, D.C. Mark Altaweel (University settlement and other archaeological On Saturday, December 8, a conference College London) summarized initial data within the study region, much entitled “Modern Techniques and archaeological and geo-archaeological of the archaeological record is Archaeological Sites in Iraq” was held results achieved in the Shahrizor region also obscured due to alleviation, at the Iraqi Cultural Center in Dupont within the province of Sulaymaniyah limiting our overall understanding Circle. The program was devoted to in Iraqi Kurdistan to better illuminate of the archaeological record. Paleo- eight reports on modern methods of the archaeological landscape. He environmental data have determined finding and recording archaeological also highlighted problems faced in that during the Pleistocene era (before sites in Iraq and the potential ca. 10,000 b.c.), many terraces use of these tools to monitor and were prominent in the landscape, protect those sites. which the later tell sites came to TAARII President McGuire occupy. In the Holocene (10,000 Gibson (University of b.c. and later), climate and Chicago) presented historical anthropogenic patterns became background that highlighted noticeable in the sedimentary the dramatic potential of the record. technologies available today. Jason Ur (Harvard University) When surface survey began in reviewed two remote sensing Iraq in the 1930s, Gibson said, datasets for archaeology in the the archaeologists involved semi-arid north of Iraq. The had maps and a few aerial first set, CORONA imagery, has photos taken via airplane. proven to be highly effective in In the 1950s, Robert McC. the Kurdistan Region around Adams, working with Fuad Erbil, as well as in adjacent Safar, created a systematic parts of the Syrian jazira. The approach using overlapping second, multi-spectral imagery aerial photographs and maps to from NASA’s ASTER sensor, begin locating more than 4,000 has also been successful in Syria sites in southern Iraq. With and should be equally promising the release of the CORONA in Iraq. By utilizing these remote satellite images in the 1980s sensing datasets, Ur said, surveys and the increasing availability can be both spatially extensive of Landsat, GoogleEarth, Figure 1.1. This false-color April 2000 Landsat image and methodologically intensive, of the Erbil Plain shows the city and its agricultural and other images used in a allowing archaeologists hinterland. Red represents vegetation, mostly winter Geographical Information to stay one step ahead of cereal crops, which are abundant in the hills north of the System (GIS), the sites in Iraq, city. The historically rich plain to its south is remarkably threats to Iraq’s heritage from as in the rest of the world, can uncultivated, the legacy of the 1987 military program of development. be located — even in cases village destruction and depopulation, from which it has Using southern Mesopotamia where they are not visible on never recovered. (Image Credit: Jason Ur) as a case study, Carrie Hritz PAGE 2 TAARII NEWSLETTER

Figures 1.2–3. (Left) In this February 1967 CORONA satellite photo, the citadel and walls of Nineveh are clearly visible. A small town had grown up around the Nebi Yunus Mosque within the walls. (Right) By the time of the 2001 Landsat image, Mosul had grown across the Tigris River and surrounded Nineveh on all sides. Purple indicates bulidings. Sites throughout Iraq are threatened by similar processes. (Image Credits: Jason Ur) (Pennsylvania State University) both the maps and the satellite imagery, thick vegetation or sand, and located addressed, both quantitatively and which allowed the identification of within agricultural field and military qualitatively, long-held assumptions nearby archaeological sites. The second outposts. In 2008, Hamdani used concerning the nature and relationship method involved geo-referencing the satellite images and GIS to add 600 new of settlement patterns and river channel maps published in the Atlas based on sites to the original survey. The 1,200 systems in antiquity. GIS and image locations that could be identified on sites identified in this survey range in analysis, explained Hritz, can fill gaps both the maps in the Atlas and in the date from the Neolithic to Islamic times in the settlement record and support a imagery. The ultimate intended result of and include sites of all sizes. Although revised location for the Tigris River this project would be a digital atlas of many of the sites were looted, Hamdani during most of antiquity. Hritz’s work archaeological sites, where information explained, in many instances features, proposes a methodology for unweaving on size and site location can be joined including the remains of temples and and mapping preserved pieces of to the information on the periods of houses, were visible on the surface. ancient landscapes, thereby addressing occupation published in the Atlas. In one instance, a new Ur III site was larger issues of human modification of Abdulamir Hamdani (Stony Brook located far in the Western Desert, in an the landscape. University) presented the results of area that was not thought to have been Zaid Ibraheem (Pennsylvania State a preliminary archaeological survey occupied at that time. University) implemented GIS tools conducted in two phases between Elizabeth Stone (Stony Brook and remote sensing methods to make 2003 and 2010 in areas in southern University) presented three different the data included in the Atlas of the Iraq that were not covered by the early approaches to the use of the high- Archaeological Sites in Iraq accessible archaeological surveys. The first phase resolution imagery available from in today’s electronic world. The method was carried out from 2003–2008 with the Digital Globe Corporation. She used geo-referenced and high resolution the aim to identify which sites were in began with a quick recap of research Digital Globe imagery to help identify need of protection. This phase of the already completed and published the true location of the sites recorded survey allowed Hamdani to identify on the use of this imagery to track in the Atlas. Two methods were tested. 600 sites, but it failed to locate a large patterns of looting at already known In the first, comparisons were made number of medium and small, flat sites archaeological sites. Here the imagery between modern features recorded in because they were covered by either allows us to examine the timing, FALL 2012 PAGE 3 intensity, and location of the looting, as well as which periods were selected by the looters. Stone then showed how some of this imagery can reveal details of sub-surface architectural traces, making possible the evaluation of broad settlement patterns that are often quite different from the excavated material since they avoid the biases of archaeologists towards investigating public buildings within large urban sites. Stone ended with a description of an effort that was made to identify all potential sites located within the area around Umma in southern Iraq. The area surveyed includes desert, where sites are often obscured by Figure 1.4. Panelists at the “Modern Techniques and Archaeological Sites” sand dunes. Even cultivated areas can conference in Washington, D.C. (Photo Credit: Iraqi Cultural Center) have fossilized dunes that resemble archaeological sites. Nevertheless, as a palimpsest of varied economic, impacted by urban sprawl. Hanson many sites could be identified that social, political, and natural processes then discussed ongoing looting in were missed in earlier surveys, usually evolving together through everyday southern Iraq, focusing on the ancient — but not always — because they practice (or praxis) to create the site of Umma, with data from a series have since been looted. physical form of the community. As an of satellite images that document Using 1930s archival photography artifact, Witsell explained, the urban the destruction of this important and satellite imagery, Alexandra Witsell form of Khafajah provides physical archaeological site. (University of Chicago) presented a evidence for the transition between The program on Sunday, December city plan of the third-millennium b.c. two distinct political regimes, the Early 9, held at the Freer Gallery of Art, town of Khafajah that sheds light Dynastic and Akkadian periods of the focused on the Mesopotamian on Mesopotamian urban form and third millennium. Her presentation Epic of Gilgamesh in ancient and the role political power can play in broached the question: Is it possible to modern contexts. Christopher Woods shaping the built environment around see archaeologically the dichotomy of (University of Chicago) presented us. By viewing Khafajah and its built a “physical” city caught in a “political” the historical context of the Epic form holistically and as an artifact or “historical” transition? of Gilgamesh. Following Woods’ in and of itself, Witsell sees the city Katharyn Hanson (University of presentation, audience members Chicago) discussed watched the 30-minute documentary, the extent of the “The Epic of Gilgamesh,” an episode d a m a g e c a u s e d of the award-winning PBS series by by urban sprawl Seftel Productions and the Annenberg and looting. She Foundation entitled “Invitation to i l l u s t r a t e d t h e World Literature” (http://www. d a m a g e c a u s e d learner.org/courses/worldlit/ by urban sprawl gilgamesh/). t h r o u g h a c a s e TAARII thanks Iraqi Cultural Center study at Nineveh. Director Dr. Mohammad Alturaihi, She then suggested Public Relations and Media Specialist a m e t h o d o l o g y Jabbar Ghadhban, and the rest of the employing remote staff of the Iraqi Cultural Center for s e n s i n g f o r their wonderful hospitality. We look Figure 1.5. The audience listens to presenters at the f u t u r e w o r k a t forward to cooperating with them again conference in Washington, D.C. Mesopotamian sites in the near future. (Photo Credit: Iraqi Cultural Center) PAGE 4 TAARII NEWSLETTER

EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR’S REPORT

Beth Kangas

TAARII has been busy with a variety of In November, TAARII hosted a reception at the MESA meeting. Many activities, several of which are reported breakfast reception at the annual of the thirty attendees were new to in this issue of the newsletter. meeting of the American Schools TAARII, an exciting sign of a new In June, Lucine Taminian, TAARII’s of Oriental Research (ASOR) generation of Iraqi Studies scholars Senior Scholar in Residence in Jordan, in Chicago. It was nice to have (see fig. 2.1). and I met in New York City with the chance to reach out to our At the beginning of December, international colleagues to begin to archaeology colleagues. TAARII reapplied to the National create a guide for collecting life stories At the November 2012 TAARII Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) in conflict settings. The Hollings Center Board meeting, which coincided with for continuation funding for the Iraqi for International Dialogue awarded a the Middle East Studies Association Oral History Project (IOHP) so that small grant to Lucine and the director (MESA) annual meeting in Denver, we can begin to train individuals in of Columbia University’s Columbia TAARII welcomed the University Iraq to collect life stories. We would Center for Oral History to produce the of Toronto as a new institutional very much like the opportunity to shift guide; TAARII administered the grant. member. We also announced the the IOHP from the diaspora, where (See the article on p. 6) election of two representatives to the project began with interviews of In the summer, we learned that the the Board from TAARII’s Individual Iraqis living outside their country, to amount of this year’s Council for Membership. Charles E. Jones is the a trained team of researchers in Iraq American Overseas Research Centers Head of the Library at the Institute collecting and analyzing the diverse (CAORC) and Educational and for the Study of the Ancient World narratives of a country that has Cultural Affairs (ECA) subgrant, the (ISAW), a member of the faculty of endured many challenges over the past primary source of TAARII’s funding, the Libraries of New York University, decades. would be reduced by $50,000. and the moderator of the IraqCrisis In December, TAARII co-hosted CAORC reported that the reason that mailing list (https://lists.uchicago.edu/ with the Iraqi Cultural Center an the ECA bureau gave them for the web/info/iraqcrisis). Nada Shabout is archaeology conference and Gilgamesh amount of the deduction was because an Associate Professor of Art History event in Washington, D.C. (See the TAARII had received larger than and the Director of the Contemporary cover article). TAARII welcomes such average funding in previous years. Arab and Muslim Studies Institute opportunities to cooperate with other Unfortunately, we had to reduce the (CAMCSI) at the University of North institutions. number of U.S. and Iraq fellowships Texas. She is the founder and project We continue to invite your ideas that we are able to award in the director of the Modern ArtIraq Archive on activities, resources, and funding upcoming competition. (MAIA), which documents and sources for TAARII to pursue. In August, TAARII applied for Title digitizes modern VI funding from the Department of Iraqi heritage, Education (DOE) for TAARII’s future p a r t i c u l a r l y move from Jordan to Iraq. Of the ten the collection awards that the DOE made, no centers previously held in the Near and Middle East received a t t h e I r a q i grants, including TAARII. M u s e u m o f In October, TAARII cosponsored a M o d e r n A r t . lecture at the University of Chicago The three-year with Hans von Sponeck and Joy terms of Jones Gordon, the two keynote speakers and Shabout will from TAARII’s 2011 conference in begin on July 1, Jordan on the Sanctions period in 2013. Iraq. (See the article on the following TAARII hosted Figure 2.1. Scholars interested in Iraqi Studies attend TAARII’s page.) a n e v e n i n g reception at MESA (Photo Credit: Ranj Alaadin) FALL 2012 PAGE 5

TAARII-SPONSORED LECTURE: “THE MORAL ISSUE OF THE EFFECT OF ECONOMIC SANCTIONS: THE CASE OF IRAQ” The Sanctions regime imposed on in the late 1990s. His experience is and delays in giving permission for Iraq in 1990 and extended until 2003 published in his book, A Different humanitarian items that were critical arguably did more harm to the Iraqi Kind of War. He was forced out of for the population of Iraq. The people than the wars in that span. Two the position by American and British committee operated in a manner that of the most knowledgeable experts pressure, just as his predecessor had was contrary to the procedures of on the Iraqi Sanctions appeared in been. His view of the Sanctions, from the U.N., and by doing so, it allowed Chicago on October 4, 2012, jointly inside the U.N. program, convinced him the U.S. to dominate the committee, sponsored by TAARII and the that the manipulation and distortion of determine the kinds of goods that International House Global Voices this humanitarian assistance harmed could be sent into Iraq, and determine Program, the Center for Middle not only the Iraqis who were meant to the duration of the Sanctions. In her East Studies, and the Center for be aided, but also the integrity of the presentation, Gordon expanded the International Studies of the University U.N., to which he had dedicated his scope to a consideration of the moral of Chicago. life. issues at stake in sanctions on any Joy Gordon and Hans von Sponeck Joy Gordon, a philosopher, began people. have both written books on the to write a general book on sanctions, The Chicago event was the last in a Sanctions, and were the keynote but found so much material in the series of joint appearances by the two speakers at TAARII’s conference on the U.N. archives on the Iraqi case speakers, who had already appeared subject in Amman, Jordan, more than that she concentrated only on that at Columbia University (Initiative a year ago. They bring complementary and produced the book Invisible for Policy Dialogue), Yale University and contrasting perspectives to the War. She was able to gain detailed (Center on Middle East Studies), subject. Von Sponeck, a thirty-year information on the workings of the Harvard University (Kennedy School U.N. diplomat, was in charge of the Sanctions Committee of the United of Government), and Brandeis administration of the Oil for Food Nations, citing its secrecy, its lack University (Heller School for Social Program in Iraq for more than a year of transparency, its arbitrary actions, Policy).

• TAARII’S INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS •

American Schools of Oriental Research Hofstra University University of Arizona Indiana State University Brown University University of Maryland, College Park University of California, Berkeley National University of Singapore University of California, Santa Barbara New York University University of Chicago University of Notre Dame Columbia University University of Pennsylvania Museum Cornell University Portland State University Duke University-University of North Carolina Rutgers University Consortium for Middle East Studies Smithsonian Institution George Washington University State University of New York, Stony Brook Georgetown University University of Toronto Harvard University Williams College PAGE 6 TAARII NEWSLETTER

TAARII HELPS PREPARE GUIDE FOR COLLECTING LIFE STORIES IN CONFLICT SETTINGS

In June 2012, TAARII Senior Scholar York City during the CCOH in Residence Lucine Taminian and summer institute on life story Executive Director Beth Kangas approaches in human rights joined international colleagues in contexts, in order to begin New York City to begin crafting a creating the guide. Additional guide for collecting life stories in members of the working Figure 3.1. Participants listen to the insights of conflict settings. The gathering was group were: Mary Marshall their colleagues during the working group that met funded in part by a small grant that Clark, the CCOH director; at Columbia University’s Center for Oral History the Hollings Center for International Douglas Boyd, the director of to craft a guide on collecting life stories in conflict Dialogue awarded Dr. Taminian and the Louie B. Nunn Center for settings. From left to right: Lucine Taminian, Alessandro Portelli, Ramazan Aras, and Mohammed Mary Marshall Clark, the director Oral History at the University Mohaqqeq (Photo credit: Mehmet Mim Kurt) of Columbia University’s Columbia of Kentucky Libraries; Center for Oral History (CCOH), TAARII Executive Director following their participation in the Beth Kangas; Mehmet Kurt, a graduate interviewee relationship. Discussions Hollings Center Higher Education student from Turkey currently at Yale uncovered several key questions: Dialogue entitled “The Future of University; and Claudia P. Gonzalez, a (1) What does oral history allow us Oral History in the Middle East human rights activist from Colombia. to discover about a conflict situation? and Central Asia” held in Istanbul, A prominent oral historian, Alessandro (2) Which should be documented: Turkey, in February 2012 (See the Portelli, an instructor at the CCOH What the interviewees remember in Spring 2012 TAARII Newsletter, summer institute, contributed his order to understand the complexities Issue 07-01). insights during several of the working of the conflict, or why they remember The Hollings Center funding group sessions. certain things in order to understand the enabled Taminian from Jordan and Participants in the working group meaning of the conflict and its impact two additional Istanbul Dialogue benefitted from the opportunity to on the community? (3) Who should participants, Ramazan Aras from share their ideas and experiences and to do the interviews: individuals who are Turkey and Mohammad Mohaqqeq discover the similarities and differences “inside” or “outside” of the conflict, from Afghanistan, to meet in New that exist among the conflict settings and to what consequence? (4) Should o f I r a q , both the “perpetrators” and “victims” A f g h a n i s t a n , of a conflict be interviewed, and how? T u r k e y , (5) How can an oral history project C o l o m b i a , ensure the safety of the fieldworkers and the U.S. and the narrators in situations of (with CCOH’s ongoing conflict? And, (6) What are projects on 9/11 ways to release results, from opening and Guantanamo an archive to releasing audio and video Bay), as well files, in situations where a conflict is as their own still active? i n d i v i d u a l The working group will distribute approaches and the guide initially to the Hollings perspectives. The Center for their input, and then to working group the participants from the Istanbul Figure 3.2. Participants complete a working session on collecting grappled with Dialogue and other leaders in the and curating life stories in conflict settings. From left to right: issues related to field of oral history, human rights, Mary Marshall Clark, Douglas Boyd, Mohammad Mohaqqeq, ethics, biases, and scholars/practitioners. Through Ramazan Aras, Beth Kangas, Mehmet Kurt, Alessandro Portelli, s e c u r i t y, a n d the support of the Columbia Center Lucine Taminian, and Claudia P. Gonzalez the interviewer– for Oral History, who has funding (Photo credit: Mehmet Mim Kurt) FALL 2012 PAGE 7 from the Atlantic Philanthropies in contexts of conflict. The guide from the seven years of its Iraqi to produce the guide, the working and global dialogue that the working Oral History Project with a larger group plans to release the guide in group produces will shed light on the community and to help craft a forum print in 2013. The working group uses, consequences, and rewards of on the ethical and methodological will also create an interactive oral history across international and issues of collecting and curating website for members of a global oral cultural boundaries. life stories in environments and history community to contribute their TAARII appreciates the opportunity populations that have been ravaged experiences and lessons on working to share findings and learnings by political conflict and violence.

IN MEMORIAM DR. BEHNAM NASSIR ABU AL-SOOF (1931–2012)

McGuire Gibson, TAARII President

Dr. Behnam Abu al-Soof died in the University of Baghdad. He was the autumn at the age of 81 in a mentor to hundreds of younger Amman, Jordan. A giant among employees of the State Board of Iraqi archaeologists, not only in his Antiquities and Heritage (SBAH, knowledge and accomplishments, but previously the Directorate General also in his character, Behnam was of Antiquities) and of students at the the leading member of the second university. He was, as well, a source generation of Iraqi archaeologists, who of good advice for foreign researchers were trained after the Second World encountering shifting policies due to Figure 4.1. Dr. Behnam Abu War. As a student, he was taught by and changes in government. al-Soof (Photo credit: Salam Taha) was a team member on excavations by As a student, Behnam took part in Fuad Safar, Taha Baqir, and others of numerous excavations and surveys the first generation who had received by the Antiquities service, including a surrounding wall and distinctive degrees abroad in the late 1930s. Like participation in the excavations that architecture that was located within dozens of other Iraqis who were sent to accompanied the important survey the gigantic Abbasid city of Samarra. Europe and the U.S. for higher degrees by Safar and Robert McC. Adams Dozens of graves there yielded in the 1950s and 1960s, Behnam earned in 1957–58 in the Diyala region. At extraordinary stone vessels and statues, a Ph.D. (from Cambridge University) about the same time, he was a team surprising for their early date in the and returned to Iraq to become a key member under Muhammad Ali Mustafa sixth millennium b.c. part of the Antiquities service and in a survey and salvage operations in During 1978 and 1979, Behnam of the archaeology department of the area south of Baghdad that was was in administrative charge of the to become the Mussayib salvage operations in the area of the desalinization project. Hamrin Dam, northeast of Baghdad. His doctoral research Here, more than eighty sites were was involved with the excavated by Iraqi and foreign teams, definition of the Uruk/ giving information on an area that was Jamdat Nasr period in before then almost unknown. After the north of Iraq, and his that, he was in charge of the salvage Figure 4.2. Dr. Behnam Abu al-Soof’s main image from publications on that work operations for the Eski Mosul Dam, his website. The text reads: “To all Iraqis where ever remain important. north of Mosul. you are on this planet, Study hard, Educate yourselves P r o b a b l y h i s m o s t Behnam was, at that time, named and do not forget your homeland IRAQ, The cradle of significant excavation the Director General of Antiquities for civilization. Be proud of being Iraqis, Help Iraq thrive work was done at Tell the northern area of Iraq, under a new again and take the position it deserves among other a s - S a w w a n , a s m a l l administrative set-up within the newly great nations of the world.” prehistoric town with established State Board of Antiquities (Photo credit: http://www.abualsoof.com/) PAGE 8 TAARII NEWSLETTER and Heritage. Anyone who visited buried. Later, he returned Nineveh during that time and saw him to Baghdad for a few in his office in an Ottoman-era house years, remarried, and on Nebi Yunis came to realize how well relocated to Amman. he did the job and was reminded of how T h r o u g h o u t h i s good he would have been as the head career, he was a public of SBAH. Being a Christian, however, face for the Antiquities that post was out of reach for him. o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d In the late 1980s, Behnam was archaeology in general. forced to retire, being one of the He was often on Iraqi Ph.D.s who were lost to SBAH during TV, lecturing, being that time. These retirements were i n t e r v i e w e d , a n d due, in part, to reduced budgets for participating in panels, antiquities because of the Iran–Iraq even in the weeks Figure 4.3. Behnam Abu al-Soof (right) in the Hamrin Salvage Project, 1978 (Photo credit: Lamia al-Gailani) war. The loss of almost all of the before his death. During remaining Ph.D.s from SBAH during the past couple of years, the Sanctions of the 1990s left the he published two books in English and to laugh, to tell a story, and to engage organization a shadow of itself. prepared a memoir for publication, in conversation with anyone, and that Behnam then turned increasingly to which is in press. He also had his own person received his undivided attention. teaching at the University of Baghdad website (www.abualsoof.com). Luckily, TAARII’s Oral History Project and other institutions. It was at this Behnam’s contributions have captured him for several interviews, so time that the university began for the also been recognized by the Iraqi in the future people will be able to hear first time to award Ph.D. degrees, and government, which has given one of him or read about him from his own Behnam was part of that process as the main streets in Mosul the name of point of view. chief advisor or committee member for Dr. Abu al-Soof. Additionally, the main His funeral in Amman was attended several students. Neolithic Hall in the Iraqi Museum has by family, friends, colleagues, During the 1990s, he was named been named after him, as well as the diplomats, Iraqi parliamentarians, and to the Iraqi Parliament. And he also main hall at the University of Mosul. Iraqi ministry officials, indicating the devoted much time to his role of His imposing physical presence, at breadth of respect in which he was held. Secretary of the Alwiya Club, the well over six feet and a weight well We have lost a positive force in Iraqi oldest social club in Baghdad. over 200 pounds, was combined with intellectual life. And anyone who knew After 2003, Behnam thought it wise charm and charisma. He had a great, him lost a great friend. His wife and to take his family to Syria, where, rich voice that made him identifiable family must know that they have our unfortunately, his wife died and was in any crowd. He was always ready sincere condolences for their loss.

LANGUAGE ANNOUNCEMENT As readers may be aware, TAARII is committed to producing a bilingual newsletter in English and Arabic. We regret that we are now printing our newsletter in English only. We are seeking funds to resume printing a bilingual newsletter and to include full Arabic translations of English-language newsletters on our website. We appreciate your patience and understanding in the meantime.

TAARII PROGRAM: Research Affiliates in Jordan

TAARII invites applications for a Research Affiliate status for U.S. scholars working on Iraq while based in Amman, Jordan. As increasing numbers of American researchers undertake Iraq-related research in Jordan, TAARII aims to support their needs and work and to include them in the broader TAARII community. To apply for Research Affiliate status, please submit a brief project statement, together with a CV, to [email protected]. There is no deadline and scholars can apply for Affiliate status on a short-term or long-term basis. FALL 2012 PAGE 9 CONSCIOUSNESS OF STIGMA, PSYCHOLOGICAL DISENGAGEMENT, AND COLLECTIVE SELF-ESTEEM: THE CASE OF IRAQI CHRISTIANS

Faris Nadhmi, Baghdad University and Salahaddin University–Erbil1 & 2012 TAARII Iraq Fellow The bombing of the al-‘Askari Mosque, Iraqi Christians; 2) their tendency of disengagement raise the issue of one of the holiest Shi‘ite sites, in psychological disengagement from the changes in the self-image of the 2006 triggered a wave of sectarian Muslim majority; and 3) their collective stigmatized minority with regard violence throughout Iraq that resulted self-esteem as a Christian sect. to their social status and value in in the death of hundreds of thousands Stigma consciousness refers to comparison to that of other groups. of Iraqis and the displacement — the degree of the pervasiveness of These three social psychological externally and internally — of millions consciousness among the minority phenomena are studied within the of Iraqis, changing the social fabric of their stigmatized status, whereas context of a number of demographical of major urban centers. The once psychological disengagement is variables, the subjects’ experience religiously mixed neighborhoods a defensive strategy that aims at of sectarian violence, and their turned into sectarian enclaves. maintaining self-esteem through perceptions of discrimination against For more than five years, Iraqis of the psychological withdrawal of the Iraqi Christian minority, the future all sects and ethnicities were victims the individual or the group from of Christians in Iraq, and the future of of acts of sectarian violence. Christians issues or situations in which they religious tolerance in Iraq. of all denominations were assassinated, face discrimination. Stigmatized or kidnapped, or forced to leave their victimized minorities usually tend to Christian Communities in Iraq neighborhoods. Within a short period separate themselves psychologically Before 2003, Christian communities of time, the number of Christians in from the militant majority to partially existed all over Iraq, with the country dwindled from 1,400,000 protect their collective security. Stigma concentrations in the cities of Baghdad in 2003 to only 500,000 today. The consciousness and psychological and Basra and the governorates of majority of displaced Christians Nineveh, Erbil, and Dahok. The fled to safer cities in Iraq, including number of churches in these areas Kurdistan Iraq, or to neighboring reflects the size of their Christian countries, from where they then communities. Baghdad itself has found their way to the U.S., Europe, sixty-eight churches, Nineveh has or Australia. twenty, Dahok has thirteen, Basra The year 2010 was the worst for has eight, and Erbil has three. Christians. During that year, ninety- 1. Baghdad Christian Community two Christians were assassinated, 280 were injured, and thousands of The Baghdad Christian community them received death threats. This is heterogeneous, with the Catholic forced more than 1,800 families to denominations (Chaldeans, flee their homes for the Nineveh Syriacs, Armenians, and Assyrians) Plain, 1,700 students to leave school, comprising nearly 75%, and the and 300 employees to quit their jobs. other denominations (Orthodox, Nestorians, and Anglicans) 25%. The The Study Christians of Baghdad lived mainly This study I was engaged in, funded in five neighborhoods: al-Bataween, by a TAARII research fellowship, al-Ghadeer, Camp Sarah, al-Dura, aims to research the dynamics of one and New Baghdad. The suicide attack on Our Lady of Salvation Syriac of the psychological dilemmas facing Figure 5.1. Faris Nadhmi standing in Our two Iraqi Christian communities: Catholic Cathedral in Baghdad in Lady of Salvation Syriac Catholic Cathedral in November 2010, the bloodiest since the Baghdad community and the Baghdad two days after the deadly 2010 attack. 2003, left fifty Christians killed, Kurdistan Iraqi community. It focused A memorial to the victims, including the two including two priests, and led to a on three psychological phenomena: priests killed in the attack, can be seen beside 1) the feeling of stigma among the author. (Photo credit: Faris Nadhmi) major wave of migration. PAGE 10 TAARII NEWSLETTER

2. The Christian Community of Table 5.1. Personal Data Kurdistan Variables Baghdad Sample Kurdistan Sample The settlement of Christians in Average Age 34.28 41.94 Kurdistan is concentrated in the city Family Average 748.154 ID 1,510.54 ID of Ankawa of the Erbil Governorate Monthly Income and the cities of Dahuk and Zakho in Male 59% 56% the Dahuk Governorate. Since 2003, Female 41% 44% these cities have become a refuge for thousands of Christian families fleeing Married 67% 46% their homes in Basra, Baghdad, and Single 30% 50% Mosul. Compared to the Baghdad Divorced 1% 2% Christian community, the Christians Widowed 2% 2% of Kurdistan likely feel more secure Chaldeans 43.0% 82.0% and enjoy more political power as they Armenians 19.0% 1.5% are represented in the two governorate Assyrians 17.0% 6.5% councils and in the Kurdish House of Catholic Syriacs 12.0% 7.5% Parliament. Yet, Christian migrants, who face the problem of unemployment Orthodox Syriacs 6.0% 2.5% and social isolation due to the fact Latin Catholics 2.4% — that they do not speak Kurdish, seek Anglicans 0.6% — resettlement somewhere outside Iraq. According to the International 40% of Kurdistan Christians were revealing my Christian identity in Migration Organization, out of 1,350 victims of internal forced displacement public; I feel Muslims don’t trust migrant families, 850 families left (table 5.2). me because I am Christian; Most Kurdistan to resettle in the U.S., Muslims support Christians in hard Europe, or Australia. The Questionnaire times; Most Muslims allow their The Research Community The questionnaire consisted of three kids to play with Christian kids; parts. I feel the same social intimacy A group of 396 Christians were selected whether I am with Christians or randomly as follows: 183 from the city 1. Personal Data Muslims; I believe that Christians of Baghdad and 213 from three cities in Age, education, marital status, and in Iraq have a low status; I feel Kurdistan: Ankawa, Dahuk, and Zakho. income. Christians in Iraq are loved and The research groups were interviewed 2. Questions Regarding Attitudes trusted by Muslims; I lost my rights individually in churches, clubs, and These include the desire to emigrate, because I am Christian; I don’t feel Christian educational institutions in a family’s or friend’s experience of uncomfortable when I tell others the four cities during the period May– sectarian violence, experience of about my religious identity; I am August 2012. forced displacement, view of the not scared to practice my religion As Table 5.1. shows, the Christians future of Christians in Iraq, and view in public; and I feel my life is in included in the Kurdistan sample are of the future of religious tolerance in danger just because I am Christian. a little older, have a higher monthly Iraq. income, and are less diversified 3. Verbal Statements to Measure the b. Psychological Disengagement sect-wise than those included in the Psychological Phenomena These include eight statements: Baghdad sample. However, both Each statement has five responses: The marginal role of Christians in communities experienced some kind strongly agree, agree, neutral, political life doesn’t mean that they of sectarian violence. Sixty-six percent disagree, and strongly disagree. are incapable; The negative attitudes of the Baghdadi Christians and 45% of radical groups toward Christians of the Kurdistan Christians reported a. Stigma don’t bother me; I don’t care about that a relative or friend had been These include thirty statements other sects’ views of Christians killed or injured in acts of violence such as: I feel most Muslims avoid since they are all biased; Christians, against Christians. In addition, 38% me when they know I am Christian; like other sects in Iraq, have their of Baghdadi Christians as compared to When I deal with Muslims, I avoid own faults which they should FALL 2012 PAGE 11

Table 5.2. Questions Regarding Attitude: Experience • The desire to emigrate is correlated with the following Baghdad Sample (%) Kurdistan Sample (%) variables: experience of violence, Yes No Hesitant Yes No Hesitant a pessimistic outlook toward the Desire to emigrate 33.3 38.3 28.4 14.5 55.0 30.5 future of religious tolerance, and a One of your relatives gloomy perspective as to the future or friends was injured 66.0 34.0 — 45.0 55.0 — of Iraq. or killed Have experienced 38.0 62.0 — 40.0 60.0 Conclusion internal displacement — The comparative psychological study of two Iraqi Christian communities acknowledge; I believe Christians and obvious psychological — the Christians of Baghdad who are victims of false stereotypes that disengagement and high collective suffered loss, terror, and continuous some radical Islamic groups have; self-esteem. This indicates that the threat to their lives and churches, and I avoid reading articles or books high collective self-esteem and and the Christians of Kurdistan who that disparage Christians because I psychological disengagement act are relatively more secure — reveal think they [the articles and books] as defense mechanisms and help to some of the psychological impacts of have no value. lessen the feelings of stigma. sectarian violence. Though Christian c. Collective Self-esteem • Christians who have experienced individuals in both Baghdad and These include four statements. forced displacement, have relatives Kurdistan suffer from psychological These include: Christians have a or friends who were killed or injury due to the physical and good reputation in Iraq; Most Iraqis injured due to sectarian violence, psychological violence that they view Christians as more vulnerable see the future of Christians in have experienced during the last nine than others; Christians are highly Iraq as gloomy, desire to emigrate years, the Christians of Baghdad who respected by others; and Christians permanently, and are pessimistic experienced more violence are more in Iraq are viewed by others as with regard to the future of pessimistic about the future of Iraq useless. religious tolerance in Iraq, showed and are more in favor of the idea higher consciousness of stigma of emigration than the Kurdistan Christians who have experienced less Preliminary Results than the others. violence. My analysis of the attitude section • Christians who object to shows that the desire to emigrate emigration and are optimistic about outside Iraq is higher among Christians the future of religious tolerance in 1 Faris K. Nadhmi (Ph.D. Social of Baghdad; it is 33.3% as compared to Iraq have higher psychological Psychology) Researcher and Lecturer, 14.5% among Christians of Kurdistan. disengagement. Baghdad University and Salahaddin This is correlated with their past University–Erbil. Email: fariskonadhmi@ hotmail.com. experience of sectarian violence more • Christians who have experienced than with their experience of internal forced displacement and want to This article was translated by TAARII displacement. Table 5.3 shows that the emigrate have lower collective self- Senior Scholar in Residence Lucine Christians of Kurdistan are slightly esteem than those who have not. Taminian. less pessimistic about the future of religious tolerance in Iraq than the Christians of Baghdad, but are slightly less pessimistic as to the future of Table 5.3. Questions Regarding Attitude: The Future Christians in Iraq. Baghdad Sample (%) Kurdistan Sample (%) The preliminary analysis of the third Bright Gloomy Unknown Bright Gloomy Unknown section of the questionnaire shows the The future of following results: religious tolerance 12.0 42.0 46.0 18.5 31.5 50.5 in Iraq • All of the Christians included The future of in the research have low 10.0 19.0 71.0 8.0 11.0 81.0 consciousness of stigma Christians in Iraq PAGE 12 TAARII NEWSLETTER BOOK REVIEWS Noga Efrati. Women in Iraq: Past Meets Present. New York: Columbia University Press, 2012. xx + 256 pp. $45.00. ISBN 978-0-231-15814-5. Reviewed by Orit Baskin, University of Chicago Noga Efrati’s intriguing new book the British created a mechanism titled Shi‘i), and that the split with regards investigates how women became “Tribal Criminal and Civil Disputes to women’s rights was not sectarian second-class citizens in Hashemite Regulation,” through which they hoped in nature but rather related to one’s Iraq (1921–1958) and how they came to control Iraq’s tribal populations. This progressive ideas, education, and to challenge their marginalization. The mechanism allowed tribal leaders and position towards tribalism, nationalism, first part of the book studies the legal tribesmen to settle disputes according and British intervention in Iraqi affairs. and political mechanisms that cemented to their “traditional” customs. Tribal Not only tribal law, but also family law, the discrimination of Iraqi women by women were severely disadvantaged curbed the liberation of Iraqi women. focusing in particular on customary and by these regulations: they could not Efrati explains how difficult it was family law. The second half shifts the inherit land; they were handed over as for women to operate in a society focus to the actions and writings of Iraqi compensation in tribal feuds; and their where matters of family law were not women, chronicling the contribution murders, if based on the suspicion tried in civil courts. She notes that of organizations such as The Women’s of “violating the family honor,” British colonial officials assumed an Union and The League for the Defense went unpunished. Efrati exposes air of superiority with regard to Iraqi of Women’s Rights. Efrati convincingly the ambiguous approach of various Muslims and argued that the Quran argues that Iraqi women identified British officials to these regulations, was misinterpreted by both Sunnis and the connections between law, tribe, establishing that although the British Shi‘is, yet resisted reform in family nation, and gender, and challenged recognized the inhumane elements law at a time when some Iraqis wished the various factors that curtailed the of this legal system, they upheld it to emulate the secularizing efforts of possibility of equality and social because of their allegiances with tribal the Kemalist Turkish Republic. Efrati justice for Iraqi women. The book is and conservative leaders. Interestingly, likewise analyzes a few interesting based on extremely impressive archival some Iraqis did try to challenge this suggestions concerning the reform work that utilized British documents system or at least reform it. As early of family law made by both Sunnis (Foreign Office, Colonial Office, and as 1923, the Iraqi Minister of Interior, and Shi‘is, and the objections raised India Office), records of sessions of Naji Suwaidi, wanted to revise the by scholars within both religious the Iraqi parliament, publications of tribal regulations, but was thwarted by communities to such reforms. various Iraqi ministries, private papers High Commissioner Dobbes. Others Another important feature of the of activists and officials, about thirty who made similar efforts were Iraqi book is that it gives readers a sense of Arabic periodicals, newspapers, and Prime Minister ‘Abd al-Muhsin Sa‘dun, the vibrant Hashemite public sphere journals from the Hashemite period, the educator Fadhil al-Jamali, the poet in which female activists, writers, and memoirs, and secondary literature Ma‘ruf al-Rusafi (who wondered why a intellectuals engaged in an ongoing in Arabic. In many ways, this study modern state retained pre-Islamic laws debate about the meaning of being a represents the first attempt to provide within its legal system), and later on progressive Iraqi. Efrati mentions that a comprehensive socio-legal history of women such as the celebrated poetess in 1954, the government dismantled gendered relations in Hashemite Iraq. Nazik al-Mala’ika and the physician 465 societies and clubs and banned The book is set within the Naziha Dulaimi. All were ignored by several unions; this number reflects historiographical tradition that began British officials and conservative Iraqi a dynamic society where women’s with the pioneering works of Peter politicians since both groups feared organizations, political parties (the Sluglett and has tended to analyze very that a change in the status quo would National Democratic Party [DNP], critically the policies of the British anger tribal and religious leaders. al-Istiqlal, and the illegal Iraqi mandate in Iraq. Efrati persuasively One of the interesting findings in Communist Party [ICP], as well as shows that the British occupation Efrati’s research is that opposition to more conservative parties), salons, of Iraq and the British mandate had the tribal regulations was articulated and societies shaped public discourses. considerably worsened the status of by both Sunnis and Shi‘is (although The entrance of women into the Iraqi women. During World War I, the majority of the tribesmen were political sphere, however, was a far FALL 2012 PAGE 13 more complicated matter, since Iraqi cause came from sectors internal and in order to maintain order after 2003 women were not given the right to vote. external to the government and upheld led to the convening of tribal courts, The British were no great help in this different religious beliefs. The struggle the sanctioning of coercive practices domain either. As Efrati writes, British reached its zenith in the 1940s and the pertaining to women, and the passing colonial official and anti-suffragist 1950s thanks to the various endeavors of Regulation 137 (December 2003), Gertrude Bell saw herself as equal of women activists. Their story is which stipulated that the handling of to men, but was convinced that other told through the activities of two matters related to personal law should women were not. Efrati also writes outstanding women, Sabiha al-Sheikh be based on religious principles. about the anti-suffrage opposition Da’ud and Naziha al-Dulaimi. The These policies, Efrati argues, are within the Iraqi male political elite, events of the early 1940s, especially contradictory to the wishes of women showing, for example, that in the the meeting of Arab women in the activists in the present and those of the 1930s, male parliament members Cairo Women’s Conference (1944), “founding mothers” of the struggle for were shocked by the mere thought marked a new stage in the demands of equality and justice in the past. that they would be forced to sit with women. Efrati describes how Dulaimi, The book, as I have noted, is a highly women in parliament. More progressive a physician and communist, and a key significant contribution to the field of parties, such as the NDP, ICP, and al- figure in the Leftist female movement, Iraqi Studies. However, I would like Istiqlal, felt that women were unjustly traveled from Baghdad to Sulimaniya, to add a few dimensions that could discriminated against and neglected by Karbala, and Kufa where she observed have been expanded in this study. the state, and called for an expansion of various aspects of women’s lives (this While Efrati illustrates that even urban educational opportunities for women. experience parallels that of many of her women suffered from the tribalization Yet male members in these parties male colleagues, who became familiar of gender relations, more attention expressed doubts as to the ability of with rural and tribal Iraq as engineers, to the different kinds of Iraqi women women, under the present conditions, teachers, and clerks stationed in would have been helpful. Although to participate in the democratic game. the provinces). Efrati similarly the victims of the tribal-patriarchal In other words, the conversation about demonstrates how urban women put system were often rural women, the “readiness” of women to understand together events in the public sphere the women who took up their cause the mechanisms of the political system to promote their agenda, such as often came from the urban upper and restrained their efforts to obtain rights. organizing the Week of Women’s middle classes; many were Baghdadi Nonetheless, Efrati also reveals that Rights (in October 1953), during or active in Baghdadi circles. Within from very early on, Iraqi women were which speeches, especially by Nazik al- the urban centers of Baghdad and demanding the right to vote; as early Mala’ika, galvanized Iraqi women. In Basra there were great differentiations as 1924, Pauline Hassun’s journal fact, the book illustrates that the female between different neighborhoods and Leila advocated for the granting of activism of the 1940s and 1950s is the classes, as far as gender relations democratic rights to women. appropriate context for understanding were concerned. Iraqi women were Writing about the activists’ efforts the highly progressive family law and for the most part housewives, yet to obtain the right to vote, abolish the gendered policies that were formulated in the 1940s more entered the labor tribal legal system, and gain more- under the regime of ‘Abd al-Karim force, working as teachers, clerks, and liberal personal-status laws, Efrati Qasim (1958–1963). nurses. Poorer women also worked channels very successfully the voices The end of Efrati’s book is nothing in factories or in their homes (as of Iraqi women. Not only women, short of tragic. The epilogue constitutes seamstresses, for example), and on but also men lent their support to a sharp critique of certain American the margins of society we find the the goal of empowering women: policies in Iraq with respect to women, washers, servants, cleaners, as well as the classical poets Jamil Sidqi al- and implicitly criticizes the attempts singers, dancers, and prostitutes. This Zahawi and Ma‘ruf al-Rusafi, the of historians-turned-apologists to socioeconomic diversity gave birth to Shi‘i mujtahid Husain al-Na‘ini, the represent such policies as improving various gendered representations. With Christian intellectual Rufa’il Butti, women’s lives. Titling the subsections respect to prostitutes, for instance, and the educators Sati al-Husri and of the chapter “re-tribalization” and many female activists bemoaned the Fadhil al-Jamali all decried the status “re-subordination,” and relying on the existence of this profession, noting of women in Hashemite Iraq. Thus, as works of Najde al-Ali, Nicola Pratt, that women were forced to work in in her chapter about law, Efrati shows and Juan Cole, Efrati confirms that the such a horrid profession because of the that those sympathetic to the women’s reliance on tribal and religious leaders impossible conditions in Iraq that did PAGE 14 TAARII NEWSLETTER not allow poor women to find a decent the wives of officials who sometimes period or New York in the 1940s) or to livelihood. Other women, however, spoke publicly (such as Sara al-Jamali, read journals, novels, and stories from attacked prostitutes and dancers as whose activities Efrati mentions), as Europe, America, Egypt, Lebanon, and part of campaigns against immorality well as the female characters of the Turkey, which often espoused ideas of and for the sanctity of the family. Many fictional universes created by writers, gender equality. women, moreover, did not know how poets, and poetesses. And these young Nonetheless, Efrati’s book is a to read and write, and thus the effects Iraqis, males and females alike, remarkable study that deserves much of the publications in the women’s needed to make sense of all these praise, as well as a plea to respect the press went largely unnoticed as far very conflicting images, and the many achievements of Iraqi women. In the as they were concerned. While the women they met, saw, or befriended. early 1920s, Sabiha al-Shekih Da’ud efforts for women’s liberation were Another significant venue worth nearly caused a ministerial crisis when often anti-sectarian and included exploring is the effects of education she appeared, unveiled and reciting Sunnis, Shi‘is, Christians, and until on women’s lives. Women’s activities poetry, during a festival called Suq 1951, Jews, it is not the case that the in their elementary, middle, and high ‘Ukaz; she was eight years old at religious affiliations of these women schools, their interactions with their the time. In 1936, she was the first were of no import. Someone like female teachers, the school newspapers woman to enter law school, the only Bint al-Huda framed her gendered in which they wrote, and the politics to one among 180 male students. When demands in a much different way which they were exposed in schools and we read Efrati’s book we realize how than did Naziha Dulaimi. One of the colleges were vital to their socialization much has changed in Iraq since that fascinating characteristics of 1940s and their politicization. Elite women time and how perilous, and tragic, the Iraq is that individuals of the middle who attended bilingual schools also situation would be if we return to those classes (whether males or females) read English and French publications. early days when the desire of a young were exposed to many sorts of women: The women’s families likewise shaped woman to perform, study, and develop the members of one’s family, the their self-perceptions. Educated was considered contradictory to ethics teachers in girls’ schools, the washers middle-class women whose family and morals. and cleaners one saw in houses and in members were activists (politicians, shops, the singers heard on the radio or Ba‘thists, communists, and so on) often seen in theater and in clubs, the images adopted the politics of their relatives. The next book reviewed in this of women that decorated commercials Similarly, women traveled with their series on Iraqi women will be What for Rozdi Bek or Palmolive soap in the husbands, and thus elite women got a Kind of Liberation?: Women and the newspapers, the heroines in British, chance to live in more-liberated spaces Occupation of Iraq, by Nadje Al-Ali American, Egyptian, and Indian films, (such as Istanbul in the late Ottoman and Nicola Pratt.

Bassam Yousif. Human Development in Iraq: 1950–1990. Routledge Studies in Middle Eastern Economies, London and New York: Routledge, 2012. 211 pp. $125 (hardcover). ISBN 978-0415-78263-0. Reviewed by Joseph Sassoon, Center for Contemporary Arab Studies (CCAS), Georgetown University

Bassam Yousif’s book is the study doubt that in coming to analyze the in the avalanche of these statistics to of development in Iraq from 1950 country’s growth through the prism the extent that it becomes difficult to to 1990, “viewed through the lens of human development (consumption, distinguish the forest for the trees. This of a human development theory,” as income distribution, capital formation, should not take away from the fact the author believes that it is the best education, housing, health, position of that each chapter is well arranged and method to assess Iraq’s development women, and finally, human rights), the clearly outlined, and, in my opinion, the (p. 1). The book is well researched. lack of reliable statistics in both Arabic book is an important contribution to the With the exception of a few references and English sources presents a major study of Iraq’s economy, particularly its of statistics and economic indicators, hindrance. Yet Yousif managed to human development side. the absence of Arabic and, in garner an incredible amount of statistics The first chapter puts Iraq’s particular, Iraqi economic sources and tables to prove his arguments. development in a theoretical context of is somewhat striking. There is no In fact, the reader is sometimes lost human development; the second chapter FALL 2012 PAGE 15 is a historical chapter presenting the managed to continue his work until the Ba‘th was remarkably egalitarian” in social and economic development of fall of Saddam Hussein and the Ba‘th its dealings with the different sectors Iraq between 1920 and 1990; the third Party so we could have learned better of the population, given its emphasis on chapter focuses on economic growth, how human development fared in the loyalty to the regime. Yousif concludes consumption, income distribution, 1990s. For example, the important that Iraq’s authoritarianism did not and capital formation from the 1950s aspect of education and the position promote development and shows how until 1990; the fourth chapter deals of women would have been enriched the state delayed the implementation of with education and the political by exploring the drastic changes in the the literacy campaign, which targeted economy of education; the fifth chapter status of women as a result of hamlat about 2.2 million illiterates in the age concentrates on housing, nutrition, and al-’iman (the faith campaign) that, group 15–45 and within which females health; chapter six analyzes the position at least publically, emphasized the constituted almost two-thirds, until the of women and their access to education, Ba‘th’s commitment to religion and regime was sure that it could control public employment, and their relation tradition. the content of the education courses. with the state; and, finally, chapter In the less statistical chapters, there He also underlines how human rights seven tackles the issue of human rights are many interesting conclusions: deteriorated during the Ba‘th era (the and political reforms. the Ba‘th regime did make a serious best period, relatively speaking, was The book makes it abundantly attempt to diversify the economy, but under ‘Abd al-Karim Qasim in 1958– clear that the 1970s was a golden their efforts were interrupted by the 63), and rightly argues that dictatorship decade for Iraq on all fronts of human war in the 1980s. Another conclusion in Iraq not only slowed its progress, development. For instance, life is that women in Iraq achieved rapid but contributed to its stagnation and expectancy increased from 53 years in advancement that was “compatible reversal. 1965–70 to 61.4 in 1975–80, and real with the objectives of development For anyone interested in the different Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per and the monopolization of the political aspects of human development in Iraq capita doubled between 1970 and 1979. space” (p. 127). This progress did not or in making comparisons with other By using ample statistics, the author lead, however, to increased freedom of Arab and developing countries for shows the changes that took place in action by women vis-à-vis the state. the important sectors of education, the 1980s during the Iran–Iraq War (by Yousif argues that while material health, and nutrition, this book will the late 1980s, GDP per capita reversed progress was achieved, by 1990 there serve as an important tool. Given the to the 1975 level), and proves that had was still no real independent voice for Arab revolutions and the emphasis on the growth of the 1970s continued, women and that was “not the result of political reforms, this text will also Iraq would have achieved substantial a bias against women,” but part of the be of interest to those attempting to development. It would have been regime’s attempt to control all aspects analyze the correlation between human beneficial to the reader had the author of life in Iraq. In his opinion, “the rights and human development.

Ida Donges Staudt. Living in Romantic Baghdad: An American Memoir of Teaching and Travel in Iraq, 1924–1947. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2011. xxiv + 240pp. $29.95 (cloth). ISBN 978-0- 8156-0994-0. Reviewed by Magnus T. Bernhardsson, Department of History, Williams College

When the American missionary and Judging from her own memoirs, Like many such memoirs, Romantic educator Ida Staudt arrived in Iraq in Living In Romantic Baghdad, published Baghdad contains familiar tropes 1924, she observed that whatever she by Syracuse University Press and and has all the pros and cons of an surveyed in Baghdad “was wondrously edited by John Joseph, Staudt did autobiography. There is a lot in this different from what I had been more than that during her twenty-three book that has been told many times accustomed to. It was a world not yet years in Baghdad. Staudt, along with before and does not come as a surprise. influenced, or just slightly touched by her husband Calvin, established The This is not a systematic academic the West … At once, I knew I would American School for Boys in Baghdad overview of the culture and society of like it and I would happily adjust and embraced the country and its early Hashemite Iraq. It is a nostalgic myself to it.” peoples. and glorified depiction of the couple’s PAGE 16 TAARII NEWSLETTER time there. It is a sweet book that does noteworthy on these broader trends, archaeological or historic sites. The not offer much of significance and but has some helpful information about book reveals Staudt’s great appreciation has major limitations. In its informal some aspects of daily life in Iraq. of the natural beauty of Iraq and style, it chronicles the diversity of Iraq The Staudts had been sent to Iraq Chapter 13 on “Exploring Scenic Iraq” and the city and landscapes which are by United Missions of Mesopotamia is a love letter to the Iraqi countryside now largely gone. Living in Romantic to establish a school for boys. When and its different peoples. She calls Baghdad is not as thorough, thoughtful, they arrived in Iraq, however, they Iraq a “shrine of nature” (p. 156) and and nuanced as Elizabeth Fernea’s were told by the Ministry of Education favorably compares the mountains Guests of the Sheikh, but could be seen that the newly formed government around Sulaf and Amadiyah to the as an interesting counter to it. Staudt’s had no laws for the regulation and Swiss Alps. She was also impressed by book is primarily about urban life and supervision of foreign schools, so many Iraqis showing great fondness for about an earlier period. It describes a they could not start their operations. King Faysal I and movingly describes dynamic society that is changing and However, what they could do was to his funeral. She states that with his grappling with modernity. As Staudt enter under an old Ottoman permit that death in 1933, the first chapter of Iraqi reflects in her chapter on Baghdad, allowed Protestants to operate schools history came to a close. during her time there the “Baghdad of for girls. So the Staudts immediately The Staudts had to leave Iraq just yesterday and the Baghdad of today opened a small school for girls in 1924 after World War II and Ida Staudt … were two different cities” (p. 42). and twenty Iraqi girls of different wrote these memoirs just before she Indeed, the concept of change is like a backgrounds enrolled that fall. That passed away in 1952. The Staudts red thread throughout the book. Many school was short lived because within undoubtedly did some impressive work of the changes that Staudt observed she a year, when they received a permit with their school and probably had a felt were not for the better. to open up a boys’ school, the Staudts positive impact on a number of Iraqi The book is organized closed down the girls’ school. The boys. This book will be of interest to chronologically and thematically. boys’ school was located in Sinak. those who are seeking a nostalgic, non- After describing the couple’s first Staudt describes an ecumenical academic depiction of early Hashemite weeks in Iraq and their work at the atmosphere in the school with students Iraq. It offers very little by way of school, it devotes chapters to daily life, from all different economic and ethnic new evidence, nor does it present an weddings, and holidays. It recounts backgrounds. She offers us some interesting argument. It is more like a the various trips they took around the glimpses of life in the school, but very long personal letter that is reflective, country, such as to the Kurdish areas little of substance. but not analytical or critical. But, it and the Shi‘a holy cities, and has Because of the book’s informal and does highlight the various dimensions nice accounts of various Baghdadi non-academic style, the best chapters of a changing Iraq and a foreigner’s neighborhoods. It also has chapters involve descriptions of everyday life, view of its peoples. The book has on political and economic trends, such especially her portrayals of Jewish, some interesting observations, but very as the role of oil and the 1941 coup. Christian, and Muslim weddings little that is significant to an academic It does not offer anything new or (Chapter 7) and the visits to various audience.

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AN EFFORT TO HELP PRESERVE IRAQ’S INTELLECTUAL CAPITAL

Jim Miller, Executive Director, Scholar Rescue Fund, Institute of International Education* The year is 2006. You are an assistant — in their home countries. However, undertaking the fellowship. These professor of political science at the as the targeting of intellectuals in Iraq academics have also contributed to University of Baghdad. With your rose to crisis levels, the Scholar Rescue the growth of their host universities twenty years of experience teaching Fund needed a new mechanism to by training staff and students, and in Iraq’s universities and dozens of respond quickly. The Institute therefore establishing new departments and publications in peer-reviewed journals, launched the Scholar Rescue Fund research laboratories. One scholar, you are currently pursuing promotion Iraq Scholar Rescue Project in 2007 a specialist in electrical engineering to a full professorship. Then, just with generous funding from both the with thirty-five years of post-doctoral before the academic year breaks for private and public sectors, most notably research and teaching experience, fled the summer, a list containing the names the U.S. Department of State, the Bill Iraq after receiving repeated death of 600 Iraqi professors targeted for & Melinda Gates Foundation, and the threats and demands for money from assassination is posted on the Internet. Richard Lousbery Foundation. The militants. The Scholar Rescue Fund Your name is one of them. Scholar Rescue Fund since awarded was able to arrange a visiting professor When security concerns in Iraq fellowships to more than 265 Iraqi position for the scholar at a newly reached unprecedented levels, such scholars, allowing them to resume their established college of engineering stories were not uncommon among teaching and research in safety. within a private university in Jordan. academics, as the campaign to dismantle The Project’s core work is to While there, the scholar assisted faculty Iraq’s intellectual heritage raged. As a arrange for and fund temporary members in establishing a program of result, the Institute of International academic positions for threatened study. He designed courses on electric Education’s (IIE) Scholar Rescue Iraqi scholars (in any discipline) at circuits and control systems and helped Fund (SRF) program began receiving hosting institutions in secure locations, to establish departmental laboratories, hundreds of requests for assistance providing an academic safe-haven for including identifying and ordering from Iraqi professors and researchers the fellows to continue their scholarly the necessary equipment. In a country describing daily threats to their lives in work. While partnering universities, like Jordan, which has just over thirty Baghdad, Basra, Mosul, and at many colleges, and other institutions of higher universities, 130 fully funded year-long major universities across the country. learning all over the world — including placements of qualified faculty members Since its founding in 2002, IIE’s many of TAARII’s institutional over five years is not insignificant. Scholar Rescue Fund has worked to members — have generously opened As a consequence of the departure support persecuted academics around their institutions to Scholar Rescue of a sizeable portion of Iraq’s the world by awarding fellowships Fund Iraqi scholars, there has been a professoriate due to large-scale to scholars suffering censorship, particular focus on engaging partners in targeting, the issue of brain drain harassment, imprisonment, and threat of the Middle East/North Africa (MENA) understandably arises. Through elimination — to name a few examples region. More than sixty institutions monitoring and evaluation of program within MENA have hosted scholars, participants, we have found that Iraqi allowing many to assume teaching scholars have, indeed, maintained their and research positions close to academic connections to Iraqi students Iraq. The Hashemite Kingdom of and faculty colleagues through a variety Jordan has been the Project’s leading of methods during their fellowships. host country, providing temporary To enhance these connections on a sanctuary to 40% of Scholar Rescue broader scale, the Scholar Rescue Fund Iraq fellows (the U.S. and U.K. Fund established a distance-learning follow). component called the “Iraq Scholar Scholar Rescue Fund scholars have Lecture Series.” The program captures Figure 6.1. Scholar Rescue Fund Iraq undertaken groundbreaking research, academic lectures by Scholar Rescue Scholar Rescue Project fellow at work in presented at academic conferences, Fund Iraqi scholars in the diaspora a microbiology lab at the University of filed patents, lectured to thousands for distribution and presentation — Insurbia, Italy. (Photo credit: IIE SRF) of students, and published while in DVD format or via live feed — at PAGE 18 TAARII NEWSLETTER

to the host country and the importance of Iraq’s rich tradition of to prepare them for higher education (fig. 6.3). their scholarly work In 2011, these workshops expanded beyond the fellowship into a series of training conferences term. Generous donors held in Erbil, Iraq. Bringing together have made it possible participants from Iraqi universities and to extend additional higher education ministries, Scholar g r a n t s t o s c h o l a r s Rescue Fund fellowship recipients, seeking professional and other international education skills training, language experts, the conferences cover training, membership in issues of broad interest to the higher academic associations, education community. Topics range and assistance with from education quality assurance and p u b l i s h i n g c o s t s . accreditation of universities to building Figure 6.2. Scholar Rescue Fund Iraq Scholar Rescue Project distance education lecture at al-Anbar University. Partnerships with local institutional linkages to exploring (Photo credit: IIE SRF) training programs in the modern teaching methodologies. scholars’ host countries Holding academic events in Iraq universities throughout Iraq. To date, have enhanced these is reflective of the changing tides of over 150 much-needed lectures in fields benefits by tailoring trainings to the the Iraq Scholar Rescue Project since as diverse as pediatrics, environmental particular needs of Iraqi scholars. its inception. While some scholars biotechnology, and trauma psychology Experience from the first years of continue to face specific threats in have been made available to faculty the Project has enabled the Scholar various areas of Iraq and seek Scholar and students at more than twenty Rescue Fund to understand the tangible Rescue Fund support to find safe Iraqi public and private universities. needs of Iraqi scholars before, during, academic environments to pursue University presidents and deans alike and after the fellowship. To help these their work, others are able to return have remarked on the impact the efforts, in 2009 SRF began organizing to their country to contribute to a program has had by exposing students tailored training workshops for Iraqi globally engaged higher education to the country’s best academic minds, scholars. The first workshops took community. As of this writing, more no matter their geographic location. place in Amman, Jordan, where scholars than 40% of scholars completing the Pictured in Figure 6.2 is a specialist coming from all over the MENA region fellowship have returned to Iraq either in English literature giving a lecture convened. The Scholar Rescue Fund to resume their previous academic on “Arabian Nights in the West” to partnered with international and local positions or take up new posts. With students at the Women’s College of institutions such as the British Council, changing dynamics in the country, Education of al-Anbar University in Columbia University, TAARII, and IIE’s Scholar Rescue Fund continues western Iraq. Although the scholar is the New York Institute of Technology- to operate a multi-phase program to now based in the U.S., this classroom Amman to organize specialized trainings foster opportunities for preserving and screening reached ninety Iraqi students i n c l u d i n g E n g l i s h and faculty colleagues. language instruction As the Iraq Scholar Rescue Project for academic purposes, developed, it became clear that workshops on CV writing security concerns are not the only and research proposal challenge facing scholars in Iraq. The writing, and training on impact of the years of Sanctions that the use of technological restricted access to new technologies, t o o l s t o a d v a n c e pedagogies, and learning tools crucial learning. Members of the to higher education in today’s world Royal Family in Jordan are still acutely felt. To address have been extremely these challenges, the Scholar Rescue supportive of these efforts, offering academic Fund has made a range of additional Figure 6.3. HRH Prince Raad bin Zeid addressing Iraqi benefits available to fellowship venues and addressing scholars at an IIE SRF workshop in Amman, Jordan. recipients to help in their adjustment workshop participants on (Photo credit: IIE SRF) FALL 2012 PAGE 19 revitalizing Iraq’s higher education and IIE also conducts policy research and Nearly 300 academic institutions in scientific sectors. program evaluations, and provides 40 countries have partnered with the advising and counseling on international Scholar Rescue Fund by providing safe- About the Institute of International education and opportunities abroad. For haven academic homes for the program’s Education more information, visit the website: recipients. Scholars contribute to their The Institute of International Education www.iie.org. host universities through teaching, is a world leader in the international research, lectures and other activities. exchange of people and ideas. An About the Scholar Rescue Fund In return, host universities provide independent, not-for-profit organization In 2002, IIE launched the Scholar professional guidance and financial founded in 1919, IIE has a network of Rescue Fund to provide fellowships and in-kind support. Scholars from 18 offices worldwide and over 1,000 for scholars threatened in their home any country may qualify. For more member institutions. IIE designs and countries. To date, 715 major academic information, please visit the website: implements programs of study and fellowships have been awarded to www.scholarrescuefund.org. training for students, educators, young 488 scholars from 48 countries. * Special thanks to Celeste Riendeau, professionals and trainees from all These fellowships support temporary IIE SRF Iraq Project Program Officer, sectors with funding from government academic positions at safe universities for her important contributions to this agencies, foundations, and corporations. and colleges anywhere in the world. article.

THE ARCHITECTURAL ORNAMENT OF SAMARRA REVISITED: INITIAL REMARKS AND QUESTIONS

Matt Saba, University of Chicago & 2011 TAARII U.S. Fellow

The architectural ornament of Samarra, Samarra originally appeared and was following is a brief overview of some a palace-city founded by the caliph al- experienced through a study of the initial observations and questions Mu‘tasim in A.D. 836, has played an material excavated from the city’s main raised by this intriguing assemblage.5 important role in the historiography of palace, the Dar al-Khilafa.2 Islamic art since the initial publications In its aim to incorporate of the finds from the site.1 For many art archaeological and social historians, the abstract styles of carving contexts into the study of employed in the city’s palaces and Samarra’s ornament, my private houses evidenced the birth of project contributes to a a new set of aesthetic values that they growing body of scholarship associated with Islam’s prohibition of that explores the assemblage images (fig. 7.1). Despite its canonical with new approaches.3 status, however, there are still gaps Last summer with a in our understanding of this material. U.S. research fellowship Since art historical studies have from TAARII, I began my focused largely on establishing stylistic dissertation research by classifications, little attention has been surveying the architectural paid to where the fragments housed in ornament from Samarra’s museum collections today originally Dar al-Khilafa excavated by appeared in buildings. Moreover, Ernst Herzfeld now housed groups of material that fell outside in London and Berlin, the stylistic parameters established while consulting notes on in the early scholarship were ignored findspots and archaeological Figure 7.1. Detail of design from a carved stucco altogether. My dissertation seeks context in the Herzfeld panel excavated from Samarra’s Dar al-Khilafa to shed light on the contexts in a r c h i v e s h o u s e d i n Palace. Berlin, Museum für Islamische Kunst, I. 3507. 4 which the architectural ornament of Washington, D.C. The (Photo credit: Matt Saba) PAGE 20 TAARII NEWSLETTER

marble panels, but the great extent to which applied color also unearthed a and gold leaf were used on wood, number of shaped, perhaps to endow the otherwise matte colorful pieces to be material with sheen similar to the glass used in either opus and stone employed in the same spaces. sectile compositions Such visual correspondences suggest or as wall paneling. a significant level of planning by those S i n c e t h i s t y p e who decorated the palace, an idea also of ornamentation supported by Herzfeld’s unpublished had no place in notes, which describe the placement of Herzfeld’s taxonomy morphologically related patterns across Figure 7.2. Pieces of carved marble excavated from the Dar o f s t y l e , t h e y series of connected rooms. A question al-Khilafa. Berlin, Museum für Islamische Kunst, Sam I. 101 h a v e l o n g g o n e for further research is to what extent the and 102. (Photo credit: Matt Saba) unmentioned. How surface claddings in certain sections of the various forms the palace were intended to function as a of marble ornament cohesive program. My first remark has to do with the were employed and to what extent the Finally, surveying the architectural materials used to decorate architectural technique of their installation relates to ornament from Samarra housed in surfaces throughout the palace. While practices known from sites predating several collections has not only raised the carved stucco panels excavated Samarra is an interesting question questions about Abbasid-period by Herzfeld were among the most raised by this observation that I hope building conventions, but also shed important forms of ornament, they to address further in my dissertation. light on the history and evolution of have perhaps been emphasized in art My second observation has to do with our own curatorial practices during the historical scholarship at the expense of the stylistic and thematic correspondences twentieth century. It became quickly other media.6 A glance at the fragments between different media evident in apparent that fragments known by from the main palace housed in London the assemblage of ornament from the Herzfeld to have come from the same and Berlin shows that a visitor walking palace. It is known through Herzfeld’s archaeological contexts were divided through its rooms would have not only publications that the so-called “Beveled between collections rather than held seen carved and painted stucco, but a Style” (as seen in fig. 7.1) was used to together. This was evident, for example, great deal of carved and painted wood, decorate stucco, marble, and wood and in the dispersal of the fragments of as well as a range of ceramic and glass was even approximated in two tiles in many colors on its walls and dimensions through paint. On floors. Looking across the stylistically a more general level, different and materially diverse assemblage media were worked to achieve reminds us how much we still have to similar surface effects. Again, unravel about the ornament of Samarra. marble provides an interesting Marble must have played a example: not only did the palace particularly important role in this contain shaped, colorful pieces palace’s ornament program (fig. 7.2). of marble used as wall and The array of marble recorded by floor cladding, but Herzfeld Herzfeld was impressive, although found ceramic tiles whose some of the material he catalogued stippled decoration recalls the has since gone missing. Add to this surface of polished stone, cut the consideration that much of the into shapes that recall marble marble would have been removed panels (fig. 7.3). Fragments of in the medieval period to be reused wall paintings housed in London elsewhere (as is often the case with and Berlin that may have once precious materials), and we can assume depicted marble columns the original amount used in the palace also show similar stippling Figure 7.3. Glazed tile with stippling pattern to have been substantial. Herzfeld patterns (fig. 7.4).7 Viewing the excavated from the Dar al-Khilafa. London, Victoria and Albert Museum, C.620-1922. not only found fragments of carved fragments in person confirmed (Photo credit: Matt Saba) FALL 2012 PAGE 21 wall paintings, where pieces that see Alastair Northedge, The clearly joined were split up so that half Historical Topography of of a frieze went to one museum and Samarra (London: British the other half went elsewhere. Such School of Archaeology in Iraq, decisions suggest that the desire to offer 2005), 123–48. 3 snapshots of a large array of styles and S e e e s p e c i a l l y t h e material was a priority that outweighed forthcoming proceedings from the Seventh Colloquium of the the desire to preserve the context of Ernst-Herzfeld-Gesellschaft in excavated materials, a value perhaps Berlin, titled Hundert Jahre more common in museum collections Grabungen in Samarra, which 8 today. The effect of changing methods will be published in Volume 4 of preservation and display is of great of Beiträge zur Islamischen significance to the manner in which Kunst und Archäologie. groups of material such as the Samarra 4 The Herzfeld archive at the assemblage have been interpreted Smithsonian Institution has Figure 7.4. Fragment of a wall painting with throughout their afterlives in museums. been digitized and is available possible stippling pattern. London, British Museum. online at www.asia.si.edu/ OA+.10900. (Photo credit: Trustees of the British research/archivesSamarra.asp. Museum) 1 Important early publications of the 5 In addition to the support of ornament of Samarra include Henri Viollet, TAARII, a number of people Samarra: a Reassessment,” to appear in the “Fouilles à Samara en Mésopotamie. Un helped to facilitate my research. I would proceedings of the fourth biennial Hamad palais musulman du IXe siècle,” Mémoires especially like to thank Ladan Akbarnia, ibn Khalifa Symposium on Islamic Art. présentés à l’Académie des Inscriptions Fahmida Suleman and Seth Priestman at 7 The wall paintings of Samarra will be et des Belles-Lettres 12 (1911): 685– the British Museum, Mariam Rosser-Owen treated in depth by Fatma Dahmani in her 717; Ernst Herzfeld, Der Wandschmuck at the V&A, and Julia Gonnella, Stefan doctoral dissertation. der Bauten von Samarra und seine Weber, Thomas Tunsch and Jens Kröger at 8 On the history of the dispersal of Samarra Ornamentik (Berlin: D. Reimer, 1923); the Museum für Islamische Kunst, Berlin. material in London especially, see Magnus and Iraq Directorate-General of Antiquities, Alastair Northedge provided photographs T. Bernhardsson, Reclaiming a Plundered Ḥafriyyāt Sāmarrā’ 1936–1939, 2 vols. and insights on several occasions. Past: Archaeology and Nation Building in (Baghdad: Maṭbaʻat al-Ḥukūmah, 1940). 6 An issue raised by Julia Gonnella in Modern Iraq (Austin: University of Texas, 2 For a discussion of the plan of this palace, her forthcoming paper, “The Stucco of 2005), 73–84.

RESITUATING ISLAMISTS: MUHAMMAD BAQIR AL-SADR AND THE 1958 REVOLUTION

Johann Bayer, University of Chicago When conducting research for my Arab Middle East have tended to treat secular and religious fabric of the recent master’s thesis, I was struck by Islamism as a pathology in the region. region, distinguishing between the the similarities in tone, thematic content, The emergence and predominance “secular” and “religious” is not useful and goals in the writings of the Iraqi of Islamists’ sympathies are seen as when considering Islamists. In this Shi‘i intellectual Muhammad Baqir al- a symptom of the failure of secular, article, I highlight the hybrid nature Sadr and the secular revolutionaries who modern, hegemonic projects. of a particular Islamist in a particular led or contested the 1958 Revolution in My research underscored that Islamist historical context. Just as contemporary Iraq. Narratives of community, progress, groups should not be considered observers can trace the impact of and statehood had clearly “hybridized” a pathological phenomenon. Iraqi leftist, nationalist, pan-Arab and other between these two groups.1 However, Islamists emerged and participated in ideological prescriptions from the I struggled to find either secondary the tumultuous post-colonial decade of transformational years of the revolution material integrating early Iraqi Islamists the 1950s. Because their prescriptions to post-2003 Iraq, my research indicates into the historiography of Iraq or a for society were informed by the needs we can find Islamist assumptions forged theoretical framework considering and concerns of their contemporaries during the revolution that still deeply Islamists. Scholars of the modern and have become part of both the influence contemporary Iraqi society. PAGE 22 TAARII NEWSLETTER

The 1958 Revolution and the who were better able to deploy violence These programs promised freedom from “Intense Struggle for Hegemony” and a more coherent “historical memory.” foreign control by offering an indigenous “The vibrant, pluralistic public In all cases, scholars view religion as response to social pressures. spheres”2 that had emerged under something set apart from the modern Conservative, reactionary religious the Hashemite Monarchy erupted, in projects of the secular state and its secular actors, such as the mainstream ‘ulema, the words of General ‘Abd al-Karim admirers and detractors. Further clouding responded negatively to these radical Qasim, into the “exploding of the understanding is the difficulty scholars policies. Muhsin al-Hakim, the supreme volcanoes of revolution.”3 Qasim’s have distinguishing between reactionary jurist in Najaf, argued passionately words remain an apt metaphor: Iraqi conservatism and radical, world-shaping against the communist program and society did explode, in both a cultural ideologies (i.e., intense struggles for in defense of property rights from efflorescence and spasms of internecine hegemony) proffered by Islamists who nationalization despite his overall violence. The 1958 Revolution, where a were quite active in this time frame. political quietism. His was a deeply military-led coup overthrew the British- conservative response that was ignored Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr and the or rejected by the radical revolutionaries, installed Hashemite Monarchy, has Revolutionary Milieu of 1958 been viewed as a disappointment. Its and helped solidify in the minds of great potential ended with displays of Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr was an many the basic obscurantism of senior extremism, inter-communal violence, Iraqi firmly placed in the radical, religious leadership. a vulgar cult of personality centered revolutionary milieu. His personal When compared to the religious on the “sole leader” Qasim, and a background mirrors the poverty, leadership in Najaf, al-Sadr’s forceful subsequent bloody coup in 1963 where social displacement, and intellectual argument for an Islamist program 9 Qasim and hundreds of communists and concerns of his generation. In my of social justice shares far more in others were killed. Because of these research, I closely read three main common with his radical, secular disappointing events, the revolution has texts from the revolution era — Fadāk counterparts than his conservative been seen as a failure of the moderates. fī al-Tārīkh (Fadak in History, 1955), co-religionists. He deviated from his The willingness of reformers to set Falsafatunā (Our Philosophy, 1959), contemporaries, however, in his deep 10 aside democratic processes in favor Iqtisadunā (Our Economy, 1961) — concern for the cost to freedom inherent of social justice prepared Iraq for and I compared these to the rhetoric in the promise of social justice. His future authoritarian governments, the of Qasim’s regime to conclude that first comments on the matter emerge breakdown of civil society, and the rise intellectuals advancing a hegemonic in Fadāk fī al-Tārīkh. Using the story of “neo-tribalism” in Iraq. project in Iraq heavily focused on social of Fatima’s lost inheritance as a barely Religious sentiments are almost justice in order to develop a strong, veiled analogy to contemporary times, completely ignored in the historiography independent political community. In al-Sadr claimed that the early riff in of the revolution. In the early histories, this article, I briefly look to al-Sadr’s the Islamic community was caused by religion, and Shi‘ism in particular, exists conception of social justice to highlight a rapacious aristocracy using “an echo only as a dangerous well of sectarianism a particularly compelling node of of nationalization, as we say today, of 11 causing political instability. To varying hybridization between the secular her inheritance as a pretext to seize it.” degrees, all agree with Hanna Batatu in revolutionaries and Islamists. The high policies of an unjust “ruling asserting that any “Islamic assumptions” A powerful demand for social justice party” were to use nationalization to that the young radicals may have held, grew out of the desire for freedom from consolidate their rule and despoil the are childish beliefs to be “dissipated.”4 colonial domination and the creation of wealth of potential political rivals such Despite the centrality of religious an authentic political community. The as Ali. Much like Qasim’s ubiquitous structures to any sort of cultural account, popularity of the revolution stemmed distinction between sincere communists, religious actors are still completely in no small part from the promises of nationalists, Kurds, Muslims, and missing in recent works, and are often relief from poverty and inequality. By Christians versus the traitorous quislings only examined as proof of the failings hybridizing communist promises for in service of the colonizers, al-Sadr of the increasingly authoritarian — but social justice with pan-Arab and Iraqi used a foreign word, “aristocracy,” to modern — state.5 These works focus on visions of nationalism, Qasim initiated describe a domestic enemy. While al- “hegemonic projects”6 or “an intense nationalization of the oil industry, land Sadr was concerned here with protecting struggle for cultural hegemony”7 led by reform, urban renewal, and jobs programs property rights, it was out of a concern leftist intellectuals (muthaqqafīn)8 but that would become hallmarks of later for what the communist program would ultimately defeated by the pan-Arabists regimes, and the basis of the rentier state. mean for freedom in Iraq. His rejection FALL 2012 PAGE 23 of nationalization was followed up offered a rational methodology with deep Culture in Hashemite Iraq (Stanford: Stanford in later works by a detailed attempt to Islamic roots. Al-Sadr distanced himself University Press, 2009), 267–68. 3 uncover an Islamic program of social both from colonialist ideologies, methods, Hanna Batatu, The Old Social Classes and justice that avoids strictures on freedom. and patterns of thoughts that he found the Revolutionary Movements of Iraq: A Sensitive to the danger of charges of endemic to the secular contemporaries, Study of Iraq’s Old Landed and Commercial Classes and of Its Communists, Baʻthists, and reactionism that could be as damaging as as well as the conservative ‘ulema who Free Officers (Princeton: Princeton University charges of inauthenticity, al-Sadr departed found themselves losing influence in the Press, 1978), 905. from his fellow ‘ulema when seeking to new, radical, era. 4 Batatu, Old Social Classes, 662; 1000. find a justification for state infringement 5 A History of Iraq Conclusion Charles Tripp, , 2nd, new on private property. Instead of articulating ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, or defending absolute property rights, Scholars have recognized the seminal 2002), 160; 203. as some of the ‘ulema had done, al-Sadr importance of the 1958 Revolution. Yet, 6 Davis defines this as hegemony, or constructed a system based on absolute it has been studied, at best, in an uneven ideological prescriptions offered by the elite ownership of the fruits of one’s labor manner. As Eric Davis has noted, in their that become “common sense.” Eric Davis, (offering a clear nod to communist narratives of the revolution, scholars and Memories of State: Politics, History, and concerns), while the state retains the activists attempt to “influence the type of Collective Identity in Modern Iraq (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005). ultimate say over the fate of undeveloped political community [they] normatively 7 properties.12 In distancing himself from desire in contemporary Iraq.” Therefore, Abdul-Salaam Yousif, “The Struggle for Cultural Hegemony During the Iraqi efforts made by some leading members of observers construct “counterfactual” Revolution,” in The Iraqi Revolution of 1958, the ‘ulema to align Islam with capitalism, histories, bemoan the surprising turn to ed. Robert A. Fernea and Wm. Roger Louis al-Sadr sought to appeal to those who may authoritarianism and militarism by the (New York: I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd., 1991). find the communist program appealing moderates and the left, or simply ignore 8 The label “intellectual” (muthaqqaf) while highlighting the uniqueness of evidence or arguments that cast their became a byword for all left-leaning, radical Islam. In al-Sadr’s argument, capitalism favored faction in a less than positive intellectuals. Ibid., 190. unfettered and led by the “lords of modern light.16 In my attempt to include al- 9 For the best general biography of al-Sadr, see industry” threatened freedom as much as Sadr in discussions of the revolution, the introduction to Muḥammad Bāqir Ṣadr, communist programs of nationalization.13 I highlight that the internal dynamics Lessons in Islamic Jurisprudence, trans. Roy For al-Sadr, the sharī‘ah (Islamic of the revolution reshaped popular Mottahedeh (Oxford: Oneworld, 2003). 10 law), and more importantly, ’ijtihād consciousness, particularly of notions These works may be found in translation (innovative, as opposed to slavish, of community, statehood, modernity, on various Islamists websites. Most are of poor quality. Except when noted, I cite interpretation of Islamic law), provides an and progress. Under the tensions of to the Arabic originals. Muḥammad Bāqir “organic structure” (al-tarkīb al-‘uḍwī)14 this popular reimagining of community, Ṣadr, Fadak in History, trans., Abdullah al- that emerges from a deep historical Islamists groups emerged alongside and Shahin and Abdul-Jabbar Sharara (Tehran: and cultural reservoir authentic to his in competition with secular elements. Ansariyan Publications, 1955). Fadāk fī al- community. This is a very particular use These voices, both religious and secular, Tārīkh (Beirut: Dār al-Taʻāruf, 1955), 42. of “Islam.” It is not, in this imagining, offered “conceptual links created Our Philosophy, trans., Shams Constantine quietist, other-worldly, or reactionary: between state and civil society” in Iraq17 Inati (Qum: Ansariyan Publications, 1989). “the benefit that lies at the heart of Islam that continue to shape the manner in Falsafatunā, 2 ed. (Beirut: Dār al-Fikr, 1959). is the method and the notion — that is, which contemporary Iraqis perceive Iqtiṣādunā, 2 ed. (Beirut: Dār al-Fikr, 1961). the rational method of thinking and the their position in relationship to one Our Economy, trans., Translation Board of theological notion of the world.”15 Islam another, and to the state. Writing, and Publication WOFIS, second ed., in this formulation is a worldview and a 2 vols., vol. 1-1 (Tehran: World Organization 1 I use the term “hybridization” in the sense rational method that has world-shaping for Islamic Services, 1961). used by Orit Bashkin in her recent article 11 Ṣadr, Fadāk fī al-Tārīkh, 99–107. Emphasis consequences, and reflects the hybrid showing the ways in which leftists and added. nature of both al-Sadr’s thinking and his nationalists hybridized their ideologies and 12 Ṣadr, Iqtiṣādunā, 141, 168–78. message. Knowing he was speaking to an rhetoric during the revolution. Orit Bashkin, 13 Ṣadr, Our Philosophy, 11. audience who found notions of scientific “Hybrid Nationalisms: Watani and Qawmi 14 Ṣadr, Iqtiṣādunā, 13. research (al-baḥth al-‘alimī) potentially Visions in Iraq under ‘Abd Al-Karim Qasim, 15 Ṣadr, Our Philosophy, 33. more influential than the dry, pedantic 1958-61,” International Journal of Middle 16 Davis, Memories of State, 112–15. scholarship traditionally associated with East Studies 43 (2011). Emphasis added. the “turbaned ones” from Najaf, al-Sadr 2 Orit Bashkin, The Other Iraq: Pluralism and 17 Ibid., 110. PAGE 24 TAARII NEWSLETTER

RECORDING HERITAGE DESTRUCTION IN IRAQ

Benjamin Isakhan, Deakin University, Australia1

In October 2012, I began a month- stores of the museum, ranging from long visit to Iraq to begin developing a Sumerian cylinder seals to Hatrean database that documents the destruction statues. Other statues and relics were of heritage in the country over a damaged during the bombing of crucial nine-year period (2003–2009). Baghdad, including a statue of the This database will enable researchers Assyrian god of Wisdom, Ea, which to more fully understand the extent fell from its mantle (fig. 8.1). of the destruction and will help the Following the looting, an amnesty Iraqi government and international program allowed the return of objects community to prioritize the heritage without question or reprimand. sites in Iraq that most urgently need Approximately 6,000 objects have protection and restoration. The primary been returned to the INM. In addition, purpose of the database, however, is to the director general of the museum, examine the extent of the relationship Dr. Amira Edan, updated me on the between the recorded destruction of restoration of entire wings of the heritage sites and spikes of violence, museum and repair of significant as documented in existing and reliable objects damaged in the looting, mostly measures such as the Iraq Body Count funded by U.S. and Italian sources. database. Over the next three years, For example, the restored statue of Ea with funding from the Australian currently stands in the Assyrian wing Figure 8.1. Damaged during the bombing Research Council’s Discovery of Baghdad in 2003, the statue of the of the museum. (DECRA) scheme and supported Assyrian god of Wisdom, Ea, has been Another highlight was my visit to by the Centre for Citizenship and carefully restored by staff at the Iraq the ancient Mesopotamian city of Globalization at Deakin University, National Museum. Babylon, one of the world’s most our research team of Australians, (Photo credit: Benjamin Isakhan) significant archaeological sites dating Americans, and Iraqis will build the back to 3,000 b.c. when it was a small database. city-state. Senior Iraqi archaeologists On this first trip to Iraq, I spent two told me about the damage that had weeks in and around Baghdad been done and the ongoing and two weeks based out of efforts to protect the site Erbil in the northern Kurdish from further destruction. In Region (KR) to begin assessing April 2003, the Coalition the damage at several heritage turned the ancient city into a sites in these areas. A highlight military base known as “Camp of my time in Iraq was a tour Alpha.” Coalition troops dug of the Iraq National Museum trenches through parts of the (INM), which was severely site. Other parts were leveled looted immediately after the to build living quarters, a car fall of Baghdad in April 2003. park for heavy equipment, Over three days, hundreds and two helipads. The Ishtar of looters set fires, smashed Gate and the Procession Street cabinets, stole documents and were also damaged. Coalition equipment, and destroyed much soldiers also took “souvenirs” of what they could not remove. Figure 8.2. Benjamin Isakhan inspects a cuneiform tablet from the site, including bricks Around 15,000 objects were found lying on the ground at the ancient city of Babylon. The from the walls and tablets with fragile tablet was left exposed to the elements. stolen from the galleries and cuneiform writing on them. The (Photo credit: Benjamin Isakhan) FALL 2012 PAGE 25

Figure 8.3. Saddam’s throne room at his palace at Figure 8.4. A detail of the Citadel at Koya Babylon. A basketball hoop was set up by coalition showing a small mosque and the citadel walls. forces. The chandeliers and tiles have been heavily looted. (Photo credit: Benjamin Isakhan) (Photo credit: Benjamin Isakhan)

“Future of Babylon Project,” funded wood carvings have been smashed; tiles preservation, including the General mostly by the U.S., enables the Iraqi have been ripped from the walls; light Director of Antiquities for the region, State Board of Antiquities and Heritage globes and faucets have been removed Mr. Mala Awat; the Director of to work with the World Monuments (fig. 8.5). Antiquities for Erbil Province, Mr. Fund on various conservation efforts In the Kurdish Region in the north Haydar Hussein; and the Director of across the site. However, the site faces of Iraq, I spoke with several people the Iraqi Institute for the Conservation neglect and disrepair, and important in the field of heritage protection and of Antiquities and Heritage, Dr archaeological relics are left Abdullah Korsheed. From exposed to the elements (fig. these and other individuals, 8.2). I learned about efforts to I also toured a palace that preserve and protect heritage Saddam Hussein built during sites, such as archaeological the 1990s Sanctions period excavations, the preservation in Iraq that overlooks the of manuscripts and artifacts, ancient city of Babylon and and the development of new the Euphrates River. During museums. the coalition occupation of J e s s i e J o h n s o n , t h e the site, troops set up sleeping Academic Director of the Iraqi quarters in the many rooms Institute for the Conservation of the palace. They erected a of Antiquities and Heritage, basketball hoop in Saddam’s took me to Koya to see the former throne room (fig. 8.3). Ottoman-era citadel, which is Throughout the palace, graffiti Figure 8.5. Benjamin Isakhan walks past some of the being well protected by local fills the walls. All of the place damage done to one of the rooms at Saddam’s palace at authorities (fig. 8.4). These furniture has been looted; Babylon. Graffiti adorns the wall, marble tiles have been authorities have created a majestic chandeliers have removed, and electrical sockets have been stolen. small museum on site (fig. been stripped bare; detailed (Photo credit: Benjamin Isakhan) 8.6). They have also purchased PAGE 26 TAARII NEWSLETTER several historical buildings in the small city in order to protect and restore them (fig. 8.7). In Erbil, I met with David Michelmore, who is coordinating an enormous joint project between the KRG and UNESCO to restore the Erbil Citadel. In the 1980s, Saddam Hussein rebuilt the main gate to the citadel, colloquially known as “Saddam’s Gate.” Part of the current joint project is to restore the gate to its original condition, with a narrower entrance and a pointed arch (fig. 8.8). Despite the many positive projects, heritage sites in the Kurdish region suffer from a variety of serious problems. Perhaps the greatest threat Figure 8.6. A small museum that is being developed inside the Citadel at is rapid development. The locals Koya. (Photo credit: Benjamin Isakhan) optimistically call Erbil “the next Dubai.” Hotels and shopping malls example is the ancient Assyrian The cultural heritage of Iraq has are shooting up everywhere. The aqueduct at Khinnis, which once suffered many different types of development is having an enormous carried water all the way to Nineveh damage since 2003: looting, graffiti impact on heritage sites. One clear some 80 kilometres away. The site and arson attacks, neglect and disrepair, hosts several large reliefs, poor management and haphazard including those of King restoration, the effects of military Sennacherib and deities such operations and using sites as military as Ashur and Enlil (fig. 8.9). bases, and ill-conceived development. The site is also notable for The extent of the damage has not been cuneiform writing, Sassanid- adequately recorded. While there era reliefs, and mausoleums are some success stories, such as the built by early Christians. A restoration work being done at the Iraq sculpture of a Lamassu (a National Museum or across the Kurdish human-headed winged-bull) Region, much of the country’s heritage has fallen from the cliff into is in urgent need of preservation, the water below. In addition, a protection, excavation, and careful modern restaurant is currently restoration. being built in the heart of the We welcome your input on the site, along with a new car park, project as we continue to develop a with the aim of turning the site database to record the destruction of into a popular picnic and family heritage sites in Iraq since 2003. area. Additionally problematic is the new private residence 1 Dr. Benjamin Isakhan is Australian that has been built above the Research Council Discovery (DECRA) site (to the north), which will be Senior Research Fellow at the Centre for accessed by a new road right in Figure 8.7. A beautifully ornate Ottoman-era house Citizenship and Globalization at Deakin front of the main relief. These that is suffering from severe degradation and University, Australia. He is the author developments have occurred neglect. This is one of many such sites in Koya of Democracy in Iraq: History, Politics, that have been bought by local authorities in the without consideration of their Discourse (Burlington: Ashgate, 2012). He hope of preserving and restoring them. impact on the ancient site or of can be contacted at Benjamin.isakhan@ (Photo credit: Benjamin Isakhan) maintaining its integrity. deakin.edu.au. FALL 2012 PAGE 27

Figure 8.8. (Above) A view of “Saddam’s Gate” at the Erbil Citadel with a statue of Ibn al-Mustawfi (1169–1239) who wrote the four-volume History of Erbil. The joint UNESCO and KRG plan is to remove this gate and replace it with a replica of the original. (Photo credit: Benjamin Isakhan)

Figure 8.9. (Below) Benjamin Isakhan at the major relief of King Sennacherib at Khinnis. (Photo credit: Benjamin Isakhan) TAARIIPAGE 28 TAARII NEWSLETTER The American Academic Research Institute in Iraq 3923 28th St., #389 • Grand Rapids, MI 49512 Ph. (773) 844-9658 • www.taarii.org

In this Issue “TAARII and the Iraqi Cultural Center Co-host Events” 1 “Executive Director’s Report” Beth Kangas 4 “TAARII-Sponsored Lecture” 5 “TAARII Helps Prepare Guide for Collecting Life Stories in Conflict Settings” 6 ABOUT TAARII “In Memoriam: Dr. Behnam Nassir Abu TAARII has been formed by a consortium of universities, al-Soof” McGuire Gibson 7 colleges, and museums, which comprise its institutional “The Case of Iraqi Christians” Faris Nadhmi 9 membership. Each institution names a person to “Book Reviews” Orit Baskin, Joseph Sassoon, act as its representative on the Board of Directors. & Magnus Bernhardsson 12 Individual Members elect additional Directors. The “An Effort to Help Preserve Iraq’s Intellectual Officers and the Board of Directors are charged with Capital” Jim Miller 17 assuring academic integrity, organizational oversight, “The Architectural Ornament of Samarra and financial and programmatic accountability. Revisited” Matt Saba 19 TAARII is a non-governmental organization “Resituating Islamists” Johann Bayer 21 and is incorporated in the state of Illinois as “Recording Heritage Destruction in Iraq” a not for profit organization and has 501(c)3 Benjamin Isakhan 24 status with the Internal Revenue Service.