Renewable Energy 127 (2018) 134e144

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Renewable Energy

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Electricity consumption and RES plants in : Typologies of regional units

* Grigorios L. Kyriakopoulos a, , Garyfallos Arabatzis b, Panagiotis Tsialis c, Konstantinos Ioannou d a National Technical University of , School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Electric Power Division, Photometry Laboratory, 9 Heroon Polytechniou Street, 15780, Athens, Greece b Democritus University of Thrace, Department of Forestry and Management of the Environment and Natural Resources, Pantazidou 193, 68200, , Greece c Directorate of General Transport & Communications, Technical Department, of Sterea Ellada, Regional Unit of Fokida, 1st km N.R. Amfissa-, 33100, Amfissa, Greece d Hellenic Agricultural Organization - “DEMETER”, Forest Research Institute, Vasilika, , 57006, Greece article info abstract

Article history: In the study two typologies of regional units in Greece were developed that were based on their energy Available online 18 April 2018 characteristics, such as electricity consumption in variable energy sectorseincluding the domestic, in- dustrial, commercial, and agriculturale as well as the number and the respective installed power of Keywords: renewable energy sources (RES) plants for electricity generation. These typologies' deployment aim at Clusters developing administrative tools that will draw the decision planning towards future energy policy in Electricity consumption Greece. The statistical methodology adopted was a hierarchical cluster analysis. Particularly, two analyses RES plants were materialized, in line to the aforementioned energy characteristics. Under this methodological Typologies Regional units framework, the hierarchical cluster analysis resulted in four clusters, each featuring different charac- teristics. Specifically, in the first analysis the first cluster consists mainly of the lowest energy con- sumption regional units, while the fourth cluster consists mainly of the highest energy consumption regional units. Besides, the second and the third cluster consist of regional units where the RES pene- tration is significant, enabling the wider energy autonomy and independence from other, mainly fossil- fuelled, sources of energy production, whereas in the fourth cluster the participative role of RES in energy production was noted as very low. © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction be attributed to an environmental and socio-economic diversifi- cation observed from regional and periodical level of analysis Nowadays, energy is a determining factor of humans' wellbeing. (indicatively): Mexico [3], China [4e7], Netherlands [8], Europe Many anthropogenic needs of contact, communication, housing, [9,10], United States [11], and Spain [12]. work, leisure, and transport are mainly satisfied through the Specifically, the RES can contribute to degradation of the na- development of sufficient energy supply at all developing and tional energy dependence through exploiting a diversified spec- developed countries. On the other hand, even though the energy trum of energy sources, thus enabling an energy security and consumption patterns show a uniform pattern, it is not such the sustainable development to be accomplished [13]. case for the energy production choices [1,2]. Indeed, there is a Moreover, the budget of investments in RES technologies was common phenomenon that the energy mix is substantially diver- incrementally increased during the last decade, being the cumu- sified from country to country, whereas this energy complexity can lative consequence of combined political pressures towards CO2 emissions reduction, and the political motives offered in increasing the RES participation rate in the national energy mixes in alignment * Corresponding author. with the design, construction, and operability phases upon these E-mail addresses: [email protected] (G.L. Kyriakopoulos), garamp@ RES technologies selected [14]. fmenr.duth.gr (G. Arabatzis), [email protected] (P. Tsialis), [email protected] Greece is a privileged country, due to its geographic position for (K. Ioannou). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.04.062 0960-1481/© 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. G.L. Kyriakopoulos et al. / Renewable Energy 127 (2018) 134e144 135 the exploitation of RES. The RES potential in Greece e mainly information, are also prevailed [35]. attributed to the favorable wind energy and solar energy conditions In the relevant literature it was also examined the relationship e has been extensively monitored and evaluated as extremely ad- between electricity consumption and the manufacturing sector in vantageous during the last three decades of measurement in Singapore [36]. It was stressed out that electricity consumption is numerous measurement stations throughout Greece. Therefore, adjusted very slowly to shocks to industrial production and this energy potential could be optimistically exploited, and Greece entrepreneurship. In parallel, entrepreneurship can stimulate can be placed among the most RES-blessed “energy-rich” countries electricity consumption, which caused industrial production. The [15]. key-factors of analysis were that not all sectors of economy are This paper is organized as follows: In chapter two An extensive evenly energy-intensive, while the dynamic pace of globalization literature review presents the current status regarding RES pro- necessitates that entrepreneurship and companies' internationali- duction and RES typologies in World, Europe and Greece. In chapter zation have to be taken into consideration in strategic energy plans, three we present the research methodology, whereas in chapter especially in developed economies [36]. four we present the results from the application of the methodol- In a similar study the energy production trends from various ogy. Finally in chapter 5 we present the conclusions from the energy sources in the U.S. electricity sector for the period application of the methodology. 2008e2012, was examined [38]. It was signified that even though the electricity production generated from coal was declined, the 2. Literature review accompanied percentage of jobs' lost were offset two times higher by the increased employment rates from the increased utilization Energy saving in all sectors of national economies, the techno- of renewables-based enamely, natural gas (mainly), solar, and logical improvements in energy production, distribution, and winde industries. These findings are noteworthy since U.S. is a consumption, as well as the energy shift from the fossil-fuelled developed economy, having a well developed energy sector that it energy production towards the RES-based energy mix consist facilitated under the principles of life cycle analysis (LCA) and it is utmost importance energy targets on a strategic managerial plan supported by an advanced electricity supply chain and by the [13,16,17]. accomplishment of economies-of-scale. The adaptability of these Τhe economic, energetic and ecological perspectives of renew- outcomes to developing , where switch of fuel types is a able fuels within a dynamic framework until 2050 showed that complex policye or at other non RES-rich geographic areas, re- these fuels have lower CO2 emissions than gasoline, but drawbacks mains questionable [38]. include the high costs of hydrogen- and electricity-driven vehicles. Besides, RES innovation and investments are necessary as a top- By 2050 it is forecasted that these costs could be reduced due to down tool to establish regional energy economy scenario, whereas technological learning effects and efficient policy measures (such as a bottom-up approach is proven more effective solution to efficient the implementation of a CO2-based tax system), though with energy flows in a region, having in mind that regional applicability limited applicability to specified crop areas. In this respect, it is of RES is mainly determined by local stakeholders and leaders. assumed that renewable fuels will only play a significant role if CO2 Given the fact that local energy markets are not autonomous, there taxes, intensified R&D and technological learning could be strate- are interconnected regions of influencing the regional and wider gically implemented [18]. European market for the development of alternative energy-driven In an international context the renewable energy sectors and technologies. Therefore, stakeholders of RES technologies is better the sharing opportunities abided in India, China, India, and Pakistan to allocate investments proportionally to different RES technologies (CIP) have been investigated [33,34]. It was shown that China and and do not rely on one type of RES, thus be exposed to less risk of India proceeded in a promising five year energy plan, while overinvesting and losing money in case of energy-projects failure Pakistan faced implementation failure in it energy plans because of [19]. economic, political, and security problems [33,34]. Nevertheless, The European renewable energy target of 27% RES involvement friendly relationship of China with Pakistan under the bilateral to the EU member states' energy system for 2030 was further agreed of China Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) and the heavy specified in the electricity generation from RES (RES-E) [20]. In a investment in Pakistani energy sector is also promising, Indeed, long-term, delivering high RES-E share in a cost-effective manner there is a vast potential of RES among the countries reviewed, necessitates considerably diversified efforts for renewables scaling- whereas energy shortage confrontation can be accomplished by up among EU member states. These efforts are also determining in mutual understanding, productive negotiations, governmental association with political reality and the governance mechanism to agreements, and enhanced trade and energy sharing relations [34]. adapt these European regulations to its state-members legislation In a wider geographical context, the linkage between these system [19]. countries' electricity consumption from renewable energy sources Generally, ongoing technological improvements of RES-E tech- and Gross Domestic Product (GDP) levels. Particularly, a sample nologies, economic scaling-up, and greater supplier competition methodology of 36 countries for the period 1990e2011 was are gradually achieving significant costs' reduction, lower CO2 developed in which it was noted an increasing trend for countries' emissions, and higher fossil fuels' savings of RES-E technologies, GDP levels and the electricity consumption from renewables, whereas the following policy implications have to be resolved especially among developed countries, where more levels of elec- regarding the RES-E effectiveness. Firstly, the costs of support the tricity consumption derived from RES was noted in comparison to social benefits induced by RES-E are especially high for some the emerging market and developing countries. In the latter an countries and technologies, while it seems that it is too late to limit anomalous nonlinear M-shape phenomenon of electricity con- those costs. Secondly, the RES-E deployment is necessitating a more sumption was denoted that can be attributed to inefficient elec- cost-effective and market-based financial instrumentation. To this trification programs using RES for developing countries, while costs end, Feed in Tariffs (FITs) is still a widely recognised benchmark for of transmission and distribution, institutional weaknesses, inap- effective policy design in support of renewables expansion [21]. In propriate policy framework upon pricing issues, legal and regula- such prosperous financial environment, the economic analysis and tory policies, as well as market performance factors e being the support policies, mainly in the forms of Feed in Tariffs (FITs), characterized by uncertainty and risk to perceived technology Tariff deficit ewhich is the fact that electricity prices are counted performance and lack of technical or commercial skills and below electricity generation costse and the policy mix of 136 G.L. Kyriakopoulos et al. / Renewable Energy 127 (2018) 134e144 representative RES in the EU context, were extensively investigated the relevant literature [24,29,30]. Particularly, a model of coordi- [25e28]. The main viewpoints of these studies are as follows: nated action among European member states was based on RES national binding targets, and a quantitative cost minimization  Regulatory Policies for the creation of a new regulatory frame- procedure, which was related to a general translog function [24]. work can provide a “prize” for economic operators that enter the Cost evaluations indicated that it is more efficient to produce RES in network, and/or produce in whole or in part RES-E. The best those countries that face lower technology costs, according to the known among these policies are the Repurchase rate (Feed in comparative advantages of their territorial localization and the Tariff), Net Metering, Green Certificates, Tradable Renewable importance of the initial RES policy efforts. Besides, the issue of Energy Certificates (TRECs), and Forced Share (Renewable how policy makers must allocate compensation among EU member Portfolio Standard). countries is highly controversial, since it is determined mainly by  Determining fiscal policies can be highly regarded by private national, socio-economic, and cultural complexities [24]. investors, while some schemes allow for refinancing activities At another regional analysis authors examined the relationship on the short-run, thus reducing the time it takes for them to between renewable and non-renewable electricity consumption recoup the initial investment. and economic development in three transition economies in the  Public investment does not involve any risk and it allows for an Baltic region, namely, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, for the period of increase in the share of renewables in total energy production. 1992e2011 [29]. It was denoted that there is a unidirectional cau- This is achieved through direct creation of infrastructure. To this sality from the economic development to renewable electricity end policy-makers adopted a mix of policies to support the consumption. This statistical analysis provided empirical evidence sector. This policy mix enables the right balance between po- that renewable electricity consumption does not appear to be the litical measures taken notwithstanding that an excessive num- driving force behind the Baltic countries' economic development, ber of policies do not always lead to significant increases in thus a decrease in the renewable electricity consumption would not generation rates, given the risk that the excessive use of policy cause a decrease in the Baltic countries' income levels. Besides, if depresses investments in RES. the governments in the Baltic countries implement conservation policies, this move is not likely to impede economic development in The FIT plays a central role in attempts to increase generation these countries [29]. from renewables in developing countries, whereas FIT policy has The association of European structural funds for sustainable become obsolete in developed countries, thus in developed coun- energy development and energy efficiency from setting renewable tries, policy effects are ambiguous. Besides, the fiscal policies and energy targets for the Baltic States after EU accession were sys- public investments have shown a positive effect on RES promotion tematically deployed [30]. The financing periods examined were [25e28]. that of 2007e2013 and 2014e2020 and it was concluded that while In investors' viewpoint two macroeconomic and one techno- European structural funds [mainly the European Regional Devel- economic models were deployed in order authors to investigate opment Fund (ERDF)] positively influenced the sustainable energy whether renewables could achieve the targets setting from EU development in the Baltic States, an increase in energy productivity 2030 Climate and Energy framework, as well as which will be the was noted eespecially in Lithuania where the highest share of re- role of the support policy scheme applied for electricity generation newables in electricity generation was reportede because of energy [22]. The authors pointed out that the aforementioned EU policies savings achieved in refurbishment of residential buildings. The could be achieved even though Europe is anticipated to play a environmental objectives derived from the Europe's 2020 strategy declining role as technology provided for the rest of the word. GDP eby then a doubling of current investment amounts is foreseene changes, employment data, investment impulses, economies of can be outlined as follows [30]: scale, energy efficiency, manufacturing competitiveness, and policy timing are determining factors of cost reduction and wider opera-  Shift towards a low-carbon economy bility of a broad portfolio of RES technologies [22].  Climate change adaptation and risk prevention and In an investments' viewpoint it has been developed a frame- management work to make an integrated analysis of the institutional demands  Environmental protection and resource efficiency influencing emerging investors in renewable electricity production.  Sustainable transportation and manipulation of issues aroused This study was conducted upon 35 cases, in which formal and in key-network infrastructures informal demands were identified and their impact on emerging  Reduction of environmental pollution investors' behaviour was investigated. In a similar study the au-  Dependence on a single fuel supplier which should offer an thors showed that besides formal institutional demands, emerging added-value service investors were influenced by their task environment and by various  Attraction of a significant amount of private investment informal demands which originated in investors' collective and  Creation a number of jobs that positively impacting the eco- internal contexts [23]. These findings provided a better under- nomic growth at the Baltic States. standing of the institutional forces that affect emerging investors in renewable electricity. The authors also adopted the entity of “policy In Eastern Europe the ongoing developments in the energy is mix” that is a portfolio designed upon a wide spectrum of diver- determined by the ways of the use of renewable energy as a share of sified policies in order to stimulate investments in renewable region's final energy consumption. This energy shared was electricity generation. To this end, new policies could handle the modelled for the years 2010 and 2011, whereas the abiding political heterogeneity of investors, opening a new panorama of informal challenges, the natural gas crisis of 2009, the lack of appropriate policy channels, and triggering investors' decisions. Therefore, legislation, and complicated administrative procedures, all created future research will further investigate the investor heterogeneity an increased volatility in the integrated promotion of RES-oriented with RES technologies by focusing on one specific technology or by patterns of energy consumption. Other obstacles of successfully comparing investors of one RES technology with those of another implementing such RES-oriented were the obsolete land register RES technology [23]. data, the lack of statistical systems in tracking biomass consump- The relationship between renewable electricity consumption tion, the low public awareness mainly due to significant lower retail and economic development, was investigated also investigated in prices of electricity among the corresponding EU average, the G.L. Kyriakopoulos et al. / Renewable Energy 127 (2018) 134e144 137

Table 1 Descriptive characteristics of clusters (First typology).

Variables Total of research sampling (51 regional units)

Min. value Мax. value Total Mean St. Dev.

Electricity consumption in the domestic sector (MWh) 21842.78 7476845.69 18454589.22 361854.69 1048708.36 Electricity consumption in the commercial sector (MWh) 15990.09 5590834.52 14782312.36 289849.26 788507.01 Electricity consumption in the industrial sector (MWh) 634.04 3246107.27 12202237.20 239259.55 580613.32 Electricity consumption in the agricultural sector (MWh) 654.10 316180.25 2727453.45 53479.48 52720.18

Variables Cluster 1 (15 regional units) Min. value Мax. value Total Mean St. Dev.

Electricity consumption in the domestic sector (MWh) 21842.78 340892.67 1617251.38 107816.76 84745.53 Electricity consumption in the commercial sector (MWh) 15990.09 640080.15 1895181.08 126345.41 159849.96 Electricity consumption in the industrial sector (MWh) 634.04 54398.33 235143.92 15676.26 14167.93 Electricity consumption in the agricultural sector (MWh) 654.10 16722.44 117952.57 7863.50 5553.23

Variables Cluster 2 (29 regional units) Min. value Мax. value Total Mean St. Dev.

Electricity consumption in the domestic sector (MWh) 62263.36 522113.50 5967655.68 205781.23 97919.73 Electricity consumption in the commercial sector (MWh) 40278.50 536087.24 4689031.59 161690.74 101687.66 Electricity consumption in the industrial sector (MWh) 6407.26 285258,4 2399873.45 82754.26 64422.38 Electricity consumption in the agricultural sector (MWh) 23732.90 125200.14 1680950.50 57963.81 25552.72

Variables Cluster 3 (4 regional units) Min. value Мax. value Total Mean St. Dev.

Electricity consumption in the domestic sector (MWh) 246269.20 1866820.34 2842734.37 710683.59 773673.03 Electricity consumption in the commercial sector (MWh) 161256.47 1480419.58 2156711.72 539177.93 629393.61 Electricity consumption in the industrial sector (MWh) 537785.96 1343859.43 3961419.69 990354.92 345476.13 Electricity consumption in the agricultural sector (MWh) 76528.41 116391.08 377880.92 94470.23 16640.46

Variables Cluster 4 (4 regional units) Min. value Мax. value Total Mean St. Dev.

Electricity consumption in the domestic sector (MWh) 162349.99 7476845.69 8026947.78 2675649.26 4159485.17 Electricity consumption in the commercial sector (MWh) 133794.41 5590834.52 6041387.97 2013795.99 3099156.74 Electricity consumption in the industrial sector (MWh) 217757.62 3246107.27 5605800.14 1868600.05 1532566.31 Electricity consumption in the agricultural sector (MWh) 73850.96 316180.25 550669.46 183556.49 122779.50

inefficient coordination between varied institutions, as well as lack  Empirical researches did yield a consensus on the causal rela- of regional planning, regulations, and incentives' adaptation in tionship between electricity consumption and economic alignment with the corresponding EU regulations upon RES [31]. growth. In this respect the European Commission's Target Electricity  Existing literature production is focused on the relationship Model (TEM) was introduced in order to integrate EU electricity between either aggregate energy consumption or aggregate markets [32]. In this study it was signified that sharing balancing output (GDP) or aggregate energy consumption and dis- and reserves is of high priority, while rewarding interconnectors for aggregated output (such as agricultural output), whereas there all services reduces barriers to expansion. In parallel, completing is no study that uses together disaggregate energy consumption the TEM ensures regulator that the gains of market integration are and disaggregate output at sub-national level. properly allocated to their sources, by providing incentives for their  Agricultural electricity consumption and agricultural produc- enhancement, while these gains are paid to interconnectors to tion are stationary process in their levels for over all regions, make the needed investment in the cross-border links more coastal regions and non-coastal regions using several panel unit commercially profitable. In parallel, energy market coupling ben- root tests. efits should exceed the cost of the required market design changes  Linear regression with fixed effects showed that an increase in and its integration perspectives. It is also emerged an imperative electricity consumption significantly stimulated agricultural need for strong interconnection and policy determination to ensure output in whole sample and specific groups. that interconnectors are remunerated for the whole spectrum of services offered [32]. Energy production in Greece had traditionally shown an Since developed economies cannot afford a declining pace of enduring reliance on fossil-based fuels, mainly charcoal. Never- economic growth, it would be highly supportive the enhanced theless, the recent European legislation upon sustainable energy participative role of renewables, without creating significant production and the ongoing participative role of RES in its mem- additional pollution [37]. Similar causality relationship was also bers' energy mix, motivated both public- and private - owned in- examined under the Dumitrescu-Hurlin-Granger causality test, terest to direct future energy autonomy by utilizing RES throughout which showed that there is unidirectional causality running from the Greek context. In Greece the adaptation of the European agricultural output to electricity consumption for non-coastal re- legislation to the national law attracted the interest of energy- gions, and there is bidirectional causality between agricultural produced companies since Greece sustains an abundant spectrum electricity consumption and output for overall panel and coastal of renewables emainly biomass from energy crops, wind, solar, regions. The main findings and policy implications can be outlined geothermal, tidal, and hydropowerewhich can meet the energy as follows [37]: demand for mainland and offshore residential areas [39]. The spatial allocation of RES requires the use of contemporary methods, such as multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA), 138 G.L. Kyriakopoulos et al. / Renewable Energy 127 (2018) 134e144

Cluster 1

Cluster 2

Cluster 3

Cluster 4

Dendrogram 1. Results of the clusters analysis (First typology). geographic information systems (GIS), cluster analysis, in order to expectations of decision makers, accordingly [46]. Conclusively, any achieve the optimum local and regional energy planning results plans regarding the energy map of a country require a multi- [13,40e42]. Besides, optimal analysis of energy production and disciplinary and integrated approach, including the production consumption [43] as well as energy needs in various sectors of and consumption of energy, along with the management of energy national economies [44,45] can reveal important information to in terms of their financial, economic, social and environmental decision makers in drawing energy policies. Specifically, a design implications [47]. upon investments' planning that is based on a multi-parametric analysis enabled the comparison and evaluation of subjective and combatable criteria upon the choices available, by balancing all the 3. Research methodology parameters concurred, whereas the final decision further meets the In this study the primary data were gathered from the Ministry G.L. Kyriakopoulos et al. / Renewable Energy 127 (2018) 134e144 139

positioned in the insular Greece. This cluster sustains the lowest electricity consumption in all sectors of the economy examined (domestic, industrial, commercial, and agricultural) regarding the other clusters' formulated and regarding the average of electricity consumption from all regional units examined. Particularly, the lowest electricity consumption was noted at the agricultural sector, while the higher electricity consumption was reported, in the following ascending ranking: industrial < com- mercial < domestic. The low electricity consumption in the sectors of agriculture and industry is reasonable, since the regional units of this analysis have no developed strong agricultural and industrial facilities. The electricity consumption on average in the commercial sector is almost one half of the corresponding national average, while the average electricity consumption in the domestic sector is almost one third of the corresponding national average. The elec- tricity consumption on average in the sectors of agriculture and industry account one tenth of the corresponding national average for these two sectors, respectively. The second cluster is characterized by twenty-nine regional units, the majority of which were positioned in the mainland Greece. This cluster sustains regional units of medium electricity Map. 1. Presentation of clusters on the map of Greece (First typology). consumption in all corresponding sectors of the economy exam- ined (domestic, industrial, commercial, and agricultural). Particu- larly, the highest electricity consumption was noted at the domestic of Environment, Energy and Climate Change and from the Hellenic and the commercial sectors, since the electricity consumption on Statistical Authority according to the latest information which were average in the agricultural sector accounts more the corresponding available on 31 April 2014, which are all noted at regional units of national average, whereas the electricity consumption on average Greece [48,49]. This data contains the participative role of RES to- in the domestic and commercial sectors are more one half of the wards only energy production, since it was infeasible to gather RES- corresponding national average. The electricity consumption on based data upon all RES that are participating in other energy- average in the industrial sector accounts almost one third that the consuming sectors at each regional unit examined. corresponding national average. Under this cluster the main In order to determine the territorial units, and therefore create agricultural-prevailed regional units are hosted, such as: , the energy map of Greece, data was used such as the number and , Argolida, Ileia, , , , , as well as power of the RES plants in the regional units (former ), regional units of intensified tourists flows and abiding commercial and the cluster analysis was implemented. and domestic development, such as: Irakleio, , and Cluster analysis satisfies the wide spectrum of techniques . through which a collective gathering of homogenous observations The third cluster contains four regional units of generally high or subjects can be accomplished [50]. In this study, a targeted hi- electricity consumption. In this cluster the whole regional unit of erarchical cluster analysis was implemented in accordance with the Thessaloniki is included, in which there is an incremental indus- applicability of the Ward criterion. Specifically, the variables used in trial, commercial, and domestic intensification, comparing the this paper for each regional unit according to the statistical analyses other regional units examined. The highest electricity consumption implemented are the following: was noted in the industrial sector, while the other three sectors of analysis showed similar electricity consumption profiles. In paral- 1) The electricity consumption in the following sectors of Greek lel, in this cluster the electricity consumption on average in the economy: a) domestic, b) commercial, c) industrial, and d) industrial sector is almost four times higher the corresponding agricultural (first group of variables). national average, while the electricity consumption for the other 2) The number and installed power of RES plants for electricity three sectors are almost two times higher of the corresponding generation, involving the following technologies: a) Wind Plants national average. b) Biomass, c) Large Hydropower Plants, d) Small Hydropower The fourth cluster contains regional units of the highest elec- Plants, e) Photovoltaics (except roofs) and f) Photovoltaics (in tricity consumption reported among all regional units examined. roofs) (second group of variables). Particularly, the highest electricity consumption was noted in the domestic sector, and close to this sector, the commercial and in- Two hierarchical cluster analyses were implemented: the first dustrial sectors followed. In this cluster the regional unit of Attiki is analysis was based on electricity consumption (first group of - included, in which there is an incremental industrial, commercial, ables), while the second analysis was based on the overall band of and domestic intensification, comparing the other regional units variables examined (first and second group of variables). The examined. Besides, in this cluster the regional units of Viotia and implementation of these analyses enabled the grouping of regional were included, in which industrial and agricultural inten- units of Greece and the development of an energy map that visu- sification is reported. In this cluster the electricity consumption in alizes a strategic long-run and energetically-safe policy in Greece. the industrial sector is almost eight times higher the corresponding national average, while the electricity consumption on average for 4. Results and discussion the domestic and the commercial sectors ranged at about seven times higher of the corresponding average electricity consumption. The results from the first analysis revealed the existence of four Conclusively, the energy consumption on average in the agricul- clusters (Table 1, Dendrogram 1, and Map 1). The first cluster is tural sector is almost three times higher of the corresponding na- characterized by fifteen regional units, ten of which were tional average. 140 G.L. Kyriakopoulos et al. / Renewable Energy 127 (2018) 134e144

Table 2 Descriptive characteristics of clusters (Second typology).

Variables Total of research sampling (51 regional units)

Min. value Max. value Total Mean St. Dev.

Electricity consumption in the domestic sector (MWh) 21842.78 7476845.69 18454589.22 361.854.69 1048708.36 Electricity consumption in the commercial sector (MWh) 15990.09 5590834.52 14782312.36 289.849.26 788507.01 Electricity consumption in the industrial sector (MWh) 634.04 3246107.27 12202237.20 239.259.55 580613.32 Electricity consumption in the agricultural sector (MWh) 654.10 316180.25 2727453.45 53.479.48 52720.18 Wind (number of plants) 0.00 29.00 210.00 4.12 5.99 Wind (power, MW) 0.00 257.20 2022.16 39.65 59.96 Biomass (number of plants) 0.00 3.00 13.00 0.25 0.59 Biomass (power, MW) 0.00 34.46 46.31 0.91 4.86 Large Hydro (number of plants) 0.00 3.00 16.00 0.31 0.73 Large Hydro (power, MW) 0.00 907.20 3168.70 62.13 185.24 Small Hydro (number of plants) 0.00 16.00 108.00 2.12 3.17 Small Hydro (power, MW) 0.00 24.96 229.73 4.50 6.54 Photovoltaics (except roofs) (number of plants) 5.00 820.00 14419.00 282.73 196.88 Photovoltaics (except roofs) (power, MW) 0.42 199.79 2223.20 43.59 41.25 Photovoltaics (in roofs) (number of plants) 21.00 5153.00 41335.00 810.49 824.93 Photovoltaics (in roofs) (power, MW) 0.10 43.40 372.77 7.31 7.20

Variables Cluster 1 (24 regional units) Min. value Max. value Total Mean St. Dev.

Electricity consumption in the domestic sector (MWh) 21.842.78 410303.56 3.313.532.54 138063.86 97771.36 Electricity consumption in the commercial sector (MWh) 15.990.09 640080.15 3.291.309.76 137137.91 134171.74 Electricity consumption in the industrial sector (MWh) 634.04 537785.96 1.256.971.54 52373.81 109504.90 Electricity consumption in the agricultural sector (MWh) 654.10 125200.14 609.925.56 25413.56 30983.06 Wind (number of plants) 0.00 29.00 151.00 6.29 7.29 Wind (power, MW) 0.00 215.50 1.221.88 50.91 66.95 Biomass (number of plants) 0.00 1.00 2.00 0.08 0.28 Biomass (power, MW) 0.00 0.98 1.23 0.05 0.20 Large Hydro (number of plants) 0.00 1.00 1.00 0.04 0.20 Large Hydro (power, MW) 0.00 70.00 70.00 2.92 14.29 Small Hydro (number of plants) 0.00 5.00 15.00 0.63 1.28 Small Hydro (power, MW) 0.00 12.30 39.45 1.64 3.63 Photovoltaics (except roofs) (number of plants) 5.00 329.00 3.375.00 140.63 90.37 Photovoltaics (except roofs) (power, MW) 0.42 71.02 466.94 19.46 17.23 Photovoltaics (in roofs) (number of plants) 21.00 1097.00 8.740.00 364.17 281.79 Photovoltaics (in roofs) (power, MW) 0.10 10.25 75.27 3.14 2.66

Variables Cluster 2 (16 regional units) Min. value Max. value Total Mean St. Dev.

Electricity consumption in the domestic sector (MWh) 67483.62 1866820.34 5396069.07 337254.32 418866.51 Electricity consumption in the commercial sector (MWh) 40278.50 1480419.58 4291722.52 268232.66 342812.50 Electricity consumption in the industrial sector (MWh) 22502.24 1147985.00 3426535.09 214158.44 330694.53 Electricity consumption in the agricultural sector (MWh) 28297.68 316180.25 1227214.60 76700.91 66808.07 Wind (number of plants) 0.00 7.00 20.00 1.25 1.88 Wind (power, MW) 0.00 41.42 219.47 13.72 15.36 Biomass (number of plants) 0.00 1.00 4.00 0.25 0.45 Biomass (power, MW) 0.00 5.05 9.40 0.59 1.37 Large Hydro (number of plants) 0.00 1.00 2.00 0.13 0.34 Large Hydro (power, MW) 0.00 151.00 201.00 12.56 38.97 Small Hydro (number of plants) 0.00 4.00 24.00 1.50 1.37 Small Hydro (power, MW) 0.00 7.89 42.37 2.65 2.81 Photovoltaics (except roofs) (number of plants) 205.00 548.00 5810.00 363.13 100.54 Photovoltaics (except roofs) (power, MW) 25.21 116.92 885.91 55.37 30.72 Photovoltaics (in roofs) (number of plants) 531.00 3.168.00 17629.00 1101.81 622.88 Photovoltaics (in roofs) (power, MW) 4.92 28.19 161.43 10.09 5.58

Variables Cluster 3 (9 regional units) Min. value Max. value Total Mean St. Dev.

Electricity consumption in the domestic sector (MWh) 122082.20 522113.50 2105791.93 233976.88 120482.57 Electricity consumption in the commercial sector (MWh) 63551.54 384011.60 1474651.16 163850.13 97119.21 Electricity consumption in the industrial sector (MWh) 26410.77 1343859.43 2130688.05 236743.12 422748.60 Electricity consumption in the agricultural sector (MWh) 33459.97 116391.08 655824.08 72869.34 29849.88 Wind (number of plants) 0.00 4.00 13.00 1.44 1.59 Wind (power, MW) 0.00 69.35 221.15 24.57 27.43 Biomass (number of plants) 0.00 2.00 4.00 0.44 0.73 Biomass (power, MW) 0.00 0.50 1.22 0.14 0.22 Large Hydro (number of plants) 0.00 3.00 13.00 1.44 1.13 Large Hydro (power, MW) 0.00 907.20 2897.70 321.97 344.51 Small Hydro (number of plants) 2.00 16.00 64.00 7.11 4.31 Small Hydro (power, MW) 2.03 24.96 142.76 15.86 6.01 Photovoltaics (except roofs) (number of plants) 168.00 820.00 3680.00 408.89 217.13 Photovoltaics (except roofs) (power, MW) 22.72 109.82 503.42 55.94 29.28 Photovoltaics (in roofs) (number of plants) 532.00 1.442.00 9112.00 1012.44 354.32 G.L. Kyriakopoulos et al. / Renewable Energy 127 (2018) 134e144 141

Table 2 (continued )

Variables Total of research sampling (51 regional units)

Min. value Max. value Total Mean St. Dev.

Photovoltaics (in roofs) (power, MW) 4.82 13.56 86.02 9.56 3.04

Variables Cluster 4 (2 regional units) Min. value Max. value Total Mean St. Dev.

Electricity consumption in the domestic sector (MWh) 162349.99 7476845.69 7639195.68 3819597.84 5172129.51 Electricity consumption in the commercial sector (MWh) 133794.41 5590834.52 5724628.93 2862314.46 3858710.06 Electricity consumption in the industrial sector (MWh) 2141935.25 3246107.27 5388042.52 2694021.26 780767.53 Electricity consumption in the agricultural sector (MWh) 73850.96 160638.25 234489.21 117244.61 61367.88 Wind (number of plants) 9.00 17.00 26.00 13.00 5.66 Wind (power, MW) 102.46 257.20 359.66 179.83 109.42 Biomass (number of plants) 0.00 3.00 3.00 1.50 2.12 Biomass (power, MW) 0.00 34.46 34.46 17.23 24.37 Large Hydro (number of plants) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Large Hydro (power, MW) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Small Hydro (number of plants) 1.00 4.00 5.00 2.50 2.12 Small Hydro (power, MW) 0.63 4.51 5.14 2.57 2.74 Photovoltaics (except roofs) (number of plants) 750.00 804.00 1554.00 777.00 38.18 Photovoltaics (except roofs) (power, MW) 167.14 199.79 366.93 183.47 23.09 Photovoltaics (in roofs) (number of plants) 701.00 5153.00 5854.00 2927.00 3148.04 Photovoltaics (in roofs) (power, MW) 6.64 43.40 50.04 25.02 25.99

Second analysis revealed also four clusters (Table 2, Dendrogram industrial sector (2130.69 MWh) and in the domestic sector 2 and Map 2). The first cluster is characterized by twenty-four (2105.79 MWh). In parallel, in this cluster the electricity con- regional units which were positioned in both the insular and sumption on average is positioned in the second place of the in- mainland Greece. This cluster sustains low to medium electricity dustrial sector, just beyond the four cluster, in which the electricity consumption in all sectors of the economy examined (domestic, consumption in the industrial sector is positioned in the first place, industrial, commercial, and agricultural), accounted of 17.59% of the accordingly. total national electricity consumption in Greece. The highest elec- Regarding the RES-based electricity generation, this third clus- tricity consumption was noted in the domestic and commercial ter sustained regional units of the medium number of RES plants sectors, which sustained the lowest mean value of electricity con- (12,886 plants in total) but relatively high total power sumption comparing to the other three clusters' formulated. (3852.28 MW). The highest participative role of RES-based elec- Regarding the RES-based electricity generation, this first cluster tricity generation has the large hydropower plants - 13 plants with sustained regional units of medium RES plants (12,844 plants in 2897.70 MW total power, followed by the PVs plants e in particular total) and relatively high total power (1874.77 MW). The first 3680 PVs plants with 503.40 MW total power. Additionally, a cluster is characterized by a large number of wind farms À151 notably positive contribution of small hydropower plants e 64 plants and 1221.88 MW total power e and PVs plants (33,754 plants plants and 142.76 MW total power and PVs e 9112 plants with with total power 466.94 MW (except roofs), and 8740 PVs with 86.02 MW total power (on roofs). total power 75,27 MW (on roofs). The fourth cluster contains two regional units (that of Attiki and The second cluster is characterized by fifteen regional units of Viotia) of the highest electricity consumption reported e mainland Greece and one regional unit of the Irakleio, which is 18,986.36 MWh that accounted of the 39.42% of the total national located in the island. This cluster sustains regional units of electricity consumptione among all regional units examined. high energy consumption, accounted of 29.77% of the total national Particularly, the highest electricity consumption was noted in the electricity consumption in Greece. The highest energy consumption domestic sector, followed by the commercial, industrial, and agri- was noted in the domestic and commercial sectors, since in this cultural sectors, respectively. In this fourth cluster there is the second cluster the domestic, agricultural, and commercial sectors lowest number of RES-based plants (7442 units) and the abiding are positioned in the second place, whereas the fourth cluster is lowest total power (816.23 MW). The higher portion of this power positioned in the first place, accordingly. is satisfied from wind plants (26 plants of 359.66 MW total power) Regarding the RES-based electricity generation, this second and PVs plants (1554 plants with 366.93 MW total power) (except cluster sustained regional units of the highest number of RES plants roofs). (23,489 plants in total) and relatively high power (1519.58 MW), comparing to the other three clusters. The second cluster is char- 5. Conclusions acterized by a large number of PVs plants (except roofs), (5810 PVs plants with 885.91 MW total power), and PVs plants (on roofs), The present paper uses hierarchical cluster analysis to make two (17,629 PVs plants with total power 161,433 MW. In parallel, this typologies of the regional units of Greece based on energy char- second cluster is characterized by the significant energy role of acteristics. This cluster analysis was applied twice. Firstly, the wind farms e 20 wind farms of 217,47 MW power, as well as two cluster analysis was implemented using only the variables of: large hydropower plant of 201 MW power and numerous small Electricity consumption, and then a second analysis were imple- hydropower plants À24 small hydropower plants with 42,37 MW mented based on the variables of: electricity consumption, number total power. and installed power of RES plants for electricity generation. Ac- The third cluster contains nine regional units that were posi- cording to the first analysis and the use of electricity consumption tioned in the mainland Greece. In this cluster the regional units variables, four clusters of regional units emerged, while four clus- included sustained low electricity consumption (6366.96 MWh) ters were also formulated from the second analysis. that accounted of 13.22% of the total national electricity con- From the research conducted it was concluded that in the fourth sumption. The highest electricity consumption was noted in the cluster the RES-based contribution in the energy production was 142 G.L. Kyriakopoulos et al. / Renewable Energy 127 (2018) 134e144

Cluster 1

Cluster 2

Cluster 3

Cluster 4

Dendrogram 2. Results of the clusters analysis (Second typology). G.L. Kyriakopoulos et al. / Renewable Energy 127 (2018) 134e144 143

dependent fossil fuel-based regional units towards fostering those RES-based plants; in these regional units where electricity generation from RES is particularly low. Additionally, these typol- ogies signify the differences that exist among the clusters and enable decision makers to use them as a useful and indispensable tool for drawing energy policies so that they can shield the country from future energy crises. Therefore, RES-based measures and policies should be differentiated at a national level, enabling their balanced development and at the same time the targeted achievement of energy safety and autonomy. Therefore, a complete, simple, and precise institutional frame- work is mandatory in the Greek context, along with the necessary supportive mechanisms, where required, that will lead to the development of RES in future and the attainment of all relevant benefits. This institutional framework of RES needs to be funda- mentally restructured towards a simple and effective framework in a transparent manner, using both the European and the interna- tional experience, to drastically reduce the investment costs and the timing of the projects, and to have an uninterrupted access to the network of the mainland energy grid at a reasonable cost and at a reasonable time. Conclusively, a deeper understanding of socio- economic reality and, to a certain degree, of the planning re- lations and interdependencies, will determine the social and eco- nomic development of various regions. On this basis, changes to the Map 2. 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