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MODULE 2:
ROLE OF NGOS IN PROTECTING HUMAN RIGHTS - CASE STUDIES OF SOME INTERNATIONAL NGOs
Component I(A) - Personal Details:
Role Name Affiliation Principal Investigator Prof. (Dr.) Ranbir Singh Vice Chancellor, National Law University, Delhi Co-Principal Investigator Prof. (Dr.) G.S.Bajpai Registrar, National Law University, Delhi Paper Coordinator Prof. (Dr.) Arvind Tiwari Dean, School of Law, Rights and Constitutional Governance, Tata Institute of Social Sciences (TISS) Content Writer / Author Ms. Saumya Uma Assistant Professor, Maharashtra National Law University (MNLU) Mumbai Content Reviewer Prof. (Dr.) Arvind Tiwari Dean, School of Law, Rights and Constitutional Governance, Tata Institute of Social Sciences (TISS)
Component I(B) - Description of Module:
Subject Law Paper Criminal Justice and Human Rights Unit IV: Role of NGOs / Civil Society in Protecting Human Rights Module title Role of NGOs in Protecting Human Rights – Case Studies of Some International NGOs Module ID Learning Objectives • To understand the work of international NGOs • To familiarize with some prominent international NGOs and their strategies, approaches and activities on human rights • To comprehend the interface between international NGOs and the United Nations in protecting human rights Pre-requisites An overview of the work of human rights NGOs Key words INGOs, human rights, campaign, advocacy, development, ECOSOC status
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1. INTRODUCTION
NGOs play an increasingly significant role in upholding human rights, and in implementing human rights standards in the present context. An international NGO (INGO) has similar vision, mission and mandate as national and state level NGOs; however, their sphere of work cuts across geographical borders, as their work extends to many countries and country-specific human rights issues. The previous module has provided an overview of the work of human rights NGOs. In the present module, we will study more closely the work of selected INGOs, and understand the interface between INGOs and the United Nations in protecting and promoting human rights.
As discussed in the last module, some NGOs are operational – aimed at implementing various developmental projects and operations in each country, while others are advocacy-based – focusing on law and policy-making in various countries. Many INGOs have components / wings / departments of both approaches, which they implement within the countries where they work.
Background:
Amnesty International was founded in 1961 by British lawyer Peter Benenson. Mr. Benenson was shocked and angry when two Portuguese students were jailed for raising a toast to freedom. He expressed his thoughts and feelings through an article titled ‘The Forgotten Prisoners’ in a newspaper called Observer, and launched a campaign in support of the students.1 The article focused on worldwide practices of torture, illegal detention, extra judicial killings and imprisonment of individuals who expressed political viewpoints contrary to the government in power. In other words, the article illustrated how governments around the world were violating the standards set by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The article received a tremendous positive response all over the world, and was reprinted in many newspapers across several countries. When this happened, he realized that people from different parts of the world could unite on issues pertaining to justice and freedom. This led to the birth of the Amnesty International – a movement for social change. In 1961, it was called ‘Appeal for Amnesty’ but by September 1962, it came to be called ‘Amnesty International’. What started as an appeal then came to be transformed into a global movement working to protect and promote human rights.
1 Peter Benenson. ‘The Forgotten Prisoners’, The Observer, 28 May 1961, available at https://www.theguardian.com/uk/1961/may/28/fromthearchive.theguardian
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Focus Areas:
• In the initial decade (1960s), the focus area of Amnesty International was ‘prisoners of conscience’. It campaigned for releasing political prisoners – those who were imprisoned by governments due to their political thoughts and activities which were in opposition to the government in power, provided such thoughts and opinions did not advocate violence. • In the 1970s, its mandate expanded to include ‘fair trial’, opposing long detention without trial, and custodial torture. It also focused on prisoners’ rights, illegal detention, custodial torture, and thereafter on death penalty. • In the 1980s, its work on refugees became very visible, as it sought to make interventions on large scale displacement due to war and famine leading to the refugee crisis. • In the 1990s, while retaining its focus on prisoners of conscience, fair trial and refugees, Amnesty International brought attention to human rights violations that were being committed on specific groups of people, including refugees, racial / ethnic / religious minorities, women, those executed and those prisoners who were on death row. • Till the 2000s, its focus was largely on civil and political rights. It came under considerable criticism for ignoring social, economic and cultural rights. After 2000, with the new challenges posed by globalization, Amnesty International expanded its mandate to include social, economic and cultural rights, and started addressing issues such as corporate accountability, sexual and reproductive rights, decriminalizing sex work, armed conflict, arms control, rights of indigenous people and freedom of expression.
Countries of Operation:
In the 1960s, soon after its establishment, Amnesty International started working in three regions of the world – communist, capitalist and developing. By mid-1960s, it set up an International Secretariat and an International Executive Committee to manage the activities of country offices. Today, its presence can be felt in all regions of the world. It is a global movement consisting of more than 30 lakhs of supporters, members and activists across the world. In 2015, it documented the state of human rights in 160 countries, including India. While the basic mandate of the NGO is determined internationally, country offices also take on issues that are specific to the countries where they are situated in.
Amnesty International has an office in India, situated in Bengaluru. The focus areas of the India country office include violence against women, death penalty, pre-trial detention, business and human rights, human rights education, access to justice, rights of sex workers and justice for Sri Lanka.2
2 Kumar, S. Vijay ‘Amnesty wants U.N. probe into Sri Lanka war crimes’. The Hindu, 11 August 2012 5
Strategies & Activities:
- It investigates and researches on human rights violations and exposes them through reports. The publication of impartial and accurate reports, based on research that includes interviews with victims, concerned officials, human rights activists, media monitoring and trial observations, forms the backbone of Amnesty International’s work. - In addition to publishing reports, it also issues press releases, newsletters and information on websites. - In those countries where Amnesty International does not have a country office, it sends official missions to make insistent inquiries on the status of human rights, provided the particular country permits the organization to do so. - It initiates ‘Urgent Action’ campaigns on behalf of individuals who face a threat of human rights violations, such as those sentenced with death penalty or those detained without a trial; - It persuades and pressurizes countries and corporations to respect their obligations under international human rights law; - It initiates campaigns for the release of individuals, for protecting the rights of vulnerable communities, and for law reform through petitions, letters and protests; - It supports people’s effort at awareness-raising and public education; - It mobilizes supporters and defenders of human rights throughout the world, to stand in defence of human rights activists at the frontline.
Figure 1: A Summary of Strategies and Activities of Amnesty International
Publica on o f press Inves ga on, research, releases, newsle er, Official Mission to publica on of reports countries web informa on
Ini ates campaigns to Persuading countries mobilize public opinion and corpora ons to through media Urgent Ac on ini a ve respect interna onal conferences, le ers, human rights protests & pe ons
Supports awareness raising and human Mobilizes supporters of human rights rights educa on
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Some Important Work and Significant Achievements:
Amnesty International has been consistently researching and monitoring death penalty and executions in many countries each year. Its reports have been widely used by other INGOs as well as national and state level NGOs to raise awareness and advocate for human rights.3 Its reports have brought out issues such as the number of children and juveniles who have been awarded death penalty or executed across the world. One of its pioneering research on India was a study of Supreme Court judgments on death penalty 1950-2006.4
Amnesty International was also active in promoting the recognition of universality of human rights. It has substantially contributed to the formulation and implementation of the UN Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners, and for securing ratifications for the UN Convention on Civil and Political Rights and the UN Convention on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. Additionally, it supported and actively campaigned for the establishment of a United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (established in 1993), and an International Criminal Court (established in 2002) to prosecute individuals for war crimes, crimes against humanity, genocide and aggression.
Amnesty International was awarded a Nobel Peace Prize in 1977 for its campaign against torture, and the UN Prize in the Field of Human Rights in 1978. It has a consultative status with the United Nations, the Council of Europe, Inter-American Commission on Human Rights and UNESCO, through which it is able to influence the formation and implementation of international human rights standards. (the NGO consultative status is discussed in further detail in the latter part of this module). In the field of INGOs, Amnesty International has the longest history and the most widespread recognition.
Financing:
Amnesty International receives fees and donations through its members across the world, who are more than 30 lakh in number. However, that alone may not fully meet the expenses incurred by the NGO. Its policy is not to accept donations from governments or governmental organizations, so that it may retain full independence. It also steers clear of funds from political parties, religious bodies and corporations.
3 For more details, see Amnesty International, https://www.amnesty.org/en/search/?sort=relevance&q=DEATH+SENTENCES+AND+EXECUTIONS+IN&contentType=2564 &documentType=Report
4 Amnesty International, India: Lethal Lottery: The Death Penalty In India - A Study Of Supreme Court Judgments In Death Penalty Cases 1950-2006, ASA 20/007/2008, 2 May 2008, available at https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa20/007/2008/en/
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Criticism:
As a logical corollary to its critical analysis of the status of human rights and policies and practices in many countries, the concerned governments have criticized Amnesty International, particularly for its partisan (biased) approach and its disregard for security issues while focusing on human rights violations.
Additionally, Amnesty International has faced criticism on a number of issues. In February 2010, it suspended Ms. Gita Sahgal, who was heading its gender unit, after she criticised Amnesty for its links with Moazzam Begg, director of Cageprisoners – whom she termed as "Britain's most famous supporter of the Taliban".5 Amnesty’s suspension of Ms. Sahgal was largely seen as a retaliatory move to suppress her criticism from within the organization, although Amnesty clarified that it was not so.6 It has also been criticized for maintaining poor labour standards within its organization, through excessive pay for management and a low level of protection for its overseas staff.
3. HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH
Background:
Human Rights Watch (HRW) is an international NGO that engages in research and advocacy on human rights issues in varied countries across the world. It was established in 1978 in the name of ‘Helsinki Watch’, to monitor the implementation of Helsinki Accords of 1975 which called for cooperative and respectful relations between the Communist bloc and Western countries. Americas Watch was established in 1981, which addressed the commission of war crimes and violation of international humanitarian law both by governments and rebel groups in Central America. Subsequently Asia Watch was established in 1985, Africa Watch in 1988, Middle East Watch in 1989. Thereafter all ‘Watch Committees’ were brought together under the umbrella of Human Rights Watch. Today, Human Rights Watch has its headquarters is in New York, and country offices in many European, and some African and Asian countries, notably in Nairobi and Tokyo. It has approximately 400 staff members across the world, consisting of advocates, activists, journalists, academics and country experts.
Focus Areas:
Issues raised by HRW in its reports and in its campaigns include rights of vulnerable groups such as children, the disabled, women, LGBT, migrants and refugees. In addition, it engages with civil and political rights issues such as terrorism and anti-terrorism, arms control, free speech, torture, social and cultural rights such as environment and health as well as human rights abuses related to economic activities of business, which could encompass a violation of both sets of rights. HRW uses international human rights and humanitarian law standards while critiquing abuses by state and non-state actors, and promotes international justice.
5 See Statement by Gita Sahgal on Leaving Amnesty International, 13 May 2010, available at http://www.nybooks.com/articles/2010/05/13/statement-gita-sahgal-leaving-amnesty-internationa/ 6 Bright, Martin, "Amnesty International, Moazzam Begg and the Bravery of Gita Sahgal", The Spectator, 7 February 2010 8
In its work on free speech, HRW administers the Hellman / Hammet grants which provide financial assistance to writers all over the world who are persecuted for their work, or silenced for speaking about human rights violations. It raises awareness of such writers. Further, HRW is a member of the International Freedom of Expression Exchange – an international network of NGOs that monitor censorship.
Similarly, its work on human rights defenders is also noteworthy. Each year, it presents a Human Rights Defenders Award to activists who demonstrate leadership and courage in their work as human rights defenders. Such award winners thereafter participate in and strengthen the work of HRW in investigating and highlighting violations of human rights.
HRW is active on issues of armed conflict, arms control and implementation of international humanitarian law standards. As part of its work on this cluster of issues, HRW is one among six NGOs which established the Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers in 1998. Through its work in the International Campaign to Ban Landmines, it helped introduce the Ottawa Treaty that prohibits the use of anti-personnel landmines.
Interna onal Health Jus ce LGBT Rights Free Speech Migrants Environment Refugees Disability rights Terrorism / Counter Terrorism Children's rights Torture
Abuses by Business Houses United Na ons FOCUS AREAS OF Arms Control HRW'S WORK Women's Rights
Figure 2: Focus Areas of HRW’s Work
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Countries:
HRW has its offices in almost all regions of the world – Africa, Americas, Asia, Europe and Central Asia, Middle East and North Africa, and the United States. In 2014, its region-wise expenditure was highest in Africa, followed by Asia.7 Programmatically, in the same year, it spent maximum on women’s rights, followed by children’s rights.
Strategies, Approaches and Significant Achievements:
Helsinki Watch adopted the strategy of ‘naming and shaming’ abusive governments using media advocacy and contacts with policy makers as its tools. Now, Human Rights Watch adopts a wide range of strategies and activities in addition.
HRW investigates human rights abuses, highlights the facts widely and pressurizes governments to secure justice for the victims. Such investigative work is usually undertaken in close partnership with human rights activists in the country of focus. As in the case of Amnesty International, publication of reports is the backbone of HRW’s work. It publishes more than 100 reports and briefings on the status of human rights in atleast 90 countries. Apart from a wide dissemination of its reports through various channels, HRW also does extensive media outreach in order that its reports get coverage in local, national and international media. Coupled with this strategy, HRW meets with individual governments, the United Nations, regional groups such as the African Union and European Union, financial institutions and corporations to persuade them for changes in policy and practice that would lead to promoting and protecting human rights around the world.
The following video link would help understand the work of HRW better. This video features two Human Rights Watch investigations in 2013 - the al-Bayda massacre and the Ghouta attacks. https://youtu.be/OPTaQFGIIbA
Important reports:
HRW produces and publishes an annual World Report, in which it provides an overview of the status of human rights in each country. World Report 2016, which covers HRW’s annual review of human rights around the globe in 2015, can be accessed here: https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2016 It summarizes key human rights issues across more than 90 countries and regions in the world. It states that fear drove global developments in 2015 – fear of terror attacks and possible consequences of an influx of refugees led to violations of human rights in Europe and other regions, while fear of the use of social media for strengthening social and political movements led to the adoption of repressive laws and policies and targeting of civil society in China, Ethiopia, India and Russia. The report speaks of how human rights law should guide the responses to both sets of issues.
7 Human Rights Watch’s financial statement for year ending 2014, p. 6, available at https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/related_material/financial-statements-2014.pdf 10
Apart from the annual World Reports, HRW also publishes reports on topical issues, such as on Europe’s refugee crisis, failure to protect the fundamental right to education, children with disabilities, the water crisis, violation of labour rights by global supply chains, detention and prosecution of Tibetans in China, life under ISIS and media freedom.8 In May 2016, HRW brought out a report on India titled ‘Stifling Dissent: the Criminalization of Peaceful Expression in India’. The report is available here: https://www.hrw.org/report/2016/05/24/stifling-dissent/criminalization-peaceful-expression-india
Financing:
HRW reports that it does not accept any direct or indirect funding from governments and is financed through contributions from private individuals and foundations. It also does not accept support from any private funder that could compromise with its objectivity and independence.9 HRW states that it does not embrace political causes, is non-partisan, and maintains neutrality in armed conflict. In 2009, HRW stated that it received almost 75% of its financial support from North America, 25% from Western Europe and less than 1% from the rest of the world.10 In 2010, well known philanthropist George Soros who heads the Open Society Foundation, gave HRW a grant of US $ 100 million over a period of ten years to enable it to expand its work internationally. Till date, this is one of the largest grants received by HRW.
Criticism:
HRW has been criticized by national governments; its critical reports on Latin America have been criticized as having been influenced by the agenda of the foreign policy of USA. Allegations have also been made that in the Arab-Israeli conflict, HRW has been biased against Israel. HRW has responded to both the criticisms.
4. AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL AND HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH: SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES
Both Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch are well-known INGOs operating from Western countries, undertaking important work in documenting human rights violations and research on human rights standards. Often, the two INGOs collaborate in addressing human rights issues, as a result of which joint reports are published. The first joint report of Amnesty International and HRW, titled ‘The Rest of Their Lives: Life without Parole for Child Offenders in the United States’ was published in 2005, and is available here: https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/TheRestofTheirLives.pdf The two INGOs have also issued joint statements to international bodies. For example, they issued a joint statement to the
8 https://www.hrw.org/publications 9 https://www.hrw.org/about 10 Human Rights Watch’s financial statement for 2008, available at https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/related_material/FinancialStatements2008.pdf 11
UN Human Rights Council for creation of an international investigating mechanism for serious violations of human rights and humanitarian law committed by all parties to the conflict in Yemen.11
However, there are essential differences in their work, primarily in their structure and methods for promoting and protecting human rights across the world. Figure 3 below highlights some essential differences:
Figure 3: Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch – Some Essential Differences
Amnesty International Human Rights Watch Year of 1961 1978 establishment Headquarters London New York Activism driven Members; AI has a secretariat, but HRW is not a membership-based by its International Board is elected by movement; supporters of HRW can the membership-based International fund its work, but play no role in Council Meeting; both members determining its focus areas of work or and the secretariat together chalk the strategies it should adopt. out strategies for AI. Activism emerges from HRW’s research into human rights violations
Main activities Mass letter-writing campaigns, In depth research and detailed reports; adopting prisoners of conscience open lobby for specific governmental and campaigning for their release actions such as arrest of specific (in addition to reports) individuals and imposition of sanctions against specific countries Contents of Focus is more on specific human Focus is on extensive analysis of reports rights violations political and historical backgrounds of conflicts + details of specific human rights violations Financial Mostly from its mass membership From wealthy donors and support philanthropists
11 The letter dated 23 February 2016 is available at https://www.hrw.org/news/2016/02/23/joint-letter-hrc-create-international- investigating-mechanism-yemen 12
5. ORGANIZATION WITH A SPECIAL LEGAL STATUS - INTERNATIONAL COMMITTEE OF THE RED CROSS (ICRC)
The ICRC, established in 1863 by Henry Durrant, is perhaps one of the oldest and most well-known humanitarian organizations in the world. The ICRC and the Red Crescent Movement is a global humanitarian network, consisting of more than 8 crores of people who help those facing humanitarian crisis, including disasters, conflict, health and social problems.
Status of ICRC:
Although ICRC is popularly thought to be an INGO, in actuality, it is not. ICRC is not a governmental, inter-governmental or a non-governmental organization. As discussed in the previous module, NGOs are not established by the government; although they influence international discourse and activities related to human rights, they do not necessarily possess an official status; neither do they have an official mandate for their existence and activities, which is assigned to them by the government or inter- governmental agencies.
Inter-governmental agencies are those established by governments through a treaty or agreement, and whose members consist mainly of sovereign states. These could be international, as in the cases of the United Nations and its specialized agencies, the International Labour Organization, World Trade Organization and International Monetary Fund. They could also be regional in nature, such as the European Union, African Union, Organization of American States and South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC). In contrast to NGOs, intergovernmental agencies have a mandate for their existence, which flows from the concerned governments.
ICRC has a hybrid status, making it neither an NGO nor an intergovernmental organization. Like the INGOs, the ICRC is autonomous of governments and is an independent and neutral organization. Like the INGOs, its existence is not mandated by governments. However, unlike the INGOs, ICRC’s functions and activities, which are mainly to extend protection and provide assistance to victims of conflict, are mandated by the international community of states, and are specifically mentioned in the Geneva Conventions and their Additional Protocols, which are among the most widely acknowledged and ratified international treaties in the world. Due to this, ICRC has an international legal personality, with privileges and immunities similar to intergovernmental organizations. Since the ICRC’s privileges and immunities are widely recognized by governments, ICRC is not treated as an NGO but as an organization that works with an international legal mandate.
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The Legal Basis of ICRC’s Work:
• In contexts of international armed conflict, the four Geneva Conventions and Additional Protocol I provide a mandate to ICRC an expansive right of initiative, including to visit prisoners of war; • In contexts of non-international armed conflict, common Article 3 to the four Geneva Conventions provides a mandate to the ICRC, as a result of which it enjoys a right of humanitarian initiative; • In contexts of natural and human made disasters, internal disturbances and tension which may not fall under either category mentioned above, the ICRC’s work is mandated by the Statutes of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movements. The ICRC may offer its services to governments, which would not be considered as an interference in the country’s affairs. Accepting or rejecting the ICRC’s offer of services is the prerogative of the concerned government.
Strategies, Approaches and Significant Achievements:
ICRC’s mission is to protect the lives and dignity of victims of armed conflict and other situations of violence and to provide them with assistance.12 The ICRC also endeavours to prevent suffering by promoting and strengthening humanitarian law and universal humanitarian principles.13 ICRC’s work has a dual nature:
a) Operational – helping victims of conflict and in other contexts of violence and disaster;
b) Standard-setting – developing and promoting principles and standards of international humanitarian law
Both the areas of work are inter-linked and are reinforced by each other – the operational activities take place within the framework of humanitarian law, while the standard-setting initiative draws upon experiences derived from operational activities. The figure below illustrates ICRC’s dual nature of work:
12 https://www.icrc.org/en/who-we-are 13 ibid 14
Figure 4: Dual Nature of ICRC’s Work
Operational Activities Developing & Promoting Humanitarian Principles & Standards
ICRC has seven fundamental principles which govern and guide its work. These are • Humanity – This is the main driving principle of the ICRC based on respect for the human being. • Impartiality – This principle demands no discrimination among the people in distress. It also means that help provided must be proportionate to the degree of suffering, and the level of urgency. Impartiality also connotes the exclusion of personal bias. • Neutrality – The ICRC does not take sides in a conflict, thereby keeping everyone’s trust. The principle of neutrality forbids the ICRC from getting involved in controversies that are political, racial, religious or ideological in nature. Neutrality does not mean that the ICRC is indifferent to pain and suffering. In fact, the principle of neutrality greatly benefits the work of ICRC as it encourages all sides to a conflict to allow ICRC contact with and access to victims in distress, including prisoners of war, and to provide them with the aid required. • Independence – The ICRC is independent of national and international politics, as well as politics related to any other group that may be a party to the conflict. The principle of independence also demands that the ICRC does not get swayed by public opinion or any kind of political pressure, but makes decisions regarding its interventions based on its own objective criteria. The principle of independence helps the ICRC to accomplish its tasks with complete impartiality and neutrality. • Voluntary service – The ICRC’s work is selfless and voluntary in nature, and without expectation of any form of payment in cash or kind, but is inspired by commitment and devotion to the humanitarian cause. Voluntary service also entails motivating the next generation of workers and showing an expression of solidarity. 15
• Unity – The principle of unity means that there can be only one Red Cross or Red Crescent Society which should cover the entire territory in a country, which must be open to all. • Universality – The ICRC believes suffering is universal, and hence the response to suffering through humanitarian action should also be universal, and that the fundamental principles are universally recognized and accepted.
Figure 5: ICRC’s Fundamental Principles
Humanity
Universality Impartiality
ICRC'S FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES Unity Neutrality
Voluntary Independence service
ICRC’s humanitarian work extends to all regions of the world – Africa, Asia and Pacific, Europe and Central Asia, Middle East and The Americas. In recent times, it has had key operations in Afghanistan, Iraq, Lake Chad, Somalia, South Sudan, Syria and Yemen. Some of its efforts include the following: • It tries to secure humane treatment and conditions of all detainees, irrespective of the reasons for their arrest and grounds of detention. It also tries to establish communication between the detainees and their family members. • It addresses the issue of sexual violence in armed conflict and assists victims; • It helps to protect lives and restore livelihoods, and in restoring livelihood outcomes including adequate food, basic shelter, clothing and hygiene; • It provides health care in emergency situations; • It reduces the impact of war remnants such as landmines, unexploded bombs, shells, which continue to kill and maim people even after the end of conflict; and • It addresses the humanitarian needs of the most vulnerable migrants and their families.
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6. CONCLUSION
This module discusses the work of three important organizations that work to protect and promote human rights throughout the world – Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch and the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC). It also highlights similarities and differences in the work of Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch, and discusses how ICRC stands apart from both of them as well as other international NGOs. The important work of all three organizations in upholding human rights of all is highlighted.
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REFRENCE
1. Amnesty International, India: Lethal Lottery: The Death Penalty In India - A Study Of Supreme Court Judgments In Death Penalty Cases 1950-2006, ASA 20/007/2008, 2 May 2008, available at https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa20/007/2008/en/ 2. Benenson. Peter. ‘The Forgotten Prisoners’, The Observer, 28 May 1961, available at https://www.theguardian.com/uk/1961/may/28/fromthearchive.theguardian 3. Bright, Martin, "Amnesty International, Moazzam Begg and the Bravery of Gita Sahgal", The Spectator, 7 February 2010 4. Clark, Anne Marie (2001). Diplomacy of Conscience: Amnesty International and Changing Human Rights Norms. Princeton University Press. 5. Kumar, S. Vijay ‘Amnesty wants U.N. probe into Sri Lanka war crimes’. The Hindu, 11 August 2012 6. Rabben, Linda (2001). "Amnesty International: Myth and Reality". AGNI (Boston, Massachusetts: Boston University)