Graduate Institute of Applied Linguistics Thesis Approval Sheet This thesis, entitled Tense in Kwakum Narrative Discourse written by David M. Hare and submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts with major in Applied Linguistics has been read and approved by the undersigned members of the faculty of the Graduate Institute of Applied Linguistics Mirhaal kecte. Michael Boutin (Supervising Professor) Paulnlscpe Kroeger Shin Ja Hwang' Ervin Starwalt 2a June 20)& Date TENSE IN KWAKUM NARRATIVE DISCOURSE By David M. Hare Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate Institute of Applied Linguistics in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts with major in Applied Linguistics Graduate Institute of Applied Linguistics June 2018 © 2018 David M. Hare All Rights Reserved CERTIFICATE I acknowledge that use of copyrighted material in my thesis may place me under an obligation to the copyright owner, especially when use of such material exceeds usual fair use provisions. I hereby certify that I have obtained the written permission of the copyright Owner for any and all such occurrences and that no portion of my thesis has been copyrighted previously unless properly referenced. I hereby agree to indemnify and hold harmless the Graduate Institute of Applied Linguistics from any and all claims that may be asserted or that may arise from any copyright violation. Signatúre 21 June 208 Date THESIS DUPLICATION RELEASE I hereby authorize the Graduate Institute of Applied Linguistics Library to duplicate this thesis when needed for research and/or scholarship. Agreed: (studentsignature) Refused (student signature) ABSTRACT TENSE IN KWAKUM NARRATIVE DISCOURSE David M. Hare Master of Arts with major in Applied Linguistics The Graduate Institute of Applied Linguistics, June 2018 Supervising Professor: Michael Boutin This thesis presents the first discourse analysis of tense in Kwakum (A91), a sub- Bantu language of Cameroon. Previously available grammatical analyses of Kwakum describe tense without regard to context. After an overview of the grammar, this study examines the use of tense in narrative discourse. The analysis of peak and profile reveals a shift from absolute tense to relative tense with the present tense auxiliary becoming a “narrative tense” during episodes. In climactic narrative, peak episodes demonstrate particular features, such as: (1) authorial intrusion, (2) few punctiliar verbs, (3) a variety of tense/aspect markers (usually including several tenseless clauses), and (4) an increase in background information and repetition. Episodic narrative, while lacking a peak episode, follows the same salience scheme as climactic narrative. These observations demonstrate that to genuinely understand the tense system in Kwakum, one must analyze its use in discourse. DEDICATION Dedicated to the Kwakum people. This is to date my greatest labor of love for you and I have great hopes of seeing the advancement of literacy and Bible translation in the years to come. June 2018 xiii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost, I am thankful to my Lord and Savior Jesus Christ, who has given so much more than I could ever imagine so that I could be where I am today. I am thankful to my wife (Stacey Hare) and children, who have endured many long months of a busy and overworked husband and father. I would also like to thank all of those on my committee: Dr. Michael Boutin, Dr. Shin Ja Hwang, Dr. Paul Kroeger, and Dr. Ervin Starwalt. There should be special recognition, however, of Michael, who invested innumerable hours into this thesis. You have been an incredible support. Also, thanks to Marlin Leaders, who helped me think through many different discourse issues. And finally, to Linda Jordan, without whom I would have never been able to figure out dialect analysis. Mes remerciements s’adressent à mes informateurs qui ont rendu cette collecte de données possible. Je suis reconnaissante envers papa Simon Charles Ndengué Ndengué et Jean Bosco Titiké pour les heures longues qu’on a passées ensemble. Je n’oublierai pas M. le président du comité de langue, Onésime Ebongué Ebongué. Je suis également reconnaissante envers M. le maire de Dimako, Janvier Mongui Sossomba pour ses efforts pour l’avancement des peuple et langue Kwakum. June 2018 xv TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract .............................................................................................................................. xi Dedication ........................................................................................................................ xiii Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................... xv List of Tables ................................................................................................................... xix List of Figures ................................................................................................................... xx List of Abbreviations ....................................................................................................... xxi 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 The Kwakum people ........................................................................................... 2 1.2 The Kwakum language ....................................................................................... 4 1.3 Data sources ...................................................................................................... 17 1.4 Methodology/Framework ................................................................................. 19 1.5 Thesis organization ........................................................................................... 22 2. Literature review ....................................................................................................... 24 2.1 Kwakum ............................................................................................................ 24 2.2 Kwakum tense in literature ............................................................................... 25 2.3 Tense marking in five other languages in eastern Cameroon ........................... 31 2.4 Use of tense in discourse................................................................................... 37 3. Overview of the grammar of Kwakum ...................................................................... 43 3.1 Phonology ......................................................................................................... 43 3.2 Syntax ............................................................................................................... 50 3.3 Information structure ........................................................................................ 72 3.4 Nominal system ................................................................................................ 76 3.5 Verbal system.................................................................................................. 105 4. Tense in narrative .................................................................................................... 143 4.1 Climactic narrative .......................................................................................... 144 4.2 Episodic narrative ........................................................................................... 174 5. Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 190 5.1 Summary of tense in narrative discourse ........................................................ 190 5.2 Application to translation ................................................................................ 193 5.3 Areas for further study .................................................................................... 195 Appendix 1: God and his wives (Wives) ........................................................................ 198 Appendix 2: Bembe thoughtlessly cuts off his leg (Bembe) .......................................... 204 Appendix 3: The history of Til (Til) ............................................................................... 212 Appendix 4: The young daughters of Bembe go fishing (Daughters) ............................ 219 Appendix 5: Bosco’s father goes to prison (Bosco) ....................................................... 226 Appendix 6: Monitor lizard, snails, and tortoise (Lizard) .............................................. 234 Appendix 7: Panther and tortoise kill their mothers (Panther) ....................................... 242 Appendix 8: Story of Simon’s father’s death (Simon) ................................................... 254 xvii xviii Appendix 9: Kwakum origins (Origins) ......................................................................... 262 Appendix 10: Story of the Kwakum (Story) ................................................................... 275 References ....................................................................................................................... 285 Vita ................................................................................................................................. 290 LIST OF TABLES Table 1: GPS coordinates for Kwakum villages ................................................................11 Table 2: Dialect comparison ..............................................................................................15