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Cultural Christians and Christianity in China

Cultural Christians and Christianity in China

CULTURAL AND IN

BY KA LUN LEUNG

While the authorities continue to arrest and imprison priests and evangelists involved in China's unsanctioned churches, academics have become the social spokesmen for a they do not personally profess. Ka Lun Leung describes the social background of this phe- nomenon.

In the mid-1990s, a debate arose in 's religious cir- cles over "." The debate focused on whether or not this mainland group of so-called or self-proclaimed "Cultural Christians" were authentic Christians, and over the difference between the Christianity they expounded and the Christianity handed down through history. What are "Cultural Christians?" What kind of social phe- nomenon does their existence reflect, and what does it indi- cate about Christianity's future development in China? Worshippers at a state-sanctioned in . Before drawing any conclusions about "Cultural Photo: Reuters. Christians," we need to examine the origins and development strong religious needs, and Christianity was one of the options of the phenomenon. legally available to them.Throughout the 1980s and up to the mid-, Christianity took over the role of folk in the The development of Christianity rural areas, which means that it also developed in a way simi- "Cultural Christians" as a social phenomenon first appeared lar to folk religion. Christianity's spread in rural areas exceed- during the 1980s, a golden age of growth for Christianity in ed that in urban areas, with rural Christians constituting up to China during which the number of followers exploded to 80 percent of the total Christian population in China. more than ten million within a decade.The impetus was the end of the , when the Chinese Communist in Christian government implemented its Open Door policy,allowing During this same period some intellectuals also became inter- Christians and three other to once again spread their ested in Christianity.They were people who cared about social teachings to a limited extent, and allowing the reopening of and cultural development, and hoped through a comparison churches that had been closed for more than ten years. Many of Chinese and to determine the for people disappointed with social conditions turned to religious China's backward development and explore possible directions faith, and many young people were drawn to churches out of for the future.The questions they raised included:Why did the curiosity and of the West. Urban churches were feudal period last so long in China? Why did cruel and anti- unable to accommodate the masses of worshippers. intellectual movements such as the Cultural Revolution occur As for rural areas, the development of Christianity was even in China? This concern for global cultural trends and compar- more astonishing. One of the reasons was that traditional isons between East and West became common in intellectual Chinese religions were still banned under the government's circles, to the point of becoming a new intellectual movement policy of "overthrowing feudal superstition," but peasants had referred to as "cultural fever."

to as "Christian fever."to as"Christian becameanewChristianity intellectualculturaltrend referred embodiment of Eventually discussionof Western culture. andsaw astheessenceand Christianity on pure Christianity, use toChina?" They culture focused rather than onChristian beofany "CanChristianity matists whoasked thequestion, were lessinterested were inthereligious aspects.They prag- astheroot of standing onChristianity and Western culture, they basedtheirunder- For that , tural development. about stemmedfrom theirconcerns China'scul- Christianity unable toprevent someonesettinghimselfupasagod. ofatranscendentGodmadethem that Chinesepeople'slack believed LiuXiaobo, Oneintellectual, ed by Chinesepeople. oflaw andrule humanrights socovet- , the democracy, pillarof the spiritual Western andtheprogenitor of was Christianity Intheirview, as attributable toChristianity. andthe West'snating inConfucianism, opennessandaffluence saw culture.They Christian China'sfeudal origi- backwardness andto WesternChinese culture asConfucianculture, culture as standing of they reductivelyWestern referred to culture, n hooia set.I diin thecontentoftheir dis- Inaddition, and theological aspects. focusing instead onitsphilosophical ical andpracticalaspects, androutinelysive on Christianity neglecteditshistor- research they outfragmentary rather tendedtocarry thancomprehen- Infact, intoChristianity. goaloftheirresearch not theprimary but itwas was quiteclearthat thisconcern tual civilization, tohelpestablishthrough theirresearch Chinesesociety'sspiri- andhope still have asignificant for degree culture, ofconcern forout ofaconcern thefuture might ofChineseculture.They inthe1980s from theintellectualswhoembracedChristianity multiplied tomore thanthirty. centers, research andeven stand-aloneChristian centers, religious research organizationsresearch openingreligious studiescoursesand Inthe1990s thenumber ofuniversities and other advantages. among totravel opportunities Chinese researchers overseas, andgave centersindevelopingland research plans, research tooktheinitiative tocooperate withmain- subsidies, research inEurope andNorth naries offeredAmerica free resources and andtheologicalsemi- financialvide enormous aid; they were willingtopro- revival studiesinChina, ofChristian andHongKong) exhibitedtremendous interest inthe inthe BecauseChristians Westticular market . (including hadpar- onChristianity andresearch territory, uncharted vast, was a having longbeenbanned, On theotherhandreligion, oftheirmarket hadlostmuch value. asMarxistresearch, such covered inuniversity philosophy departments, andhistory thetraditionaltopics thisperiod During needs andinterest. but rather arose from scholarly direction ofChineseculture), was notontheculturalside(thefuturetheir mainconcern But joinedinonthediscourseoverber ofscholars Christianity. begantoincrease andagrowing markedly, Christianity num- thescholarlycommunity's interest in At theendof1980s, researchonChristianity Scholarly The interest theseintellectualsdeveloped toward Because theseintellectualspossessedonly abasicunder- These academic religious researchers wereThese academicreligious researchers clearly different Party members are notallowed tohave religious beliefs. have and beenacceptedasmembersoftheCommunist Party, they might ifmany were goodstudentsintheiryouth, of all, First ars cannoteasily openly identifythemselves asbelievers. activities. totake in church had anopportunity part onoverseasamong scholars study programs who orexchange especially influenced by contactwithoverseas Christians, and inothercasesitwas of personalfeelings andconvictions, Insomecasesfaith cameabout asaresult genuine Christians. bothkindsincludepeoplewhohave become pure research, oracademics engaged in aboutintellectuals concerned culture, and have even we converted talkabout tothefaith.Whether haveteachings gradually developed aninterest inChristianity those peoplewhothrough theircontactandstudy ofChristian that is We cannot neglectmentioningathirdkindofperson: Underground Christianconverts pens ofthesescholars. couldonlyChristianity beobtainedthrough thewords and thepublic's knowledge of apart from goingtochurch, words, Inother assumed thepublic role ofreligious spokespersons. for that reason academicsincreasingly bansandcontrols; such but academicsfaced no newspapers orthebroadcast media), their beliefsinpublic places(whetherinpublic orin forums andreligious believers were notallowed tointroducestores, organizationsChristian book couldnotbeboughtinordinary bookspublished by believers remained relatively strict, Sincethegovernment's controls ofreligious religious studies. andmostwere theproducts ofacademicsengaged in readers, bothphilosophicalandfor general books relating toreligion, more andmore bookstores carried thisperiod During ited. theirambitwas notgreatly lim- and publication withinChina, orinwriting withoverseas ofexchanges in terms academics, andwhether given increasingly greater room for movement, from the1990sacademicswere drive toward openreforms, but duetothemajor escape politicalpressure at thebeginning; of thesecondtypethanfirst type. andat present there are many more people entiated over time, but they becamemore clearly differ- people intheearly stages, There was considerable overlap between thesetwo kinds of of outpure research carries Western religion asaprofession. who andthesecondisscholar Chinese societyandculture, for outofaconcern intellectual whostudiesChristianity land. intoapoliticalno-man's- ofblundering withlessrisk tions, ofthe and research West was safer oflocalcondi- thanresearch was saferconceptual research thanon-the-ground research; purely Intheirwork at universities institutes, orresearch . studiesasaprofession regarded Christian researchers anda mostoftheseacademic Because ofthesedifferences, comprehensive answers for Chinesesocietyandculture. claimednoaspiration forgrasp oflocaltopics.They proposing withlittlestudy oflocalconditionsandeven less thought, cussions was for boundby themostpart Western theological ne hn' urn oiia icmtne,theseschol- politicalcircumstances, Under China'scurrent The turning ofacademicstowardThe turning religious studiesdidnot thefirst isthe Here we have examinedtwo kindsofpeople:

THE CALL OF THE SACRED 29 CHINA RIGHTS FORUM NO.4, 2003

Secondly,as believers it would be difficult for them to contin- pose of the faith is to acquire an ontological identity,at most ue their research and study of Christianity at the or to improve one's character, and has no relation to one's cultur- research institute, because in the view of the government only al or social role or work.This relegation of religious faith to atheists can teach religion without bias; as a person with reli- the purely private sphere is in fact a throwback to the attitude gious faith would automatically be regarded as biased, he of traditional Chinese scholars toward religion - those who would probably lose his position.Thirdly,the mass of China's moved from into Daoism, and in the public Christians still come from the grass roots levels, and include sphere performed their Confucian role, while only in their disproportionate numbers of women, elderly and illiterates, private life practicing Daoism. and doctrinal standards in churches are generally poor; many The interesting thing is that in spite of the title of "Cultural intellectuals are not willing to join such a church, and main- Christian," these believers actually in a sense go against both tain their distance out of embarrassment at being associated culture and ; that is to say,they suppress their religious with such people. beliefs into a purely personal and internal concern, with no A minority of intellectual Christians conduct their own relation to their public life. Religious faith becomes nothing small fellowship and study groups, but the majority simply more than a set of life views and values, and creates no conflict cultivate their faith privately,avoid participating in any with political ideology.This writer knows quite a church-related social organizations, and are not willing to lose few of these Christians; they are not willing to openly admit their social position for the sake of their beliefs. their beliefs to others, nor do they withdraw from the Party.

Worshippers at an unidentified housechurch. Source: www.chinahousechurch.org.

What is a "Cultural Christian"? They continue to maintain their positions and every kind of With the above historical background, it is easier to determine political advantage, and they say,"After I retire I'll start going what a "Cultural Christian" actually is. to church." First of all, a Cultural Christian mainly refers to someone Secondly,there are some scholars who focus on who has accepted Christian beliefs, but who for a number of Christianity as a research topic who refer to themselves as practical reasons is unwilling to join a church, and who feels "Cultural Christians." They do not have a concealed Christian uncomfortable among self-organized Christian groups. In faith, but they consider themselves "associates" of order to rationalize their religious choice, and in order to Christianity because of their interest in the philosophy and maintain distance from ordinary Christians, such people refer of Christianity and acceptance of a certain amount to themselves as "Cultural Christians," as opposed to "Church of Christian thought, such as the and teachings Christians." of .Why do they consider themselves "associates"? These Cultural Christians take their genuine religious faith What benefit do they derive from it? The main reason is and make it entirely a matter of personal , with no that they can present themselves publicly as spokespersons relationship to their public life and activities.The main pur- for Christianity. have torepresent theright Christianity. whoare notbelievers ofChristianity accept that researchers rejects aspects. itssupernatural nothing more thanasocialorculturalphenomenonand religion into whilethesecondshrinks and socialrelevance, assiduously privatizes hisfaith andremoves religion's cultural are differentiatedChristian" otherinthat thefirst from each culture.Christian fromwith theirequating arises Christianity Christians" designation ofthemselves as"Cultural nomenon.Their asonly asocial phe- contentandseeChristianity towhat hascomedownreferring through Western history. have for todefine themselves Christianity theright without appropriate.They proclaim nationalism andstress that Chinese philosophy ofChristian that areand canaccepttheportions expoundedby Christianity the to acceptthehistorical West, the difference between thetwo inthat theformerdonothave Christians." opposed totraditional"Church see These scholars from theeducated but "Christians class"as are "Christians," andthereply theytives receive ofChristianity, isthat thesealso puzzlement over whypeoplehave such becomerepresenta- Quite afew overseasChristianity. have Christians expressed memberorbelievera church tobecomeaspokesperson for Itisquitearare phenomenonfor apersonwhoisnot scholars. society at large are by regardingformed Christianity these have andasaresult theviews few of avenues ofexpression, members inpublic life church andbeliever, Christian of therelatively low intellectualstandardsoftheaverage and education.Apart from expressing for theirsupport gov- and education.Apart notjustpolitics been eradicated from allspheres ofpublic life, religion has and inpracticalterms in politicsandeducation, will pay socialcostsinmany respects. personwhoopenly proclaims hisfaith ing inpromotions.A for example hittingaglassceil- spheres (includingacademia), they are boundtofacethat invarious party, discrimination are notallowed andChristians by asingleparty, tojoin is ruled becauseChina ofreligious believers, political andsocialrights China'sconstitutionguaranteesthe in many forms.Although directmuch persecutionbut rather open and subtleprejudice face andthat what today Christians isnotso ination inChina, isstillsubjecttoconsiderablecan seethat Christianity discrim- From thiswe affecting theirwork ortheir politicalprivileges. from comingintodirect conflictwiththeir public life and itintoamysticalshrink religion inorder toprevent theirfaith asapositive character religion and original take Christianity's who donotdare toopenly proclaim theirreligious faith.They China. inmodern Christianity reflects thecircumstanceof the first orthesecondtype, ofeither The appearanceintheform of"CulturalChristians," "Cultural Christians"andthefutureofChristianityinChina China's constitutionprohibits theinvolvement ofreligion hswie sataiinlCrsinblee,andcannot believer, isatraditionalChristian This writer thefirst andsecondtypeof"Cultural In summation, for reject Christianity's themostpart These "Christians" andbecause becauseofpoliticalprejudice, As notedbefore, The first type of Cultural Christian iscomposedofpeople The first typeofCulturalChristian Translated by StacyMosher the powerful against thepowerless. In thisway nationalism hasbecomeatoolofsuppression for todeclare aChineseversionand claimtheright ofChristianity. ignore theexistenceoftensmillionsChineseChristians Likewise usenationalism asareason to scholars dent voices. ism toprevent foreign initspersecutionofdissi- intervention can seetoday that theofficial usesnational- Three SelfChurch foreign but hegemony, for hegemony.We rationalizing internal Nationalism isnolongeratoolfor staving off alized groups. government's continued unreasonable suppression ofmargin- force withinChinafor fighting offoutsideinterference inthe Buttoday nationalism hasbecomethemain and colonialism. strength toChineseinopposing spiritual Western imperialism ety. difficult for themtodevelop any influence inculture andsoci- believers are unable itis significantly toparticipate insociety, Since aspeasants. such people whoare already marginalized, religion for is onlyConsequently, themostpart able toattract religion willbemarginalized asamatter ofcourse. sons. demics whostudy take uptherole Christianity ofspokesper- that aca- itisnotsurprising express theirviews inpublic life, are notallowed Christians inwhich to these circumstances, Under provosts are non-Christians. oftheologicalseminaries Likewise itiswidely known that deputy as secretarygeneral. especially poststhat holdreal power such Three SelfChurch, toeverynon-Christians level ofthehierarchyofficial thegovernment appoints Infact, speak oractfor themselves. overwhelmingly are thecasethatnotallowed Christians to InChinaitis but actsasaspokesperson forchurch thechurch. have novoice insocialethics. China'sChristian's policy orthepracticeofforced abortions. cannot voiceChristians oppositiontotheofficial one-child For example, thegovernment's tocriticize policies. teria religious believers cannotusereligious cri- policies, ernment For avery longtimenationalism hasservedasasourceof withatheismIn acountry asoneofitsfounding principles, doesnotbelongtoa The secondtypeofCulturalChristian

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