DOCSLIB.ORG

Sexual Violence and Armed Conflict Annot Bib + JC

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Sexual Violence and Armed Conflict Annot Bib + JC Sexual Violence and Armed Conflict Annotated Bibliography 2012 The Consortium on Gender, Security and Human Rights created this Annotated Bibliography to provide a guide to the landscape of academic research in sexual violence and armed conflict. Our goal is to provide the policy, activist and scholarly communities with access to the findings of academic research; therefore, the extensive and valuable resources produced by policy agencies, NGOs, and international organizations are generally not included here. Of course, we assume that readers will use this Annotated Bibliography only as a guide to help find useful readings, and that anyone wishing to cite these sources in their own work will go back to the original sources. © 2012 Consortium on Gender, Security, and Human Rights The Consortium on Gender, Security and Human Rights created this Annotated Bibliography to provide a guide to the landscape of academic research on sexual violence and armed conflicts. This bibliography is by no means an exhaustive listing. We have focused on the academic literature, so most of the numerous publications originating from within the policy and NGO communities have not been included here. This bibliography is also limited to articles published in English. Insofar as possible, entries includes citations, published abstracts, quotations of key sentences (indicated in quotation marks, and followed by page number) and additional annotations by the interns who worked on this bibliography, and URLs for articles that are available on line. Books usually are only briefly summarized, often with the table of contents included. This annotated bibliography is meant to introduce readers to the landscape of academic research and debate in this field, and to help support the reader in her or his own research. Despite the inclusion of quotations and page numbers in the annotations, we strongly advise the reader not to quote directly from this document, but rather to use it to direct you to the literature that will be of use to you. If you are familiar with resources that you think should be included in this annotated bibliography, please send the citation, or, better yet, an annotation, and we will add it to the bibliography, with your name as reviewer. Resources can be submitted through our website at: genderandsecurity.org/projects-resources/annotated-bibliographies. 2 Aafjes, Astrid. Gender Violence: The Hidden War Crime. Washington D.C.: Kumarian Press, 1998. Print. Abstract: Sexual violence has been practiced against women during armed conflicts since the beginning of warfare, but until recently the international community perceived and accepted such gender-based abuse as an inevitable byproduct of war. Rape and other forms of sexual abuse have been explicitly or implicitly prohibited by most international and regional human rights and humanitarian laws for decades. Almost every country in the world has ratified and signed one or more of these instruments and, therefore, has obligations under multiple treaties to protect women against sexual violence during armed conflict. Yet rape remains the least condemned war crime. (Abstract from Amazon) Agger, Inger. “Sexual Torture of Political Prisoners: An Overview.” Journal of Traumatic Stress 2.3 (1989): 305-318. Abstract: Not much is known about the repressive use of sexuality against political prisoners. It is important to gain a better understanding of the trauma involved in sexual torture for treatment purposes. On the basis of clinical experience with refugees from the Middle East, North Africa, and Latin America, and the collection of mainly unpublished material on the subject, a theory of the psychodynamics of sexual torture is proposed. It is claimed that this method of torture is especially traumatic, as it is characterized by a confusing and complex ambiguity containing both libidinal and aggressive components, against which the victim has difficulty maintaining a psychological defense. Hence, his or her core identity processes are threatened. Aspects of transcultural treatment are discussed, and it is stressed that there must be a reframing of the trauma story so as not to repeat the psychological pain of the torture and aggravate symptoms. The Testimony-Method is introduced as an important tool for reframing. If the refugee presents sexual symptoms, sexological treatment interventions are recommended. (Abstract from Wiley Online Library) Alison, Miranda. “Wartime Sexual Violence: Women’s Human Rights and Questions of Masculinity.” Review of International Studies 33 (2007): 75-90. Abstract: This article examines wartime sexual violence, one of the most recurring wartime human rights abuses. It asserts that our theorizations need further development, particularly in regard to the way that masculinities and the intersections with constructions of ethnicity feature in wartime sexual violence. The article also argues that although women and girls are the predominant victims of sexual violence and men and boys the predominant agents, we must also be able to account for the presence of male victims and female agents. This, however, engenders a problem; much of the women’s human rights 3 discourse and existing international mechanisms for addressing wartime sexual violence tend to reify the male-perpetrator/female-victim paradigm. This is a problem which feminist human rights theorists and activists need to address. (Abstract from Academic Search Premier) Additional Notes and/or Quotations: “Lynne Segal stresses, however, that we could reverse the assumed causal link between masculinity and violence: ‘[t]he idea that what is at stake here is state violence in the hands of men (rather than, as many feminists believe, male violence in the hands of the state) is supported by reports of women’s use of force and violence when they are placed in jobs [or other positions of power] analogous to men’s.’” (Alison,76) “The homosocial nature of militaries may be necessary for cohesion but its attendant danger of homosexual behaviour does not sit well with the hetero-normativity of hegemonic masculinity. Rape (even, as discussed later, rape of men) serves to reassert heteromasculinity.” (77) “Finally, it has been noted that gang-rape performs a bonding function for groups of men and that it accounts for a high proportion of wartime sexual violence. Gang-rape cements a sense of loyalty between men and those who might not rape individually do rape collectively in a group assertion of masculinity. Goldstein suggests that raping as part of a group ‘may serve to relieve individual men of responsibility’. I suggest, however, that part of the reason gang-rape promotes group cohesion may be that it bonds men together in a complicity (in fact a shared awareness of responsibility) that makes loyalty to the group vital.” (77) “‘[I]n wars men only continue to do what they did before but in a more mindless and indiscriminate way’, and that ‘[r]ape . happens during war for the same reasons it happens during peace. It is a phenomenon rooted in inequality, discrimination, male domination and aggression, misogyny and the entrenched socialisation of sexual myths.’” (78) “In contemporary armed conflicts, particularly though not exclusively ethnonational, rape is intentionally committed by specific men against specific women (and men) – namely ‘enemy’ women (and men) – and therefore it cannot be regarded as indiscriminate.” (79) “During times of conflict multiple binary constructions are formed; not only is ‘masculine’ contrasted to ‘feminine’ within a group and ‘us’ contrasted to ‘them’ between groups, but ‘our women’ are contrasted to ‘their women’ and ‘our men’ to ‘their men’. ‘Our women’ are chaste, honourable, and to be protected by ‘our men’; ‘their women’ are unchaste and depraved. Wartime propaganda presents the (male) enemy as those who would rape and murder ‘our’ women and the war effort is directed at saving ‘our’ women.” (80) “In wartime, then, male to male rape (as male to female rape) humiliates and feminises the victim whilst asserting the perpetrator’s dominant (heterosexual, ethno-national) 4 masculinity. The ethnonational element means that symbolically the victim’s national identity is also feminised and humiliated. Sexual violence is ‘preferred’, Inger Skjelsbæk suggests, because ‘this is the form of violence which most clearly communicates masculinisation and feminisation’.” (81) “Women are not only victims of war, they are also agents of violence; men are also victims of sexual violence; the idea of male protection is inherently problematic and can lead in itself to abuses of women; women are not all located the same and one’s positioning impacts on one’s experiences of war. This leads us to a further overriding problem: how to both acknowledge and respond to the reality of male victims and female agents of sexual violence whilst still recognising and acting with the simultaneous reality that women and girls remain the majority of victims and men and boys the majority perpetrators – but, further, that both women’s and men’s ethnic and social positioning contributes enormously to differential experiences.” (84) “I have argued that a more complex analysis of empirical cases of wartime sexual violence that examines the interplay between masculinity, femininity, ethnicity and sexuality, is required and serves to bring into relief the problems with accepting this binary at face value and wholeheartedly. The example of wartime sexual violence as a problem for women’s human rights, then, illuminates a broader
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Collateral Damage: Trade Disruption and the Economic Impact of War
    FEDERAL RESERVE BANK OF SAN FRANCISCO WORKING PAPER SERIES Collateral Damage: Trade Disruption and the Economic Impact of War Reuven Glick Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco and Alan M. Taylor University of California, Davis, NBER, and CEPR Working Paper 2005-11 http://www.frbsf.org/publications/economics/papers/2005/wp05-11.pdf The views in this paper are solely the responsibility of the authors and should not be interpreted as reflecting the views of the Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco or the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. Collateral Damage: Trade Disruption and the Economic Impact of War* Reuven Glick Alan M. Taylor August 2005 Conventional wisdom in economic history suggests that conflict between countries can be enormously disruptive of economic activity, especially international trade. Yet nothing is known empirically about these effects in large samples. We study the effects of war on bilateral trade for almost all countries with available data extending back to 1870. Using the gravity model, we estimate the contemporaneous and lagged effects of wars on the trade of belligerent nations and neutrals, controlling for other determinants of trade. We find large and persistent impacts of wars on trade, and hence on national and global economic welfare. A rough accounting indicates that such costs might be of the same order of magnitude as the “direct” costs of war, such as lost human capital, as illustrated by case studies of World War I and World War II. Reuven Glick Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco Economic Research Department 101 Market Street San Francisco, CA 94105 415-974-3184 (Phone) 415-974-2168 (Fax) [email protected] Alan M.
    [Show full text]
  • Gender and the Violence(S) of War and Armed Conflict EMERALD STUDIES in CRIMINOLOGY, FEMINISM and SOCIAL CHANGE
    Gender and the Violence(s) of War and Armed Conflict EMERALD STUDIES IN CRIMINOLOGY, FEMINISM AND SOCIAL CHANGE Series Editors Sandra Walklate, School of Social Sciences, Monash University, Australia. Kate Fitz-Gibbon, School of Social Sciences at Monash University and Monash Gender and Family Violence Prevention Centre, Australia. Jude McCulloch, Monash University and Monash Gender and Family Violence Prevention Centre, Australia. JaneMaree Maher, Centre for Women’s Studies and Gender Research, Sociology, Monash University, Australia. Emerald Studies in Criminology, Feminism and Social Change offers a platform for innovative, engaged, and forward-looking feminist-informed work to explore the interconnections between social change and the capacity of criminology to grap- ple with the implications of such change. Social change, whether as a result of the movement of peoples, the impact of new technologies, the potential consequences of climate change, or more commonly identified features of changing societies, such as ageing populations, inter-genera- tional conflict, the changing nature of work, increasing awareness of the problem of gendered violence(s), and/or changing economic and political context, takes its toll across the globe in infinitely more nuanced and inter-connected ways than previously imagined. Each of these connections carry implications for what is understood as crime, the criminal, the victim of crime and the capacity of criminology as a disci- pline to make sense of these evolving interconnections. Feminist analysis, despite its contentious relationship with the discipline of criminology, has much to offer in strengthening the discipline to better understand the complexity of the world in the twenty-first century and to scan the horizon for emerging, possible or likely futures.
    [Show full text]
  • The Rape of Nanking: a Historical Analysis of the Aftershocks of Wartime Sexual Violence in International Relations
    FACULTAD DE CIENCIAS HUMANAS Y SOCIALES The Rape of Nanking: a historical analysis of the aftershocks of wartime sexual violence in international relations. Autor: Ester Brito Ruiz Quinto Curso del Doble Grado de ADE y Relaciones Internacionales Director: Jose Manuel Saenz Rotko Madrid Junio 2018 Ester Brito Ruiz international relations. The Rape of Nanking: a historical analysis of the aftershocks of wartime sexual violence in in violence sexual wartime of aftershocks the of analysis historical a Nanking: of Rape The Index 1) Abstract & Key words. 2) Methodology & Research Design. 3) Introduction. 4) Historiography and debates on Nanking. 5) Historical analysis and drivers of the Second Sino-Japanese war and interbellum change in protocols against foreign combatants and civilians. a. Conditioning Japanese political factors. b. Economic drivers. c. The role of the international order. 6) The route to Nanking a. Introduction: planning and intent of Japanese imperial forces when entering Manchuria. b. Road to Nanking: the advance of the imperial army, Loot all, kill all, burn all imperative. c. The entry into the city and mass killings. d. Rape in Nanking and beyond the capital. e. Torture inflicted upon combatants and civilians. f. The weeks following the fall of Nanking. 7) Radicalization of the Japanese imperial army: understanding historical warfare practices and theories of violence. 8) Rape as a weapon of war. 9) Other war crimes and implications of Japanese Imperialism 10) Historical memory of Nanking a. Significance of diverging historical memory in politics b. China: the century of humiliation narrative c. Japan: the historical aggressor-victim dilemma 1 11) Historical impact of Nanking on current international relations.
    [Show full text]
  • Justice for Survivors of Japan's Military Sexual Slavery System ______
    Japan: Still Waiting After 60 years: Justice for Survivors of Japan's Military Sexual Slavery System _____________________________________________________________________________________________ Still Waiting After 60 years: Justice for Survivors of Japan's Military Sexual Slavery System Introduction In war zones all over the world crimes of sexual violence have been and are committed against women. Women and girls "are exposed not only to the violence and devastation that accompany any war but also to forms of violence directed specifically at women on account of their gender."(1) For centuries, wartime rape was perceived as an inevitable consequence of war. Even today, in an era where global consciousness around human rights, specifically the rights of women, has risen, survivors of sexual violence are largely denied redress: there is widespread impunity for these crimes where perpetrators go unpunished and victims are denied any form of reparation. Sexual violence, including rape, is used as a weapon of war - it is used deliberately to demoralize and destroy the opposition and is used to provide ‘entertainment’ and ‘fuel’ for soldiers as part of the very machinery of war.(2) Perhaps the most compelling example of the crime of sexual slavery and the denial of justice to victims was the system of institutionalized sexual slavery used by the Japanese Imperial Army before and during World War II and subsequent denials of responsibility for the system by the Japanese government. The women forced into sexual servitude were euphemistically known as "comfort women".(3) Up to 200,000 "comfort women" were sexually enslaved by the Japanese Imperial Army from around 1932 to the end of World War II.
    [Show full text]
  • Sexual Violence and Armed Conflict: United Nations Response
    Women2000 Sexual Violence and Armed Conflict: United Nations Response Published to Promote the Goals of the Beijing Declaration and the Platform for Action April 1998 UNITED NATIONS Division for the Advancement of Women Department of Economic and Social Affairs Introduction Sexual violence during armed conflict is not a new phenomenon. It has existed for as long as there has been conflict. In her 1975 book Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape, Susan Brownmiller presented stark accounts of rape and other sexual atrocities that have been committed during armed conflict throughout history. While historically very few measures have been taken to address sexual violence against women committed during armed conflict, it is not true to say that there has always been complete silence about the issue. Belligerents have often capitalized upon the abuse of their women to garner sympathy and support for their side, and to strengthen their resolve against the enemy. Usually, the apparent concern for these women vanishes when the propaganda value of their suffering diminishes, and they are left without any prospect of redress. It is true to say that the international community has, for a long time, failed to demonstrate a clear desire to do something about the problem of sexual violence during armed conflict. The turning point came in the early 1990s as a result of sexual atrocities committed during the conflict in the former Yugoslavia, and it seems that finally, the issue has emerged as a serious agenda item of the international community. Many of the steps taken to address Towards the end of 1992, the sexual violence against women during world was stunned by reports of armed conflict have occurred within the sexual atrocities committed framework of the United Nations.
    [Show full text]
  • Victims and TJ
    University of Birmingham Masculinity and male survivors of wartime sexual violence Clark, Janine DOI: 10.1080/14678802.2017.1338422 Document Version Peer reviewed version Citation for published version (Harvard): Clark, J 2017, 'Masculinity and male survivors of wartime sexual violence: a Bosnian case study', Conflict, Security and Development, vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 287-311. https://doi.org/10.1080/14678802.2017.1338422 Link to publication on Research at Birmingham portal Publisher Rights Statement: Checked for eligibility: 08/06/2017 “This is an Accepted Manuscript of an article published by Taylor & Francis in Conflict, Security and Development on 4th July 2017, available online: http://www.tandfonline.com/10.1080/14678802.2017.1338422 General rights Unless a licence is specified above, all rights (including copyright and moral rights) in this document are retained by the authors and/or the copyright holders. The express permission of the copyright holder must be obtained for any use of this material other than for purposes permitted by law. •Users may freely distribute the URL that is used to identify this publication. •Users may download and/or print one copy of the publication from the University of Birmingham research portal for the purpose of private study or non-commercial research. •User may use extracts from the document in line with the concept of ‘fair dealing’ under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (?) •Users may not further distribute the material nor use it for the purposes of commercial gain. Where a licence is displayed above, please note the terms and conditions of the licence govern your use of this document.
    [Show full text]
  • The Effects of Nuclear War
    The Effects of Nuclear War May 1979 NTIS order #PB-296946 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 79-600080 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D C, 20402 — Foreword This assessment was made in response to a request from the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations to examine the effects of nuclear war on the populations and economies of the United States and the Soviet Union. It is intended, in the terms of the Committee’s request, to “put what have been abstract measures of strategic power into more comprehensible terms. ” The study examines the full range of effects that nuclear war would have on civilians: direct effects from blast and radiation; and indirect effects from economic, social, and politicai disruption. Particular attention is devoted to the ways in which the impact of a nuclear war would extend over time. Two of the study’s principal findings are that conditions would con- tinue to get worse for some time after a nuclear war ended, and that the ef- fects of nuclear war that cannot be calculated in advance are at least as im- portant as those which analysts attempt to quantify. This report provides essential background for a range of issues relating to strategic weapons and foreign policy. It translates what is generally known about the effects of nuclear weapons into the best available estimates about the impact on society if such weapons were used. It calls attention to the very wide range of impacts that nuclear weapons would have on a complex industrial society, and to the extent of uncertainty regarding these impacts.
    [Show full text]
  • Power, Responsibility, and Sexually Violent War Tactics: a Theoretical and Empirical Analysis of Rape During Civil War Jennifer L
    University of Wisconsin Milwaukee UWM Digital Commons Theses and Dissertations August 2017 Power, Responsibility, and Sexually Violent War Tactics: a Theoretical and Empirical Analysis of Rape During Civil War Jennifer L. Clemens University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Follow this and additional works at: https://dc.uwm.edu/etd Part of the International Relations Commons, and the Women's Studies Commons Recommended Citation Clemens, Jennifer L., "Power, Responsibility, and Sexually Violent War Tactics: a Theoretical and Empirical Analysis of Rape During Civil War" (2017). Theses and Dissertations. 1597. https://dc.uwm.edu/etd/1597 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by UWM Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of UWM Digital Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. POWER, RESPONSIBILITY, AND SEXUALLY VIOLENT WAR TACTICS: A THEORETICAL AND EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS OF RAPE DURING CIVIL WAR by Jennifer Clemens A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Political Science at University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee August 2017 POWER, RESPONSIBILITY, AND SEXUALLY VIOLENT WAR TACTICS: A THEORETICAL AND EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS OF RAPE DURING CIVIL WAR by Jennifer Clemens The University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, 2017 Under the Supervision of Dr. Shale Horowitz Broadly, this dissertation asks why rape? In address, this research posits a leadership preference-based strategic theory of rape during war; marking the first large-N, quan- titative exploration of leadership preferences on the use of rape in civil war. Using an original dataset, preferences of armed group leaders are evaluated against the level of rape across all civil conflicts between 1980 - 2009.
    [Show full text]
  • Sexual Violence in Wartime and Peacetime: Violence Against Women in the 20St Century
    Volume 19 | Issue 5 | Number 9 | Article ID 5552 | Mar 01, 2021 The Asia-Pacific Journal | Japan Focus Sexual Violence in Wartime and Peacetime: Violence Against Women in the 20st Century Seiya Morita, translated and with an introduction by Caroline Norma top historians of the military “comfort women” scheme of the Second World War achieved a Abstract: In this article, translated and research paradigm shift in the second decade abridged (with an introduction) by Caroline of the twenty-first century. This shift was Norma, Morita advances a view of the “comfort perceptible in the 2018 English-translated women” system not simply as an isolated war monograph Denying the Comfort Women: The crime, but as an extreme symptom ofJapanese State's Assault on Historical Truth,1 institutionalised, pervasive and persistent and reached full shape in two subsequent violence against women that extends tovolumes: the first by Kim Puja 2018 (written peacetime as well as wartime. Norma argues with co-author Kim Yon) and the second by that Morita’s paper, first published in 1999, Yoshimi Yoshiaki in 2019. This shift of the past prefigures a “feminist turn” in interpretation of three years relates to how the ‘comfort women’ the comfort women system that has more scheme is epistemologically understood. In recently been embraced by Yoshimi Yoshiaki, other words, what do we consider the scheme Kim Puja and other scholars and activists. Both to have historically comprised? In early work in Norma and Morita argue that the comfort the 1990s, including by Yoshimi, it was women system can only be understood in the understood to comprise an extraordinary context of ingrained societal attitudes towards wartime scheme of trafficking and forced women, and that it is therefore closely related detention of women for military sexual slavery, to phenomena such as pornography and the very much distinct from “regular” peacetime commercial sex industry.
    [Show full text]
  • Variation in Sexual Violence During War
    Variation in Sexual Violence during War ELISABETH JEAN WOOD Sexual violence during war varies in extent and takes distinct forms. In some con- flicts, sexual violence is widespread, yet in other conflicts—including some cases of ethnic conflict—it is quite limited. In some conflicts, sexual violence takes the form of sexual slavery; in others, torture in detention. I document this variation, particularly its absence in some conflicts and on the part of some groups. In the conclusion, I explore the relationship between strategic choices on the part of armed group leadership, the norms of combatants, dynamics within small units, and the effectiveness of military discipline. Keywords: sexual violence; rape; political violence; human rights; war While sexual violence occurs in all wars, it occurs to varying extent and takes distinct forms. During the conflict in Bosnia-Herzegovina, the sexual abuse of Bosnian Muslim women by Bosnian Serb forces was so systematic and wide- spread that it comprised a crime against humanity under international law. In Rwanda, the widespread rape of Tutsi women comprised a form of genocide, according to the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda. Yet sexual violence in some conflicts is remarkably limited, despite wide- spread violence against civilians. Sexual violence is relatively limited even in some cases of ethnic conflict that include the forced movement of ethnic popu- lations; the conflicts in Israel/Palestine and Sri Lanka are examples. Some I am grateful for research support from the Yale Center for International and Area Studies and the Santa Fe Institute, and for research assistance from Margaret Alexander, Laia Balcells, Karisa Cloward, Kade Finnoff, Amelia Hoover, Michele Leiby, Amara Levy-Moore, Meghan Lynch, Abbey Steele, and Tim Taylor.
    [Show full text]
  • Violent Conflict and Gender Inequality
    Violent Conflict and Gender Inequality: An Overview Downloaded from Mayra Buvinic † Monica Das Gupta † Ursula Casabonne † Philip Verwimp Violent conflict, a pervasive feature of the recent global landscape, has lasting impacts on human capital, and these impacts are seldom gender neutral. Death and destruction alter http://wbro.oxfordjournals.org/ the structure and dynamics of households, including their demographic profiles and tradi- tional gender roles. To date, attention to the gender impacts of conflict has focused almost exclusively on sexual and gender-based violence. We show that a far wider set of gender issues must be considered to better document the human consequences of war and to design effective postconflict policies. The emerging empirical evidence is organized using a framework that identifies both the differential impacts of violent conflict on males and females (first-round impacts) and the role of gender inequality in framing adaptive re- at International Monetary Fund on February 28, 2013 sponses to conflict (second-round impacts). War’s mortality burden is disproportionately borne by males, whereas women and children constitute a majority of refugees and the displaced. Indirect war impacts on health are more equally distributed between the genders. Conflicts create households headed by widows who can be especially vulnerable to intergenerational poverty. Second-round impacts can provide opportunities for women in work and politics triggered by the absence of men. Households adapt to conflict with changes in marriage and fertility, migration, investments in children’s health and school- ing, and the distribution of labor between the genders. The impacts of conflict are hetero- geneous and can either increase or decrease preexisting gender inequalities.
    [Show full text]
  • Causes, Practices and Effects of Wars Mike Wells Series Editor: Allan Todd
    History for the IB Diploma Causes, Practices and Effects of Wars Mike Wells Series editor: Allan Todd Cambridge University Press’s mission is to advance learning, knowledge and research worldwide. Our IB Diploma resources aim to: • encourage learners to explore concepts, ideas and topics that have local and global significance • help students develop a positive attitude to learning in preparation for higher education • assist students in approaching complex questions, applying critical-thinking skills and forming reasoned answers. cambridge university press Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo, Delhi, Tokyo, Mexico City Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521189316 © Cambridge University Press 2011 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published 2011 Printed in Dubai at Oriental Press A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library ISBN 978-0-521-18931-6 Dedication To Kate, Julia and Oliver Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. This material
    [Show full text]